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<h2 id="etymology">Etymology</h2> <p><i>Turchia</i>, meaning "the land of the Turks", had begun to be used in European texts for <a href="/facts/Anatolia/vMkrLrPr">Anatolia</a> by the end of the 12th century.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22"><sup>22</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23"><sup>23</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24"><sup>24</sup></a> As a word in <a href="/facts/Turkic_languages/RXqsmfgh">Turkic languages</a>, <i>Turk</i> may mean "strong, strength, ripe" or "flourishing, in full strength".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25"><sup>25</sup></a> It may also mean ripe as in for a fruit or "in the prime of life, young, and vigorous" for a person.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26"><sup>26</sup></a> As an <a href="/facts/Ethnonym/fEFU3fYr">ethnonym</a>, the etymology is still unknown.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27"><sup>27</sup></a> In addition to usage in languages such as Chinese in the 6th century,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28"><sup>28</sup></a> the earliest mention of <i>Turk</i> (𐱅𐰇𐰺𐰜, <i>türü̲k̲</i>; or 𐱅𐰇𐰼𐰚, <i>türk/tẄrk</i>) in Turkic languages comes from the <a href="/facts/Second_Turkic_Khaganate/gtj5ILDK">Second Turkic Khaganate</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29"><sup>29</sup></a> </p><p>In <a href="/facts/Byzantine_Empire/njEELXWF">Byzantine</a> sources in the 10th century, the name <i><a href="/facts/Tourkia_(disambiguation)/8GNy2ym0">Tourkia</a></i> was used for defining two medieval states: <a href="/facts/Tourkia_(Hungary)/U45ApRM0">Hungary</a> (<i>Western Tourkia</i>); and <a href="/facts/Tourkia_(Khazaria)/KwRflVop">Khazaria</a> (<i>Eastern Tourkia</i>).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30"><sup>30</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31"><sup>31</sup></a> The <a href="/facts/Mamluk_Sultanate/laIxgFRS">Mamluk Sultanate</a>, with its ruling elite of Turkic origin, was called the "State of the Turks" (<i>Dawlat at-Turk</i>, or <i>Dawlat al-Atrāk</i>, or <i>Dawlat-at-Turkiyya</i>).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32"><sup>32</sup></a> Turkestan, also meaning the "land of the Turks", was used for a historic region in <a href="/facts/Central_Asia/rB8k0CyT">Central Asia</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33"><sup>33</sup></a> </p><p><a href="/facts/Middle_English/dj1wHvwd">Middle English</a> usage of <i>Turkye</i> or <i>Turkeye</i> is found in <i><a href="/facts/The_Book_of_the_Duchess/zVgdg7up">The Book of the Duchess</a></i> (written in 1369–1372) to refer to Anatolia or the <a href="/facts/Ottoman_Empire/6QvfTRsg">Ottoman Empire</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34"><sup>34</sup></a> The modern spelling <i>Turkey</i> dates back to at least 1719.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35"><sup>35</sup></a> The <a href="/facts/Turkey_(bird)/wcWbq1PN">bird called turkey</a> was named as such due to trade of <a href="/facts/Guineafowl/Ypvv3NMB">guineafowl</a> from Turkey to England.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36"><sup>36</sup></a> The name <i>Turkey</i> has been used in international treaties referring to the Ottoman Empire.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37"><sup>37</sup></a> With the <a href="/facts/Treaty_of_Alexandropol/j2SjcSyg">Treaty of Alexandropol</a> in 1920, the name <i>Türkiye</i> entered international documents for the first time. In the treaty signed with <a href="/facts/Emirate_of_Afghanistan/12lQfhrs">Afghanistan</a> in 1921, the expression <i>Devlet-i Âliyye-i Türkiyye</i> ("Sublime Turkish State") was used, likened to the Ottoman Empire's name.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38"><sup>38</sup></a> </p><p>In December 2021, President <a href="/facts/Recep_Tayyip_Erdo%25C4%259Fan/7lFKaJH7">Recep Tayyip Erdoğan</a> called for expanded official usage of <i>Türkiye</i>, saying that <i>Türkiye</i> "represents and expresses the culture, civilization, and values of the Turkish nation in the best way".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39"><sup>39</sup></a> In May 2022, the Turkish government requested the <a href="/facts/United_Nations/fgXLnmgT">United Nations</a> and other international organizations to use <i>Türkiye</i> officially in English; the UN agreed.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40"><sup>40</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:41" href="#fn:41"><sup>41</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:42" href="#fn:42"><sup>42</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="history">History</h2> <p class="note">Main article: <a href="/facts/History_of_Turkey/qje6qX4C">History of Turkey</a></p> <p class="note">See also: <a href="/facts/History_of_Anatolia/7cN7et3Y">History of Anatolia</a>, <a href="/facts/History_of_Thrace/26TVWCL0">History of Thrace</a>, and <a href="/facts/Ancient_regions_of_Anatolia/IRpXFnhH">Ancient regions of Anatolia</a></p> <h3>Prehistory and ancient history</h3> <p class="note">Main articles: <a href="/facts/Prehistory_of_Anatolia/wyVKnPe3">Prehistory of Anatolia</a> and <a href="/facts/Prehistory_of_Southeast_Europe/WWvQJSXf">Prehistory of Southeast Europe</a></p> <p class="note">See also: <a href="/facts/Hattians/1DQUVaty">Hattians</a>, <a href="/facts/Hittites/jqG8LbLK">Hittites</a>, <a href="/facts/Luwians/yaA6leEB">Luwians</a>, and <a href="/facts/Pala_(Anatolia)/2uw5Qh41">Pala (Anatolia)</a></p> <p>Present-day Turkey has been inhabited by <a href="/facts/Human/rlcTENsr">modern humans</a> since the <a href="/facts/Upper_Paleolithic/BnpabgyJ">late Paleolithic</a> period and contains some of the world's oldest <a href="/facts/Neolithic/wRS0Bnh4">Neolithic</a> sites.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:43" href="#fn:43"><sup>43</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:44" href="#fn:44"><sup>44</sup></a> <a href="/facts/G%25C3%25B6bekli_Tepe/ldhorY9o">Göbekli Tepe</a> is close to 12,000 years old.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:45" href="#fn:45"><sup>45</sup></a> Parts of <a href="/facts/Anatolia/vMkrLrPr">Anatolia</a> include the <a href="/facts/Fertile_Crescent/KLHIjwQe">Fertile Crescent</a>, an <a href="/facts/Neolithic_Revolution/P5tLdcgU">origin of agriculture</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:46" href="#fn:46"><sup>46</sup></a> Other important Anatolian Neolithic sites include <a href="/facts/%25C3%2587atalh%25C3%25B6y%25C3%25BCk/IGF4CjTc">Çatalhöyük</a> and <a href="/facts/Alaca_H%25C3%25B6y%25C3%25BCk/E285CJ4m">Alaca Höyük</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:47" href="#fn:47"><sup>47</sup></a> Neolithic Anatolian farmers differed genetically from farmers in <a href="/facts/Iran/24yukge8">Iran</a> and <a href="/facts/Jordan_Valley/PVWTEdYb">Jordan Valley</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:48" href="#fn:48"><sup>48</sup></a> These early Anatolian farmers also <a href="/facts/Early_European_Farmers/grdH7u43">migrated into Europe</a>, starting around 9,000 years ago.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:49" href="#fn:49"><sup>49</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:50" href="#fn:50"><sup>50</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:51" href="#fn:51"><sup>51</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Troy/RYze9Kpu">Troy</a>'s earliest layers go back to around 4500 BC.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:52" href="#fn:52"><sup>52</sup></a> </p> <p>Anatolia's historical records start with <a href="/facts/Clay_tablets/9mbScsAn">clay tablets</a> from approximately around 2000 BC that were found in modern-day <a href="/facts/K%25C3%25BCltepe/bIxFUFLV">Kültepe</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:53" href="#fn:53"><sup>53</sup></a> These tablets belonged to an <a href="/facts/Karum_(trade_post)/EgNSs7Lt">Assyrian trade colony</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:54" href="#fn:54"><sup>54</sup></a> The languages in Anatolia at that time included Hattian, Hurrian, <a href="/facts/Hittite_language/Pc8YGhRU">Hittite</a>, <a href="/facts/Luwian_language/zlcGzPyy">Luwian</a>, and <a href="/facts/Palaic_language/NBnndjYT">Palaic</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:55" href="#fn:55"><sup>55</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Hattic_language/kzXkhRta">Hattian</a> was a language indigenous to Anatolia, with no known modern-day connections.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:56" href="#fn:56"><sup>56</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:57" href="#fn:57"><sup>57</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Hurrian_language/aUBltaSp">Hurrian language</a> was used in northern <a href="/facts/Syria/7pDXGzq8">Syria</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:58" href="#fn:58"><sup>58</sup></a> Hittite, Palaic, and Luwian languages were "the oldest written <a href="/facts/Indo-European_languages/L34TfgSr">Indo-European languages</a>",<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:59" href="#fn:59"><sup>59</sup></a> forming the <a href="/facts/Anatolian_languages/aGWvRmue">Anatolian sub-group</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:60" href="#fn:60"><sup>60</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:61" href="#fn:61"><sup>61</sup></a> </p><p><a href="/facts/Hattians/1DQUVaty">Hattian</a> rulers were gradually replaced by <a href="/facts/Hittites/jqG8LbLK">Hittite</a> rulers.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:62" href="#fn:62"><sup>62</sup></a> The Hittite kingdom was a large kingdom in Central Anatolia, with its capital of <a href="/facts/Hattusa/DJAtN4Bx">Hattusa</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:63" href="#fn:63"><sup>63</sup></a> It co-existed in Anatolia with <a href="/facts/Pala_(Anatolia)/2uw5Qh41">Palaians</a> and <a href="/facts/Luwians/yaA6leEB">Luwians</a>, approximately between 1700 and 1200 BC.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:64" href="#fn:64"><sup>64</sup></a> As the Hittite kingdom was disintegrating, further waves of Indo-European peoples migrated from southeastern Europe, which was followed by warfare.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:65" href="#fn:65"><sup>65</sup></a> The <a href="/facts/Thracians/JrSuD03j">Thracians</a> were also present in modern-day <a href="/facts/Turkish_Thrace/9tznf4uK">Turkish Thrace</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:66" href="#fn:66"><sup>66</sup></a> It is not known if the <a href="/facts/Trojan_War/pBG5VawT">Trojan War</a> is based on historical events.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:67" href="#fn:67"><sup>67</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Late_Bronze_Age_Troy/HEIgIt8X">Troy's Late Bronze Age</a> layers matches most with <i><a href="/facts/Iliad/HceJKUGB">Iliad</a></i>'s story.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:68" href="#fn:68"><sup>68</sup></a> </p> <h3>Early classical antiquity</h3> <p class="note">Main article: <a href="/facts/Classical_Anatolia/ce7fYvm9">Classical Anatolia</a></p> <p class="note">See also: <a href="/facts/Phrygia/MvUXE54L">Phrygia</a>, <a href="/facts/Lydia/zlta9sIJ">Lydia</a>, <a href="/facts/Lycia/MMQwvk3G">Lycia</a>, <a href="/facts/Caria/jrWBS8E6">Caria</a>, <a href="/facts/Urartu/xzkKwIJ2">Urartu</a>, <a href="/facts/Achaemenid_Empire/avlzWxF0">Achaemenid Empire</a>, and <a href="/facts/Hellenistic_period/q6BgQsaF">Hellenistic period</a></p> <p>Around 750 BC, <a href="/facts/Phrygia/MvUXE54L">Phrygia</a> had been established, with its two centers in <a href="/facts/Gordium/4vVQjqsu">Gordium</a> and modern-day <a href="/facts/Kayseri/MxJCXkyy">Kayseri</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:69" href="#fn:69"><sup>69</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Phrygians/5wotg7y0">Phrygians</a> spoke an Indo-European language, which was closer to <a href="/facts/Greek_language/pzDd6eIz">Greek</a> than Anatolian languages.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:70" href="#fn:70"><sup>70</sup></a> Phrygians shared Anatolia with <a href="/facts/Syro-Hittite_states/9tJP2gKq">Neo-Hittites</a> and <a href="/facts/Urartu/xzkKwIJ2">Urartu</a>. Luwian-speakers were probably the majority in various Anatolian Neo-Hittite states.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:71" href="#fn:71"><sup>71</sup></a> Urartians spoke a non-Indo-European language and their capital was around <a href="/facts/Lake_Van/JK4utXj4">Lake Van</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:72" href="#fn:72"><sup>72</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:73" href="#fn:73"><sup>73</sup></a> Urartu and Phrygia fell in seventh century BC.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:74" href="#fn:74"><sup>74</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:75" href="#fn:75"><sup>75</sup></a> They were replaced by <a href="/facts/Carians/1wcVLJ6B">Carians</a>, <a href="/facts/Lycians/ASMrPyBk">Lycians</a> and <a href="/facts/Lydians/WIc6qzTg">Lydians</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:76" href="#fn:76"><sup>76</sup></a> These three cultures "can be considered a reassertion of the ancient, indigenous culture of the Hattian cities of Anatolia".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:77" href="#fn:77"><sup>77</sup></a> </p><p>Before 1200 BC, there were four Greek-speaking settlements in Anatolia, including <a href="/facts/Miletus/E2x1XLYY">Miletus</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:78" href="#fn:78"><sup>78</sup></a> Around 1000 BC, <a href="/facts/Iron_Age_Greek_migrations/ytP7x2xf">Greeks started migrating</a> to the west coast of Anatolia. These eastern Greek settlements played a vital role in shaping the Archaic Greek civilization;<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:79" href="#fn:79"><sup>79</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:80" href="#fn:80"><sup>80</sup></a> important <a href="/facts/Polis/U4qS9yqU">cities</a> included <a href="/facts/Miletus/E2x1XLYY">Miletus</a>, <a href="/facts/Ephesus/5ryM9eyB">Ephesus</a>, <a href="/facts/Halicarnassus/ytVIfKqX">Halicarnassus</a>, <a href="/facts/Smyrna/13C6gMpx">Smyrna</a> (now <a href="/facts/%25C4%25B0zmir/CUkMRT28">İzmir</a>) and <a href="/facts/Byzantium/BxG3nhnt">Byzantium</a> (now <a href="/facts/Istanbul/Xo1hzGWH">Istanbul</a>), the latter founded by colonists from <a href="/facts/Megara/9MREx8xy">Megara</a> in the seventh century BCE.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:81" href="#fn:81"><sup>81</sup></a> These settlements were grouped as <a href="/facts/Aeolis/kpxBVAaf">Aeolis</a>, <a href="/facts/Ionia/aozeldtI">Ionia</a>, and <a href="/facts/Doric_hexapolis/w18w9vxR">Doris</a>, after the specific Greek groups that settled them.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:82" href="#fn:82"><sup>82</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:83" href="#fn:83"><sup>83</sup></a> Further Greek colonization in Anatolia was led by Miletus and <a href="/facts/Megara/9MREx8xy">Megara</a> in 750–480 BC.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:84" href="#fn:84"><sup>84</sup></a> The Greek cities along the Aegean prospered with trade, and saw remarkable scientific and scholarly accomplishments.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:85" href="#fn:85"><sup>85</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Thales_of_Miletus/zLoJUcTa">Thales</a> and <a href="/facts/Anaximander/rkrej4Hm">Anaximander</a> from Miletus founded the <a href="/facts/Ionian_school_(philosophy)/8dqM0Y3H">Ionian School of philosophy</a>, thereby laying the foundations of <a href="/facts/Rationalism/MNk171TG">rationalism</a> and <a href="/facts/Western_philosophy/4m6EnYCI">Western philosophy</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:86" href="#fn:86"><sup>86</sup></a> </p> <p><a href="/facts/Cyrus_the_Great/0gB7KwSA">Cyrus</a> attacked eastern Anatolia in 547 BC, and <a href="/facts/Achaemenid_Empire/avlzWxF0">Achaemenid Empire</a> eventually <a href="/facts/Siege_of_Sardis_(547_BC)/AMzXQRXa">expanded into western Anatolia</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:87" href="#fn:87"><sup>87</sup></a> In the east, the <a href="/facts/Satrapy_of_Armenia/kq85z22H">Armenian province</a> was part of the Achaemenid Empire.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:88" href="#fn:88"><sup>88</sup></a> Following the <a href="/facts/Greco-Persian_Wars/avlfmxyh">Greco-Persian Wars</a>, the Greek city-states of the Anatolian Aegean coast regained independence, but most of the interior stayed part of the Achaemenid Empire.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:89" href="#fn:89"><sup>89</sup></a> Two of the <a href="/facts/Seven_Wonders_of_the_Ancient_World/xHWcHYfV">Seven Wonders of the Ancient World</a>, the <a href="/facts/Temple_of_Artemis/UgsPxth7">Temple of Artemis</a> in Ephesus, and the <a href="/facts/Mausoleum_of_Halicarnassus/9bfxYIth">Mausoleum of Halicarnassus</a>, were located in Anatolia.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:90" href="#fn:90"><sup>90</sup></a> </p><p>Following the victories of Alexander in <a href="/facts/Battle_of_the_Granicus/D72uqxSv">334 BC</a> and <a href="/facts/Battle_of_Issus/9I3au7IL">333 BC</a>, the Achaemenid Empire collapsed and Anatolia became part of the <a href="/facts/Macedon/g0F1DEgc">Macedonian Empire</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:91" href="#fn:91"><sup>91</sup></a> This led to increasing cultural homogeneity and <a href="/facts/Hellenization/w07GMufL">Hellenization</a> of the Anatolian interior,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:92" href="#fn:92"><sup>92</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:93" href="#fn:93"><sup>93</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:94" href="#fn:94"><sup>94</sup></a> which met resistance in some places.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:95" href="#fn:95"><sup>95</sup></a> Following Alexander's death, the <a href="/facts/Seleucid_Empire/NSYMLBYa">Seleucids</a> ruled large parts of Anatolia, while native Anatolian states emerged in the Marmara and Black Sea areas. In eastern Anatolia, <a href="/facts/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(antiquity)/7L4XUMzG">the kingdom of Armenia</a> appeared. In third century BC, <a href="/facts/Celts/eMCVYAFz">Celts</a> invaded central Anatolia and continued as a major ethnic group in the area for around 200 years. They were known as the <a href="/facts/Galatians_(people)/hFFgNPkL">Galatians</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:96" href="#fn:96"><sup>96</sup></a> </p> <h3>Rome and Byzantine Empire</h3> <p class="note">Main articles: <a href="/facts/Classical_Anatolia/ce7fYvm9">Classical Anatolia</a> and <a href="/facts/Byzantine_Anatolia/AUaRCf4b">Byzantine Anatolia</a></p> <p class="note">See also: <a href="/facts/Roman_Republic/Han0FRLT">Roman Republic</a>, <a href="/facts/Roman_Empire/l4E1aUuV">Roman Empire</a>, <a href="/facts/Christianity_in_Turkey/T0sTlwgc">Christianity in Turkey</a>, and <a href="/facts/Byzantine_Empire/njEELXWF">Byzantine Empire</a></p> <p>When <a href="/facts/Kingdom_of_Pergamon/ju7Q4EAo">Pergamon</a> requested assistance in its conflict with the Seleucids, <a href="/facts/Roman_Republic/Han0FRLT">Rome</a> intervened in Anatolia in the second century BC. Without an heir, Pergamum's king left the kingdom to Rome, which was annexed as <a href="/facts/Asia_(Roman_province)/2Yl0KwsX">province of Asia</a>. Roman influence grew in Anatolia afterwards.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:97" href="#fn:97"><sup>97</sup></a> Following <a href="/facts/Asiatic_Vespers/Kxzz1Ppp">Asiatic Vespers</a> massacre, and <a href="/facts/Mithridatic_Wars/SJ7Ft3dr">Mithridatic Wars</a> with <a href="/facts/Kingdom_of_Pontus/Bt2spMtI">Pontus</a>, Rome emerged victorious. Around the 1st century BC, <a href="/facts/Roman_province/lcMVp672">Rome expanded into parts of Pontus and Bithynia</a>, while turning rest of Anatolian states into Roman satellites.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:98" href="#fn:98"><sup>98</sup></a> Several <a href="/facts/Roman%25E2%2580%2593Parthian_Wars/ytdNMfVX">conflicts with Parthians ensued</a>, with peace and wars alternating.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:99" href="#fn:99"><sup>99</sup></a> </p><p>According to <a href="/facts/Acts_of_the_Apostles/u0QzNmpd">Acts of the Apostles</a>, early Christian Church had significant growth in Anatolia because of <a href="/facts/Paul_the_Apostle/mIAFgUw7">St Paul</a>'s efforts. Letters from St. Paul in Anatolia comprise the <a href="/facts/Early_Christianity/LmdNJmea">oldest Christian literature</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:100" href="#fn:100"><sup>100</sup></a> Under Roman authority, <a href="/facts/Ecumenical_councils/I9e3cFPL">ecumenical councils</a> such as <a href="/facts/First_Council_of_Nicaea/6lHSuWwy">Council of Nicaea (Iznik)</a> in 325 served as a guide for developing "orthodox expressions of basic Christian teachings".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:101" href="#fn:101"><sup>101</sup></a> </p> <p>The Byzantine Empire, also referred to as the Eastern Roman Empire, was the continuation of the <a href="/facts/Roman_Empire/l4E1aUuV">Roman Empire</a> centered in <a href="/facts/Constantinople/fLcY371n">Constantinople</a> during <a href="/facts/Late_Antiquity/sPTl0dyD">Late Antiquity</a> and the <a href="/facts/Middle_Ages/RqzEKB9v">Middle Ages</a>. The eastern half of the Empire survived the conditions that caused the <a href="/facts/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire/EjUtGSJm">fall of the West</a> in the 5th century AD, and continued to exist until the <a href="/facts/Fall_of_Constantinople/JwpayQqv">fall of Constantinople</a> to the <a href="/facts/Ottoman_Empire/6QvfTRsg">Ottoman Empire</a> in 1453. During most of its existence, the empire remained the most powerful economic, cultural, and military force in the <a href="/facts/Mediterranean_world/C9vBpBCf">Mediterranean world</a>. The term <i>Byzantine Empire</i> was only coined following the empire's demise; its citizens referred to the polity as the "Roman Empire" and to themselves as <i>Romans</i>. Due to the imperial seat's move from Rome to <a href="/facts/Byzantium/BxG3nhnt">Byzantium</a>, the <a href="/facts/Christianity_as_the_Roman_state_religion/fBcnIdbt">adoption of Christianity as the state religion</a>, and the predominance of <a href="/facts/Medieval_Greek/aXKrQL0h">Greek</a> instead of <a href="/facts/Latin/pM3Kge85">Latin</a>, modern historians continue to make a distinction between the earlier <i>Roman Empire</i> and the later <i>Byzantine Empire</i>. </p><p>In the early Byzantine Empire period, the Anatolian coastal areas were Greek speaking. In addition to natives, interior Anatolia had diverse groups such as <a href="/facts/Goths/L0oobUSm">Goths</a>, <a href="/facts/Celts/eMCVYAFz">Celts</a>, <a href="/facts/Persians/4GhM3jl2">Persians</a> and <a href="/facts/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Byzantine_Empire/AJLRpT0H">Jews</a>. Interior Anatolia had been "heavily Hellenized".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:102" href="#fn:102"><sup>102</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Anatolian_languages/aGWvRmue">Anatolian languages</a> eventually became extinct after <a href="/facts/Hellenization/w07GMufL">Hellenization</a> of Anatolia.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:103" href="#fn:103"><sup>103</sup></a> </p> <h3>Seljuks and Anatolian beyliks</h3> <p class="note">Main articles: <a href="/facts/Seljuk_Empire/PIdMSP62">Seljuk Empire</a>, <a href="/facts/Sultanate_of_Rum/FxM7T3tz">Sultanate of Rum</a>, and <a href="/facts/Anatolian_beyliks/IPwH9JE0">Anatolian beyliks</a></p> <p class="note">Further information: <a href="/facts/Turkic_migration/ta93WKqp">Turkic migration</a>, <a href="/facts/Oghuz_Turks/3tDVfY8y">Oghuz Turks</a>, and <a href="/facts/Turkification/Bd3K0zeJ">Turkification</a></p> <p>According to historians and linguists, the <a href="/facts/Proto-Turkic_language/K6MFy4kU">Proto-Turkic language</a> originated in Central-East Asia.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:104" href="#fn:104"><sup>104</sup></a> Initially, Proto-<a href="/facts/Turkic_languages/RXqsmfgh">Turkic speakers</a> were potentially both hunter-gatherers and farmers; they later became <a href="/facts/Nomadic/R9KGKP72">nomadic</a> <a href="/facts/Pastoralism/J9m2S95h">pastoralists</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:105" href="#fn:105"><sup>105</sup></a> Early and medieval <a href="/facts/Turkic_peoples/ocd7rpI3">Turkic groups</a> exhibited a wide range of both East Asian and West-Eurasian physical appearances and genetic origins, in part through long-term contact with neighboring peoples such as <a href="/facts/Iranian_peoples/gnzfoI8h">Iranic</a>, <a href="/facts/Mongolic_peoples/10695nIr">Mongolic</a>, <a href="/facts/Tocharians/wtqMjAAk">Tocharian</a>, <a href="/facts/Uralic_people/4K0r9XRI">Uralic</a>, and <a href="/facts/Yeniseian_people/q3fQ6WGJ">Yeniseian</a> peoples.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:106" href="#fn:106"><sup>106</sup></a> During the 9th and 10th centuries CE, <a href="/facts/Oghuz_Turks/3tDVfY8y">the Oghuz</a> were a Turkic group that lived in the <a href="/facts/Pontic%25E2%2580%2593Caspian_steppe/KzRVR1WW">Caspian</a> and <a href="/facts/Aral_Sea/jHfMFX0v">Aral</a> steppes.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:107" href="#fn:107"><sup>107</sup></a> Partly due to pressure from the <a href="/facts/Kipchaks/VnMHdsIy">Kipchaks</a>, the Oghuz migrated into <a href="/facts/Iranian_Plateau/qIVWN4aH">Iran</a> and <a href="/facts/Transoxiana/6eCqls7K">Transoxiana</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:108" href="#fn:108"><sup>108</sup></a> They mixed with Iranic-speaking groups in the area and converted to <a href="/facts/Islam/zDLbL45C">Islam</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:109" href="#fn:109"><sup>109</sup></a> Oghuz Turks were also known as Turkmen or <a href="/facts/Turkoman_(ethnonym)/ertEYum2">Turkoman</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:110" href="#fn:110"><sup>110</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:111" href="#fn:111"><sup>111</sup></a> </p> <p>The ruling family of <a href="/facts/Seljuq_dynasty/68M4ryan">the Seljuks</a> originated from the <i><a href="/facts/K%25C4%25B1n%25C4%25B1k_(tribe)/hg8kXhKI">Kınık</a></i> branch of the Oghuz Turks.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:112" href="#fn:112"><sup>112</sup></a> In 1040, the Seljuks defeated the <a href="/facts/Ghaznavids/SvV50a1J">Ghaznavids</a> at the <a href="/facts/Battle_of_Dandanaqan/grKa0Y4Y">Battle of Dandanaqan</a> and established the <a href="/facts/Seljuk_Empire/PIdMSP62">Seljuk Empire</a> in <a href="/facts/Greater_Khorasan/YjgsyBbe">Greater Khorasan</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:113" href="#fn:113"><sup>113</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Baghdad/RbtLzzHe">Baghdad</a>, the <a href="/facts/Abbasid_Caliphate/mPeLAbXt">Abbasid Caliphate</a>'s capital and center of <a href="/facts/Islamic_Golden_Age/yAeG2rBA">the Islamic world</a>, was taken by Seljuks in 1055.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:114" href="#fn:114"><sup>114</sup></a> Given the role <a href="/facts/Greater_Khorasan/YjgsyBbe">Khurasani</a> traditions played in art, culture, and political traditions in the empire, the Seljuk period is described as a mixture of "<a href="/facts/Turko-Persian_tradition/cxmgd6Cn">Turkish, Persian and Islamic influences</a>".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:115" href="#fn:115"><sup>115</sup></a> In the latter half of the 11th century, the Seljuk Turks began penetrating into <a href="/facts/Medieval_Armenia/DK4t6oHH">medieval Armenia</a> and Anatolia.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:116" href="#fn:116"><sup>116</sup></a> At the time, Anatolia was a diverse and largely Greek-speaking region after previously being <a href="/facts/Hellenization/w07GMufL">Hellenized</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:117" href="#fn:117"><sup>117</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:118" href="#fn:118"><sup>118</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:119" href="#fn:119"><sup>119</sup></a> </p><p>The Seljuk Turks defeated the Byzantines at the <a href="/facts/Battle_of_Manzikert/tdGFrPmu">Battle of Manzikert</a> in 1071, and later established <a href="/facts/Sultanate_of_Rum/FxM7T3tz">the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:120" href="#fn:120"><sup>120</sup></a> During this period, there were also <a href="/facts/Anatolian_beyliks/IPwH9JE0">Turkish principalities</a> such as <a href="/facts/Danishmendids/q1sEYrgL">Danishmendids</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:121" href="#fn:121"><sup>121</sup></a> Seljuk arrival started the <a href="/facts/Turkification/Bd3K0zeJ">Turkification</a> process in Anatolia;<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:122" href="#fn:122"><sup>122</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:123" href="#fn:123"><sup>123</sup></a> there were Turkic/Turkish migrations, intermarriages, and conversions into Islam.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:124" href="#fn:124"><sup>124</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:125" href="#fn:125"><sup>125</sup></a> The shift took several centuries and happened gradually.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:126" href="#fn:126"><sup>126</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:127" href="#fn:127"><sup>127</sup></a> Members of <a href="/facts/Mysticism/3Rfb7zEd">Islamic mysticism</a> orders, such as <a href="/facts/Mevlevi_Order/QfHPfvsn">Mevlevi Order</a>, played a role in the <a href="/facts/Islamization/0YA0kCSG">Islamization</a> of the diverse people of Anatolia.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:128" href="#fn:128"><sup>128</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:129" href="#fn:129"><sup>129</sup></a> Seljuk expansion was one of the reasons for the <a href="/facts/Crusades/mblv9nwI">Crusades</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:130" href="#fn:130"><sup>130</sup></a> In 13th century, there was a second significant wave of Turkic migration, as people fled <a href="/facts/Mongol_Empire/cfddtfIK">Mongol</a> expansion.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:131" href="#fn:131"><sup>131</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:132" href="#fn:132"><sup>132</sup></a> Seljuk sultanate was defeated by the Mongols at the <a href="/facts/Battle_of_K%25C3%25B6se_Da%25C4%259F/w9IsH8gn">Battle of Köse Dağ</a> in 1243 and disappeared by the beginning of the 14th century. It was replaced by various Turkish principalities.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:133" href="#fn:133"><sup>133</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:134" href="#fn:134"><sup>134</sup></a> </p> <h3>Ottoman Empire</h3> <p class="note">Main article: <a href="/facts/Ottoman_Empire/6QvfTRsg">Ottoman Empire</a></p> <p>Based around <a href="/facts/S%25C3%25B6%25C4%259F%25C3%25BCt/XVLGthvD">Söğüt</a>, <a href="/facts/Rise_of_the_Ottoman_Empire/IWb7h4Hz">Ottoman Beylik</a> was founded by <a href="/facts/Osman_I/mtdkpg6M">Osman I</a> in the early 14th century.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:135" href="#fn:135"><sup>135</sup></a> According to Ottoman chroniclers, Osman descended from the <i><a href="/facts/Kay%25C4%25B1_(tribe)/lt1CDRaG">Kayı</a></i> tribe of the <a href="/facts/Oghuz_Turks/3tDVfY8y">Oghuz Turks</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:136" href="#fn:136"><sup>136</sup></a> Ottomans started annexing the nearby Turkish beyliks (principalities) in Anatolia and expanded into the <a href="/facts/Balkans/5Hy8ly0d">Balkans</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:137" href="#fn:137"><sup>137</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Mehmed_II/gdtDX2nE">Mehmed II</a> completed Ottoman conquest of the Byzantine Empire by <a href="/facts/Fall_of_Constantinople/JwpayQqv">capturing its capital, Constantinople</a>, on 29 May 1453.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:138" href="#fn:138"><sup>138</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Selim_I/aVcgQv8C">Selim I</a> united Anatolia under Ottoman rule.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:139" href="#fn:139"><sup>139</sup></a> Turkification continued as Ottomans mixed with various indigenous people in Anatolia and the Balkans.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:140" href="#fn:140"><sup>140</sup></a> </p><p>The Ottoman Empire was a global power during the reigns of <a href="/facts/Selim_I/aVcgQv8C">Selim I</a> and <a href="/facts/Suleiman_the_Magnificent/AQKbFdJu">Suleiman the Magnificent</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:141" href="#fn:141"><sup>141</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:142" href="#fn:142"><sup>142</sup></a> In the 16th and 17th centuries, <a href="/facts/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Ottoman_Empire/B931Mv47">Sephardic Jews</a> moved into Ottoman Empire following their <a href="/facts/Reconquista/N1yFfeWf">expulsion</a> from Spain.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:143" href="#fn:143"><sup>143</sup></a> From the second half of the 18th century onwards, the <a href="/facts/Decline_of_the_Ottoman_Empire/0H9nK1qn">Ottoman Empire began to decline</a>. The <a href="/facts/Tanzimat/I83H2yXu">Tanzimat</a> reforms, initiated by <a href="/facts/Mahmud_II/HHeQYa2h">Mahmud II</a> in 1839, aimed to modernize the Ottoman state in line with the progress that had been made in Western Europe. The <a href="/facts/Ottoman_constitution_of_1876/0w9hjDLg">Ottoman constitution of 1876</a> was the first among Muslim states, but was <a href="/facts/First_Constitutional_Era/uDAHo2vj">short-lived</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:144" href="#fn:144"><sup>144</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:145" href="#fn:145"><sup>145</sup></a> </p> <p>As the empire gradually shrank in size, military power and wealth; especially after the <a href="/facts/Great_Eastern_Crisis/lgyw4WNI">Ottoman economic crisis and default</a> in 1875<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:146" href="#fn:146"><sup>146</sup></a> which led to uprisings in the Balkan provinces that culminated in the <a href="/facts/Russo-Turkish_War_(1877%25E2%2580%25931878)/KqxV0Co1">Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)</a>. The decline of the Ottoman Empire led to a <a href="/facts/Rise_of_nationalism_under_the_Ottoman_Empire/BH5168C7">rise in nationalist sentiment among its various subject peoples</a>, leading to increased ethnic tensions which occasionally burst into violence, such as the <a href="/facts/Hamidian_massacres/RLycyqe6">Hamidian massacres</a> of <a href="/facts/Armenians_in_the_Ottoman_Empire/LTAxRYsb">Armenians</a>, which claimed up to 300,000 lives.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:147" href="#fn:147"><sup>147</sup></a>[<i>better source needed</i>] Ottoman territories in Europe (<a href="/facts/Rumelia/Y0GBIVMz">Rumelia</a>) were lost in the <a href="/facts/First_Balkan_War/UqW8xIkd">First Balkan War</a> (1912–1913).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:148" href="#fn:148"><sup>148</sup></a> Ottomans managed to recover some territory in Europe, such as <a href="/facts/Edirne/Yv0IwFUQ">Edirne</a>, in the <a href="/facts/Second_Balkan_War/PyjQLNU9">Second Balkan War</a> (1913). </p><p>In the 19th and early 20th centuries, <a href="/facts/Persecution_of_Muslims_during_the_Ottoman_contraction/ArVDMSSk">persecution of Muslims during the Ottoman contraction</a> and <a href="/facts/Persecution_of_Muslims/2geADI3y">in the Russian Empire</a> resulted in estimated 5 million deaths,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:149" href="#fn:149"><sup>149</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:150" href="#fn:150"><sup>150</sup></a> with the casualties including Turks.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:151" href="#fn:151"><sup>151</sup></a> Five to seven or seven to nine million <a href="/facts/Muhacir/U7RV5Ejm">refugees</a> migrated into modern-day Turkey from the <a href="/facts/Balkans/5Hy8ly0d">Balkans</a>, <a href="/facts/Caucasus/sE8P8Ejg">Caucasus</a>, <a href="/facts/Crimean_Khanate/JPtgG0dx">Crimea</a>, and <a href="/facts/Mediterranean/Vr2pzVbM">Mediterranean</a> islands,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:152" href="#fn:152"><sup>152</sup></a> shifting the center of the Ottoman Empire to Anatolia.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:153" href="#fn:153"><sup>153</sup></a> In addition to a small number of Jews, the refugees were overwhelmingly Muslim; they were both Turkish and non-Turkish people, such as <a href="/facts/Circassians/fTWD67Tg">Circassians</a> and <a href="/facts/Crimean_Tatars/UjAfC7Yl">Crimean Tatars</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:154" href="#fn:154"><sup>154</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:155" href="#fn:155"><sup>155</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Paul_Mojzes/jNCPXvXP">Paul Mojzes</a> has called the Balkan Wars an "unrecognized genocide", where multiple sides were both victims and perpetrators.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:156" href="#fn:156"><sup>156</sup></a> Circassian refugees included the survivors of the <a href="/facts/Circassian_genocide/9CUoo61l">Circassian genocide</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:157" href="#fn:157"><sup>157</sup></a> </p><p>Following the <a href="/facts/1913_Ottoman_coup_d%2527%25C3%25A9tat/vfIxR1Yb">1913 coup d'état</a>, the <a href="/facts/Three_Pashas/xwpyIbGp">Three Pashas</a> took control of the Ottoman government. The Ottoman Empire entered <a href="/facts/World_War_I/vITTUanQ">World War I</a> on the side of the <a href="/facts/Central_Powers/LokC2msm">Central Powers</a> and was ultimately defeated.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:158" href="#fn:158"><sup>158</sup></a> During the war, the empire's Armenian subjects were <a href="/facts/Temporary_Law_of_Deportation/a66JFTsf">deported to Syria</a> as part of the <a href="/facts/Armenian_genocide/n4qY58hs">Armenian genocide</a>. As a result, an estimated 600,000<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:159" href="#fn:159"><sup>159</sup></a> to more than 1 million,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:160" href="#fn:160"><sup>160</sup></a> or up to 1.5 million<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:161" href="#fn:161"><sup>161</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:162" href="#fn:162"><sup>162</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:163" href="#fn:163"><sup>163</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Armenians_in_the_Ottoman_Empire/LTAxRYsb">Armenians</a> were killed. The Turkish government has <a href="/facts/Armenian_genocide_denial/qfIAblGw">refused to acknowledge</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:164" href="#fn:164"><sup>164</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:165" href="#fn:165"><sup>165</sup></a> the events as genocide and states that Armenians were only <a href="/facts/Population_transfer/JTSYub3c">"relocated</a>" from the eastern war zone.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:166" href="#fn:166"><sup>166</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Late_Ottoman_genocides/WAIPE0sR">Genocidal campaigns</a> were also committed against the empire's other minority groups such as the <a href="/facts/Assyrian_genocide/v8wng75H">Assyrians</a> and <a href="/facts/Greek_genocide/BhTKfBBw">Greeks</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:167" href="#fn:167"><sup>167</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:168" href="#fn:168"><sup>168</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:169" href="#fn:169"><sup>169</sup></a> Following the <a href="/facts/Armistice_of_Mudros/jnwzDYwU">Armistice of Mudros</a> in 1918, the victorious <a href="/facts/Allies_of_World_War_I/HBo9sw1M">Allied Powers</a> sought the <a href="/facts/Partition_of_the_Ottoman_Empire/UCtlDbQw">partition of the Ottoman Empire</a> through the 1920 <a href="/facts/Treaty_of_S%25C3%25A8vres/j8znB5Eu">Treaty of Sèvres</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:170" href="#fn:170"><sup>170</sup></a> </p> <h3>Republic of Türkiye</h3> <p class="note">Main article: <a href="/facts/History_of_the_Republic_of_Turkey/gENanptK">History of the Republic of Turkey</a></p> <p>The <a href="/facts/Occupation_of_Istanbul/FfmEDTUY">occupation of Istanbul</a> (1918) and <a href="/facts/Occupation_of_Smyrna/0IyFFJ5U">İzmir</a> (1919) by the <a href="/facts/Allies_of_World_War_I/HBo9sw1M">Allies</a> in the aftermath of World War I initiated the <a href="/facts/Turkish_National_Movement/FXhgDnla">Turkish National Movement</a>. Under the leadership of <a href="/facts/Mustafa_Kemal_Atat%25C3%25BCrk/RYKRRRst">Mustafa Kemal Pasha</a>, a military commander who had distinguished himself during the <a href="/facts/Gallipoli_campaign/EDePckSo">Battle of Gallipoli</a>, the <a href="/facts/Turkish_War_of_Independence/GtV8LuII">Turkish War of Independence</a> (1919–1923) was waged with the aim of revoking the terms of the <a href="/facts/Treaty_of_S%25C3%25A8vres/j8znB5Eu">Treaty of Sèvres</a> (1920).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:171" href="#fn:171"><sup>171</sup></a> </p><p>The <a href="/facts/Government_of_the_Grand_National_Assembly/vRsUDaQd">Turkish Provisional Government</a> in <a href="/facts/Ankara/llGIJ0vj">Ankara</a>, which had declared itself the legitimate government of the country on <a href="/facts/Grand_National_Assembly_of_Turkey/XMmKP5qd">23 April 1920</a>, started to formalize the legal transition from the old Ottoman into the new Republican political system. The Ankara Government engaged in armed and diplomatic struggle. In 1921–1923, the Armenian, Greek, French, and British armies had been expelled.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:172" href="#fn:172"><sup>172</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:173" href="#fn:173"><sup>173</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:174" href="#fn:174"><sup>174</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:175" href="#fn:175"><sup>175</sup></a> The military advance and diplomatic success of the Ankara Government resulted in the signing of the <a href="/facts/Armistice_of_Mudanya/9b8ujfnb">Armistice of Mudanya</a> on 11 October 1922. On 1 November 1922, the Turkish Parliament in Ankara formally abolished the Sultanate, thus ending 623 years of <a href="/facts/Monarchy/Kg1vY7tt">monarchical</a> Ottoman rule. </p><p>The <a href="/facts/Treaty_of_Lausanne/u3edX8Q9">Treaty of Lausanne</a> of 24 July 1923, which superseded the Treaty of Sèvres,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:176" href="#fn:176"><sup>176</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:177" href="#fn:177"><sup>177</sup></a> led to the international recognition of the sovereignty of the new Turkish state as the successor state of the Ottoman Empire. On 4 October 1923, the Allied occupation of Turkey ended with the withdrawal of the last Allied troops from <a href="/facts/Occupation_of_Istanbul/FfmEDTUY">Istanbul</a>. The Turkish Republic <a href="/facts/Proclamation_of_the_Republic_of_Turkey/b5GpzXaF">was officially proclaimed</a> on 29 October 1923 in Ankara, the country's new capital.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:178" href="#fn:178"><sup>178</sup></a> The <a href="/facts/Convention_Concerning_the_Exchange_of_Greek_and_Turkish_Populations/mT0Fl01r">Lausanne Convention</a> stipulated a <a href="/facts/Population_exchange_between_Greece_and_Turkey/GAJIt1Bq">population exchange between Greece and Turkey</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:179" href="#fn:179"><sup>179</sup></a> </p> <p>Mustafa Kemal became the republic's first <a href="/facts/President_of_Turkey/5e9wknud">president</a> and introduced <a href="/facts/Atat%25C3%25BCrk%2527s_reforms/kR518f4R">many reforms</a>. The reforms aimed to transform the old <a href="/facts/Millet_(Ottoman_Empire)/WhUsDg06">religion-based and multi-communal</a> Ottoman monarchy into a Turkish <a href="/facts/Nation_state/1T5FVEJP">nation state</a> that would be governed as a <a href="/facts/Parliamentary_republic/W8AubFBo">parliamentary republic</a> under a <a href="/facts/Turkish_Constitution_of_1924/RNTx5qSn">secular constitution</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:180" href="#fn:180"><sup>180</sup></a> Women gained the right to vote nationally in 1934.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:181" href="#fn:181"><sup>181</sup></a> With the <a href="/facts/Surname_Law_(Turkey)/f9tKbyIn">Surname Law</a>, the <a href="/facts/Grand_National_Assembly_of_Turkey/XMmKP5qd">Turkish Parliament</a> bestowed upon Kemal the honorific surname "Atatürk" (<i>Father Turk</i>).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:182" href="#fn:182"><sup>182</sup></a> Atatürk's reforms caused discontent in some <a href="/facts/Kurds/nfHFlVlq">Kurdish</a> and <a href="/facts/Zazas/M40nLlFN">Zaza</a> tribes leading to the <a href="/facts/Sheikh_Said_rebellion/LuayAEA8">Sheikh Said rebellion</a> in 1925<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:183" href="#fn:183"><sup>183</sup></a> and the <a href="/facts/Dersim_rebellion/I0QKLFSz">Dersim rebellion</a> in 1937.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:184" href="#fn:184"><sup>184</sup></a> </p><p><a href="/facts/%25C4%25B0smet_%25C4%25B0n%25C3%25B6n%25C3%25BC/0MNtyGxo">İsmet İnönü</a> became the country's second president following Atatürk's death in 1938. In 1939, the <a href="/facts/Hatay_State/pmhuFY5R">Republic of Hatay</a> voted in favor of joining Turkey with a referendum. Turkey <a href="/facts/Second_Cairo_Conference/XtLv2xAJ">remained neutral</a> during almost all of <a href="/facts/World_War_II/2efV5L1U">World War II</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:185" href="#fn:185"><sup>185</sup></a> but entered the war on the side of the <a href="/facts/Allies_of_World_War_II/YzCdtjDY">Allies</a> on <a href="/facts/Turkish_declaration_of_war_on_Germany_and_Japan/QC29CRka">23 February 1945</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:186" href="#fn:186"><sup>186</sup></a> Later that year, Turkey became a <a href="/facts/United_Nations_Charter/Dhk2QRBA">charter member</a> of the United Nations.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:187" href="#fn:187"><sup>187</sup></a> In 1950 Turkey became a member of the <a href="/facts/Council_of_Europe/51I3TyDg">Council of Europe</a>. After fighting as part of the <a href="/facts/United_Nations/fgXLnmgT">UN</a> forces in the <a href="/facts/Korean_War/Qo93pNhE">Korean War</a>, Turkey joined <a href="/facts/NATO/dCeTddMY">NATO</a> in 1952, becoming a bulwark against Soviet expansion into the <a href="/facts/Mediterranean_Basin/azjFD5mW">Mediterranean</a>. </p><p>Military coups or memorandums, which happened in <a href="/facts/1960_Turkish_coup_d%2527%25C3%25A9tat/eRoBdBN6">1960</a>, <a href="/facts/1971_Turkish_military_memorandum/Tcx5snrl">1971</a>, <a href="/facts/1980_Turkish_coup_d%2527%25C3%25A9tat/h1XJohFc">1980</a>, and <a href="/facts/1997_Turkish_military_memorandum/y1h9ub8u">1997</a>, complicated Turkey's transition to a democratic <a href="/facts/Multi-party_period_of_the_Republic_of_Turkey/RfSLMzb1">multiparty system</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:188" href="#fn:188"><sup>188</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:189" href="#fn:189"><sup>189</sup></a> Between 1960 and the end of the 20th century, the prominent leaders in Turkish politics who achieved multiple election victories were <a href="/facts/S%25C3%25BCleyman_Demirel/zK34HFd8">Süleyman Demirel</a>, <a href="/facts/B%25C3%25BClent_Ecevit/1cySIXSl">Bülent Ecevit</a> and <a href="/facts/Turgut_%25C3%2596zal/5A1B5JrM">Turgut Özal</a>. PKK started a "campaign of terrorist attacks on civilian and military targets" in the 1980s.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:190" href="#fn:190"><sup>190</sup></a> It is designated as a <a href="/facts/List_of_designated_terrorist_groups/LmnuRFFL">terrorist organization</a> by Turkey,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:191" href="#fn:191"><sup>191</sup></a> the United States,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:192" href="#fn:192"><sup>192</sup></a> and the European Union.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:193" href="#fn:193"><sup>193</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Tansu_%25C3%2587iller/jfxz47X7">Tansu Çiller</a> became the first female prime minister of Turkey in 1993. Turkey applied for full membership of the <a href="/facts/European_Economic_Community/tx2V9KAQ">EEC</a> in 1987, joined the <a href="/facts/European_Union_Customs_Union/zklwV2Cu">European Union Customs Union</a> in 1995 and started <a href="/facts/Accession_of_Turkey_to_the_European_Union/IAgL2SNM">accession negotiations</a> with the <a href="/facts/European_Union/6GYcR8qM">European Union</a> in 2005.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:194" href="#fn:194"><sup>194</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:195" href="#fn:195"><sup>195</sup></a> Customs Union had an important impact on the Turkish manufacturing sector.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:196" href="#fn:196"><sup>196</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:197" href="#fn:197"><sup>197</sup></a> </p> <p>In 2014, prime minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan won Turkey's first direct <a href="/facts/2014_Turkish_presidential_election/uvsscxnF">presidential election</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:198" href="#fn:198"><sup>198</sup></a> On 15 July 2016, an <a href="/facts/2016_Turkish_coup_attempt/NPnuICWr">unsuccessful coup attempt</a> tried to oust the government.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:199" href="#fn:199"><sup>199</sup></a> According to the Turkish government, there are 13,251 arrested or convicted people in jail as of 2024, related to the 2016 coup attempt.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:200" href="#fn:200"><sup>200</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:201" href="#fn:201"><sup>201</sup></a> With a <a href="/facts/2017_Turkish_constitutional_referendum/u1oLYxG5">referendum in 2017</a>, the parliamentary republic was replaced by an <a href="/facts/Executive_president/L35S5j6B">executive presidential system</a>. The office of the prime minister was abolished, and its powers and duties were transferred to the president. On the referendum day, while the voting was still underway, the <a href="/facts/Supreme_Election_Council_(Turkey)/hzhIsM9h">Supreme Electoral Council</a> lifted a rule that required each ballot to have an official stamp.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:202" href="#fn:202"><sup>202</sup></a> The opposition parties claimed that as many as 2.5 million <a href="/facts/2017_Turkish_constitutional_referendum/u1oLYxG5">ballots without a stamp</a> were accepted as valid.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:203" href="#fn:203"><sup>203</sup></a> In 2025 the PKK declared a ceasefire.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:204" href="#fn:204"><sup>204</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="administrative-divisions">Administrative divisions</h2> <p class="note">Main article: <a href="/facts/Administrative_divisions_of_Turkey/elr5YJ8h">Administrative divisions of Turkey</a></p> <p class="note">Further information: <a href="/facts/Regions_of_Turkey/NqqGpny5">Regions of Turkey</a> and <a href="/facts/NUTS_of_Turkey/j74Mk75C">NUTS of Turkey</a></p> <p>Turkey is a <a href="/facts/Unitary_state/HAxK1eMM">unitary state</a>. Its administrative system includes central and local administration. Central administration consists of the <a href="/facts/Central_government/toUqRMws">central government</a> in <a href="/facts/Ankara/llGIJ0vj">Ankara</a>, and local departments such as 81 <a href="/facts/Provinces_of_Turkey/CN95vY68">provinces</a> and <a href="/facts/Districts_of_Turkey/0uHLISgR">their subdivisions</a>. Local administration authorities consist of metropolitan municipalities, municipalities, neighborhoods or villages, and special provincial administrations. For economic and geographic reasons, Turkey is also categorized into <a href="/facts/Geographical_regions_of_Turkey/NqqGpny5">seven regions</a> and 21 sub-regions.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:205" href="#fn:205"><sup>205</sup></a> </p> <a href="/facts/Ankara_Province/BCYH3pBV">Ankara</a> <a href="/facts/K%25C4%25B1rklareli_Province/rud7tBCf">Kırklareli</a> <a href="/facts/Edirne_Province/uyJVX3Wl">Edirne</a> <a href="/facts/Tekirda%25C4%259F_Province/79J1rd9V">Tekirdağ</a> <a href="/facts/%25C3%2587anakkale_Province/YlGuRLJy">Çanakkale</a> <a href="/facts/Bal%25C4%25B1kesir_Province/wjIxY3J0">Balıkesir</a> <a href="/facts/Bursa_Province/Bghp6osY">Bursa</a> <a href="/facts/Yalova_Province/qm0Wu9xA">Yalova</a> <a href="/facts/Istanbul_Province/Xo1hzGWH">Istanbul</a> <a href="/facts/Kocaeli_Province/WVA4U4sb">Kocaeli</a> <a href="/facts/Sakarya_Province/qfPnwoxw">Sakarya</a> <a href="/facts/D%25C3%25BCzce_Province/QP2z85co">Düzce</a> <a href="/facts/Zonguldak_Province/qpVInQtL">Zonguldak</a> <a href="/facts/Bolu_Province/Edv7wWzC">Bolu</a> <a href="/facts/Bilecik_Province/WLjVlkTb">Bilecik</a> <a href="/facts/Eski%25C5%259Fehir_Province/2KTTWotz">Eskişehir</a> <a href="/facts/K%25C3%25BCtahya_Province/h8QTQHV5">Kütahya</a> <a href="/facts/Manisa_Province/paLhRc0f">Manisa</a> <a href="/facts/%25C4%25B0zmir_Province/BQSmoCzB">İzmir</a> <a href="/facts/Ayd%25C4%25B1n_Province/FRRhh3gT">Aydın</a> <a href="/facts/Mu%25C4%259Fla_Province/x6FV8g9q">Muğla</a> <a href="/facts/Denizli_Province/AnASKD3H">Denizli</a> <a href="/facts/Burdur_Province/0k27S55C">Burdur</a> <a href="/facts/U%25C5%259Fak_Province/b8LMHPEQ">Uşak</a> <a href="/facts/Afyonkarahisar_Province/n2gRE2nr">Afyonkarahisar</a> <a href="/facts/Isparta_Province/DloVgQUb">Isparta</a> <a href="/facts/Antalya_Province/M4qoBVxN">Antalya</a> <a href="/facts/Konya_Province/PNRGFEaQ">Konya</a> <a href="/facts/Mersin_Province/0Q6kC42m">Mersin</a> <a href="/facts/Karaman_Province/LCL1UUuM">Karaman</a> <a href="/facts/Aksaray_Province/pyv1UFk4">Aksaray</a> <a href="/facts/K%25C4%25B1r%25C5%259Fehir_Province/zNtsnf4U">Kırşehir</a> <a href="/facts/K%25C4%25B1r%25C4%25B1kkale_Province/9UolyPbY">Kırıkkale</a> <a href="/facts/%25C3%2587ank%25C4%25B1r%25C4%25B1_Province/VqjqpfB3">Çankırı</a> <a href="/facts/Karab%25C3%25BCk_Province/SxElIpWr">Karabük</a> <a href="/facts/Bart%25C4%25B1n_Province/QLcYXTqT">Bartın</a> <a href="/facts/Kastamonu_Province/3tEBsq06">Kastamonu</a> <a href="/facts/Sinop_Province/kprKLtdQ">Sinop</a> <a href="/facts/%25C3%2587orum_Province/ajtDWxKo">Çorum</a> <a href="/facts/Yozgat_Province/EYgaVl49">Yozgat</a> <a href="/facts/Nev%25C5%259Fehir_Province/UaSHphWE">Nevşehir</a> <a href="/facts/Ni%25C4%259Fde_Province/5xuJS0Vm">Niğde</a> <a href="/facts/Adana_Province/5cRSodGE">Adana</a> <a href="/facts/Hatay_Province/2pwzAr46">Hatay</a> <a href="/facts/Osmaniye_Province/YTv8bXIx">Osmaniye</a> <a href="/facts/Kahramanmara%25C5%259F_Province/QUf3th7B">K. Maraş</a> <a href="/facts/Kayseri_Province/mys2JQmI">Kayseri</a> <a href="/facts/Sivas_Province/83bQdEyP">Sivas</a> <a href="/facts/Tokat_Province/ws933JwT">Tokat</a> <a href="/facts/Amasya_Province/rc0rQ9u4">Amasya</a> <a href="/facts/Samsun_Province/q9gDykxR">Samsun</a> <a href="/facts/Ordu_Province/shXPVpkX">Ordu</a> <a href="/facts/Giresun_Province/Hzw08Tok">Giresun</a> <a href="/facts/Erzincan_Province/X6wgKbuy">Erzincan</a> <a href="/facts/Malatya_Province/EpYt0G1U">Malatya</a> <a href="/facts/Gaziantep_Province/Wcl6Pjoz">Gaziantep</a> <a href="/facts/Kilis_Province/ETqMTR8r">Kilis</a> <a href="/facts/%25C5%259Eanl%25C4%25B1urfa_Province/wRSyv8TP">Şanlıurfa</a> <a href="/facts/Ad%25C4%25B1yaman_Province/u9U02BQ0">Adıyaman</a> <a href="/facts/G%25C3%25BCm%25C3%25BC%25C5%259Fhane_Province/EK11msud">Gümüşhane</a> <a href="/facts/Trabzon_Province/SAPINXJc">Trabzon</a> <a href="/facts/Rize_Province/Vq0YqQEg">Rize</a> <a href="/facts/Bayburt_Province/RsquXXaX">Bayburt</a> <a href="/facts/Erzurum_Province/jfBPdtfY">Erzurum</a> <a href="/facts/Artvin_Province/R7xMEbBu">Artvin</a> <a href="/facts/Ardahan_Province/sEuKWFkF">Ardahan</a> <a href="/facts/Kars_Province/Xmv5dJqA">Kars</a> <a href="/facts/A%25C4%259Fr%25C4%25B1_Province/cL0uwsPN">Ağrı</a> <a href="/facts/I%25C4%259Fd%25C4%25B1r_Province/SeRYlYds">Iğdır</a> <a href="/facts/Tunceli_Province/hghBa0Fk">Tunceli</a> <a href="/facts/Elaz%25C4%25B1%25C4%259F_Province/gKMhenWo">Elazığ</a> <a href="/facts/Diyarbak%25C4%25B1r_Province/pcQjAucJ">Diyarbakır</a> <a href="/facts/Mardin_Province/2kev8y7g">Mardin</a> <a href="/facts/Batman_Province/DhFxzbdW">Batman</a> <a href="/facts/Siirt_Province/U5FPHp4e">Siirt</a> <a href="/facts/%25C5%259E%25C4%25B1rnak_Province/RxGcDQDk">Şırnak</a> <a href="/facts/Bitlis_Province/1hVcJBw3">Bitlis</a> <a href="/facts/Bing%25C3%25B6l_Province/pe2nspV2">Bingöl</a> <a href="/facts/Mu%25C5%259F_Province/7FEt9djs">Muş</a> <a href="/facts/Van_Province/uLGbfnDT">Van</a> <a href="/facts/Hakk%25C3%25A2ri_Province/vSDPwkzx">Hakkâri</a> <h2 id="government-and-politics">Government and politics</h2> <p class="note">Main articles: <a href="/facts/Government_of_Turkey/0F5wtM9F">Government of Turkey</a>, <a href="/facts/Politics_of_Turkey/AoEmKnma">Politics of Turkey</a>, and <a href="/facts/Constitution_of_Turkey/278cuUPM">Constitution of Turkey</a></p> <p class="note">See also: <a href="/facts/Law_enforcement_in_Turkey/8YcPdWcP">Law enforcement in Turkey</a></p> <p>Turkey is a <a href="/facts/Presidential_system/lFFCrzpv">presidential republic</a> within a <a href="/facts/Multi-party_period_of_the_Republic_of_Turkey/RfSLMzb1">multi-party system</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:206" href="#fn:206"><sup>206</sup></a> The <a href="/facts/Constitution_of_Turkey/278cuUPM">current constitution</a> was <a href="/facts/1982_Turkish_constitutional_referendum/qEJewbD5">adopted in 1982</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:207" href="#fn:207"><sup>207</sup></a> In the Turkish unitary system, citizens are subject to <a href="/facts/Administrative_divisions_of_Turkey/elr5YJ8h">three levels of government</a>: national, provincial, and local. The <a href="/facts/Local_government/I9QYqnWI">local government</a>'s duties are commonly split between <a href="/facts/Municipal_corporation/VunELtxx">municipal governments</a> and districts, in which the executive and legislative officials are elected by a <a href="/facts/Plurality_voting/n4mcp5VF">plurality vote</a> of citizens by district. The government comprises three branches: first is the <a href="/facts/Legislature/ycUCe91S">legislative</a> branch, which is <a href="/facts/Grand_National_Assembly_of_Turkey/XMmKP5qd">Grand National Assembly of Turkey</a>;<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:208" href="#fn:208"><sup>208</sup></a> second is the <a href="/facts/Executive_(government)/fPCCh3VU">executive</a> branch, which is the <a href="/facts/President_of_Turkey/5e9wknud">President of Turkey</a>;<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:209" href="#fn:209"><sup>209</sup></a> and third is the <a href="/facts/Judicial_system_of_Turkey/Pjbjcj2T">judicial</a> branch, which includes the <a href="/facts/Constitutional_Court_of_Turkey/M5a9HmE4">Constitutional Court</a>, the <a href="/facts/Court_of_Cassation_(Turkey)/depRfP6F">Court of Cassation</a> and <a href="/facts/Court_of_Jurisdictional_Disputes/BTW1Lxme">Court of Jurisdictional Disputes</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:210" href="#fn:210"><sup>210</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:211" href="#fn:211"><sup>211</sup></a> </p><p>The Parliament has 600 seats, distributed among the provinces <a href="/facts/Party-list_proportional_representation/jFyWurXx">proportionally to the population</a>. The Parliament and the president serve a five-year terms, with elections on the same day. The president is <a href="/facts/Turkish_presidential_elections/r9hQ5S8T">elected</a> by <a href="/facts/Direct_election/mEu2tH8w">direct vote</a> and cannot run for re-election after two terms, unless the parliament calls early presidential elections during the second term. The Constitutional Court is composed of 15 members, elected for single 12-year terms. They are obliged to retire when they are over the age of 65.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:212" href="#fn:212"><sup>212</sup></a> Turkish politics have become increasingly associated with <a href="/facts/Democratic_backsliding/PXsoKs4r">democratic backsliding</a>, being described as a <a href="/facts/Hybrid_regime/dcFMYAMy">competitive authoritarian</a> system.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:213" href="#fn:213"><sup>213</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:214" href="#fn:214"><sup>214</sup></a> </p> <h3>Parties and elections</h3> <p class="note">Main articles: <a href="/facts/Elections_in_Turkey/r9hQ5S8T">Elections in Turkey</a>, <a href="/facts/Political_parties_in_Turkey/oSFCqmLD">Political parties in Turkey</a>, and <a href="/facts/Electoral_cycle_of_Turkey/9DsKjjE9">Electoral cycle of Turkey</a></p> <p>Elections in Turkey are held for six functions of government: <a href="/facts/Turkish_presidential_elections/r9hQ5S8T">presidential</a> (national), parliamentary (national), <a href="/facts/Metropolitan_municipalities_in_Turkey/myldV2gK">municipality mayors</a> (local), district mayors (local), provincial or <a href="/facts/List_of_municipalities_in_Turkey/thbGVzSG">municipal council members</a> (local), and <a href="/facts/Muhtar_(title)/taJmdyaU">muhtars</a> (local). <a href="/facts/Referendum/DaF49jCL">Referendums</a> are also held occasionally. Every Turkish citizen who has turned 18 has the <a href="/facts/Suffrage/HFFSpSCG">right to vote</a> and stand as a candidate at elections. <a href="/facts/Universal_suffrage/QXTRB4Lh">Universal suffrage</a> for both sexes has been applied throughout Turkey since 1934.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:215" href="#fn:215"><sup>215</sup></a> In Turkey, <a href="/facts/Voter_turnout/FWYnvL2n">turnout rates</a> of both local and general elections are high compared to many other countries, which usually stands higher than 80%. President <a href="/facts/Recep_Tayyip_Erdo%25C4%259Fan/7lFKaJH7">Recep Tayyip Erdoğan</a> is currently serving as the <a href="/facts/Head_of_state/U2QzdE4a">head of state</a> and <a href="/facts/Head_of_government/eHYPvGWL">head of government</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:216" href="#fn:216"><sup>216</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:217" href="#fn:217"><sup>217</sup></a> <a href="/facts/%25C3%2596zg%25C3%25BCr_%25C3%2596zel/u13Efx2c">Özgür Özel</a> is the <a href="/facts/List_of_the_Main_Opposition_Leaders_of_Turkey/L7IJuwBl">Main Opposition Leader</a>. The last <a href="/facts/2023_Turkish_parliamentary_election/lgzLpkve">parliamentary</a> and <a href="/facts/2023_Turkish_presidential_election/GALFHlTp">presidential</a> elections were in 2023. </p><p>The Constitutional Court can strip the public financing of <a href="/facts/List_of_political_parties_in_Turkey/oSFCqmLD">political parties</a> that it deems <a href="/facts/Secularism_in_Turkey/VBmDFpYq">anti-secular</a> or having ties to <a href="/facts/Terrorism_in_Turkey/3TnBtTqF">terrorism</a>, or ban their existence altogether.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:218" href="#fn:218"><sup>218</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:219" href="#fn:219"><sup>219</sup></a> The <a href="/facts/Electoral_threshold/fkhtbpgd">electoral threshold</a> for political parties at national level is seven percent of the votes.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:220" href="#fn:220"><sup>220</sup></a> Smaller parties can avoid the electoral threshold by forming an alliance with other parties. <a href="/facts/Independent_politician/Pzzvg0CC">Independent candidates</a> are not subject to an electoral threshold. </p><p>On the right side of the Turkish <a href="/facts/Political_spectrum/8JazHDe0">political spectrum</a>, parties like the <a href="/facts/Democrat_Party_(Turkey%2c_1946%25E2%2580%25931961)/q2qvvwcF">Democrat Party</a>, <a href="/facts/Justice_Party_(Turkey)/9FrhvRTh">Justice Party</a>, <a href="/facts/Motherland_Party_(Turkey)/yBl4TYoo">Motherland Party</a>, and <a href="/facts/Justice_and_Development_Party_(Turkey)/KsEDCKeD">Justice and Development Party</a> became the most popular political parties in Turkey, winning numerous elections. Turkish <a href="/facts/Right-wing_politics/CVoubHMm">right-wing</a> parties are more likely to embrace the principles of political ideologies such as <a href="/facts/Conservatism/2XdCcPzq">conservatism</a>, <a href="/facts/Nationalism/IECpIhm0">nationalism</a> or <a href="/facts/Islamism/4u3G2nEf">Islamism</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:221" href="#fn:221"><sup>221</sup></a> On the left side of the spectrum, parties like the <a href="/facts/Republican_People%2527s_Party/A2wGBefn">Republican People's Party</a>, <a href="/facts/Social_Democratic_Populist_Party_(Turkey)/hn2b6e6T">Social Democratic Populist Party</a> and <a href="/facts/Democratic_Left_Party_(Turkey)/lasRWGqG">Democratic Left Party</a> once enjoyed the largest electoral success. <a href="/facts/Left-wing_politics/JUcz1kvS">Left-wing</a> parties are more likely to embrace the principles of <a href="/facts/Socialism/U2kVoPaA">socialism</a>, <a href="/facts/Kemalism/MmEBhpWB">Kemalism</a> or <a href="/facts/Secularism/QEGcV0XI">secularism</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:222" href="#fn:222"><sup>222</sup></a> </p> <h3>Law</h3> <p class="note">Main article: <a href="/facts/Judicial_system_of_Turkey/Pjbjcj2T">Judicial system of Turkey</a></p> <p>With the founding of the Republic, Turkey adopted a <a href="/facts/Civil_law_(legal_system)/R878oQ6V">civil law</a> legal system, replacing <a href="/facts/Sharia/H9cG0yCF">Sharia</a>-derived <a href="/facts/Ottoman_law/6sMdUmvD">Ottoman law</a>. The <a href="/facts/Turkish_civil_code_(1926)/BGqpG9Up">Civil Code</a>, adopted in 1926, was based on the <a href="/facts/Swiss_Civil_Code/1A5HetBM">Swiss Civil Code</a> of 1907 and the <a href="/facts/Swiss_Code_of_Obligations/z3cSNY5c">Swiss Code of Obligations</a> of 1911. Although it underwent a number of changes in 2002, it retains much of the basis of the original Code. The <a href="/facts/Criminal_Code/4T3MLjY8">Criminal Code</a>, originally based on the <a href="/facts/Italian_law_codes/qcmP6Csc">Italian Criminal Code</a>, was replaced in 2005 by a Code with principles similar to the <a href="/facts/German_Penal_Code/rDsmnMal">German Penal Code</a> and German law generally. <a href="/facts/Administrative_law/bwgzKULt">Administrative law</a> is based on the French equivalent and <a href="/facts/Procedural_law/cGcjQaXR">procedural law</a> generally shows the influence of the Swiss, German and French legal systems.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:223" href="#fn:223"><sup>223</sup></a> Islamic principles do not play a part in the legal system.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:224" href="#fn:224"><sup>224</sup></a> </p><p><a href="/facts/Law_enforcement_in_Turkey/8YcPdWcP">Law enforcement in Turkey</a> is carried out by several agencies under the jurisdiction of the <a href="/facts/Ministry_of_the_Interior_(Turkey)/nFuN77Vn">Ministry of Internal Affairs</a>. These agencies are the <a href="/facts/General_Directorate_of_Security_(Turkey)/Tyxfb790">General Directorate of Security</a>, the <a href="/facts/Gendarmerie_General_Command/CYchS8zE">Gendarmerie General Command</a> and the <a href="/facts/Coast_Guard_Command_(Turkey)/muNptYeR">Coast Guard Command</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:225" href="#fn:225"><sup>225</sup></a> In the years of government by the Justice and Development Party and Erdoğan, particularly since 2013, the independence and integrity of the Turkish judiciary has increasingly been said to be in doubt by institutions, parliamentarians and journalists both within and outside of Turkey, because of political interference in the promotion of judges and prosecutors and in their pursuit of public duty.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:226" href="#fn:226"><sup>226</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:227" href="#fn:227"><sup>227</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:228" href="#fn:228"><sup>228</sup></a> </p> <h3>Foreign relations</h3> <p class="note">Main article: <a href="/facts/Foreign_relations_of_Turkey/1c4Aw7ks">Foreign relations of Turkey</a></p> <p>Turkey has been characterized as an <a href="/facts/Emerging_power/YouWwHna">emerging</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:229" href="#fn:229"><sup>229</sup></a> or rising,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:230" href="#fn:230"><sup>230</sup></a> a <a href="/facts/Middle_power/ku44qNYY">middle</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:231" href="#fn:231"><sup>231</sup></a> a quasi-regional,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:232" href="#fn:232"><sup>232</sup></a> and a <a href="/facts/Regional_power/5sEzSjCx">regional</a> power.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:233" href="#fn:233"><sup>233</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:234" href="#fn:234"><sup>234</sup></a> Turkey's constant foreign policy goal is to pursue its national interests. These interests are mainly growing the economy, and maintaining security from <a href="/facts/Terrorism_in_Turkey/3TnBtTqF">internal terrorist</a> and external threats.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:235" href="#fn:235"><sup>235</sup></a> After the establishment of the Republic, <a href="/facts/Mustafa_Kemal_Atat%25C3%25BCrk/RYKRRRst">Atatürk</a> and <a href="/facts/%25C4%25B0smet_%25C4%25B0n%25C3%25B6n%25C3%25BC/0MNtyGxo">İnönü</a> followed the "<a href="/facts/Peace_at_home%2c_peace_in_the_world/n1xgmrgS">peace at home, peace in the world</a>" principle until the <a href="/facts/Cold_War/spJdJQ3q">Cold War</a>'s start.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:236" href="#fn:236"><sup>236</sup></a> Following <a href="/facts/Soviet_territorial_claims_against_Turkey/N0q0PuJx">threats from the Soviet Union</a>, Turkey sought to <a href="/facts/Turkey%25E2%2580%2593United_States_relations/u85FP7Fl">ally with the United States</a> and joined <a href="/facts/NATO/dCeTddMY">NATO</a> in 1952.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:237" href="#fn:237"><sup>237</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:238" href="#fn:238"><sup>238</sup></a> </p> <p>Overall, Turkey aims for good relations with <a href="/facts/Central_Asia/rB8k0CyT">Central Asia</a>, the <a href="/facts/Caucasus/sE8P8Ejg">Caucasus</a>, Russia, the <a href="/facts/Middle_East/8CD6pLWv">Middle East</a>, and Iran. With the West, Turkey also aims to keep its arrangements.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:239" href="#fn:239"><sup>239</sup></a> By trading with the east and joining the EU, Turkey pursues economic growth.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:240" href="#fn:240"><sup>240</sup></a> Turkey joined the <a href="/facts/European_Union_Customs_Union/zklwV2Cu">European Union Customs Union</a> in 1995,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:241" href="#fn:241"><sup>241</sup></a> but <a href="/facts/Accession_of_Turkey_to_the_European_Union/IAgL2SNM">its EU accession talks</a> are frozen as of 2024.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:242" href="#fn:242"><sup>242</sup></a> </p><p>Turkey has sought closer relations with the Central Asian Turkic states after the breakup of the Soviet Union.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:243" href="#fn:243"><sup>243</sup></a> Closer <a href="/facts/Azerbaijan%25E2%2580%2593Turkey_relations/vpz74n0k">relations with Azerbaijan</a>, a culturally close country, was achieved.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:244" href="#fn:244"><sup>244</sup></a> Turkey is a founding member of the <a href="/facts/International_Organization_of_Turkic_Culture/Gnm95dhK">International Organization of Turkic Culture</a> and <a href="/facts/Organization_of_Turkic_States/xMl695nL">Organization of Turkic States</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:245" href="#fn:245"><sup>245</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:246" href="#fn:246"><sup>246</sup></a> It is also a member of <a href="/facts/Organization_for_Security_and_Cooperation_in_Europe/Lo5lUrA6">Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe</a>, <a href="/facts/Council_of_Europe/51I3TyDg">Council of Europe</a>, and <a href="/facts/Organisation_of_Islamic_Cooperation/wWSQSzfF">Organisation of Islamic Cooperation</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:247" href="#fn:247"><sup>247</sup></a> </p><p>Following the <a href="/facts/Arab_Spring/IJrjLoll">Arab Spring</a>, Turkey had problems with countries such as United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia, and Egypt.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:248" href="#fn:248"><sup>248</sup></a> Relations with these countries have improved since then.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:249" href="#fn:249"><sup>249</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:250" href="#fn:250"><sup>250</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:251" href="#fn:251"><sup>251</sup></a> There are disputes <a href="/facts/Aegean_dispute/2BpAJYsa">with Greece over maritime boundaries</a> and <a href="/facts/Cyprus%25E2%2580%2593Turkey_maritime_zones_dispute/y7SxaRUo">with Cyprus</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:252" href="#fn:252"><sup>252</sup></a> In 2018, the Turkish military and the Turkish-backed forces began an <a href="/facts/Operation_Olive_Branch/Tbw3k6In">operation in Syria</a> aimed at ousting US-backed <a href="/facts/People%2527s_Protection_Units/UacrAabp">YPG</a> (which Turkey considers to be an offshoot of the outlawed <a href="/facts/PKK/LbQqy4Ft">PKK</a>)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:253" href="#fn:253"><sup>253</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:254" href="#fn:254"><sup>254</sup></a> from the enclave of <a href="/facts/Afrin%2c_Syria/sXsaW9WS">Afrin</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:255" href="#fn:255"><sup>255</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:256" href="#fn:256"><sup>256</sup></a> Turkey has also conducted airstrikes in <a href="/facts/Iraqi_Kurdistan/lY98mhLE">Iraqi Kurdistan</a>, which was criticized by Iraq for violating its sovereignty and killing civilians.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:257" href="#fn:257"><sup>257</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Israel%25E2%2580%2593Turkey_relations/GmJTlknC">Diplomatic relations with Israel</a> were damaged after the <a href="/facts/Gaza_flotilla_raid/2ddFCHpR">Gaza flotilla raid</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:258" href="#fn:258"><sup>258</sup></a> normalized in 2016,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:259" href="#fn:259"><sup>259</sup></a> and cut again following the <a href="/facts/Israeli_invasion_of_the_Gaza_Strip/BRh59Vmb">Israeli invasion of the Gaza Strip</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:260" href="#fn:260"><sup>260</sup></a> In 2024, Turkey stopped trading with Israel.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:261" href="#fn:261"><sup>261</sup></a> </p> <h3>Military</h3> <p class="note">Main article: <a href="/facts/Turkish_Armed_Forces/29nIWTEB">Turkish Armed Forces</a></p> <p class="note">See also: <a href="/facts/Turkish_Land_Forces/wDXEBTy6">Turkish Land Forces</a>, <a href="/facts/Turkish_Naval_Forces/DIbgnefr">Turkish Naval Forces</a>, and <a href="/facts/Turkish_Air_Force/USfxBhyk">Turkish Air Force</a></p> <p>The <a href="/facts/Turkish_Armed_Forces/29nIWTEB">Turkish Armed Forces</a> are responsible for defense against foreign threats. While the Commander-in-Chief is the President, <a href="/facts/General_Staff_of_the_Turkish_Armed_Forces/0IwN4N7X">General Staff</a>, <a href="/facts/Turkish_Air_Force/USfxBhyk">Air Force</a>, <a href="/facts/Turkish_Naval_Forces/DIbgnefr">Naval Force</a>, and <a href="/facts/Turkish_Land_Forces/wDXEBTy6">Land Force</a> usually report to the Minister of National Defence.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:262" href="#fn:262"><sup>262</sup></a> The <a href="/facts/Turkish_Gendarmerie/CYchS8zE">Gendarmerie General Command</a> and the <a href="/facts/Turkish_Coast_Guard/muNptYeR">Coast Guard Command</a> are under the jurisdiction of the <a href="/facts/Ministry_of_the_Interior_(Turkey)/nFuN77Vn">Ministry of the Interior</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:263" href="#fn:263"><sup>263</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Conscription_in_Turkey/gbXgSYqC">Military service is required</a> for 6–12 months for men,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:264" href="#fn:264"><sup>264</sup></a> which is reduced to one month after paying a fee.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:265" href="#fn:265"><sup>265</sup></a> Turkey does not recognize <a href="/facts/Conscientious_objector/ovN3dAja">conscientious objection</a> and does not offer a <a href="/facts/Alternative_civilian_service/94yN5x6K">civilian alternative</a> to military service.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:266" href="#fn:266"><sup>266</sup></a> </p> <p>Turkey has the <a href="/facts/Member_states_of_NATO/fEaDpxcX">second-largest military force</a> in NATO, after the <a href="/facts/United_States_Armed_Forces/NHVsU9Id">United States</a>, with an estimated strength of 890,700 military personnel as of February 2022.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:267" href="#fn:267"><sup>267</sup></a> Turkey is considered a significant power in <a href="/facts/Unmanned_aerial_vehicle/qt87T19t">unmanned aerial vehicles</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:268" href="#fn:268"><sup>268</sup></a> As part of the <a href="/facts/Nuclear_sharing/6FEjIQQ9">nuclear sharing</a> policy of NATO, Turkey hosts approximately 20 United States <a href="/facts/B61_nuclear_bomb/C2YTuKyy">B61 nuclear bombs</a> at the <a href="/facts/Incirlik_Air_Base/ap4dopH3">Incirlik Air Base</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:269" href="#fn:269"><sup>269</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:270" href="#fn:270"><sup>270</sup></a> In recent years, <a href="/facts/Defense_industry_of_Turkey/Td9AA4JL">Turkey’s defense industry</a> has developed rapidly.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:271" href="#fn:271"><sup>271</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Aselsan/7w2n7du0">Aselsan</a>, <a href="/facts/Turkish_Aerospace_Industries/8hx3f3a8">Turkish Aerospace Industries</a>, <a href="/facts/Roketsan/Np1p6kq5">Roketsan</a>, and <a href="/facts/ASFAT/N9uX2aXu">ASFAT</a> are among the top 100 defense companies in the world.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:272" href="#fn:272"><sup>272</sup></a> </p><p>Turkey has participated in international missions under the United Nations and NATO <a href="/facts/Turkish_Brigade/YEpTJbvL">since the Korean War</a>, including <a href="/facts/Peacekeeping/bFrKlQY2">peacekeeping</a> missions in <a href="/facts/United_Nations_Operation_in_Somalia_I/QUrhg75a">Somalia</a>, <a href="/facts/United_Nations_Protection_Force/NKlUsHAu">Yugoslavia</a> and the <a href="/facts/Operation_Ocean_Shield/oYx9xwSs">Horn of Africa</a>. It supported <a href="/facts/Coalition_of_the_Gulf_War/FMh4BxRH">coalition forces</a> in the <a href="/facts/Gulf_War/6LdLnGdo">First Gulf War</a>, contributed military personnel to the <a href="/facts/International_Security_Assistance_Force/ujbozm50">International Security Assistance Force</a> in Afghanistan, and remains active in <a href="/facts/Kosovo_Force/73LYIooD">Kosovo Force</a>, <a href="/facts/Eurocorps/GCkSfbbt">Eurocorps</a> and <a href="/facts/EU_Battlegroup/VGoIw5JB">EU Battlegroups</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:273" href="#fn:273"><sup>273</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:274" href="#fn:274"><sup>274</sup></a> As of 2016, Turkey has assisted <a href="/facts/Peshmerga/r80VNVkl">Peshmerga</a> forces in northern <a href="/facts/Iraq/pqYSFJw8">Iraq</a> and the <a href="/facts/Somali_Armed_Forces/RM1aaYVY">Somali Armed Forces</a> with security and training.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:275" href="#fn:275"><sup>275</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:276" href="#fn:276"><sup>276</sup></a> The Turkish Armed Forces have a relatively substantial military presence abroad,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:277" href="#fn:277"><sup>277</sup></a> with <a href="/facts/List_of_countries_with_overseas_military_bases/e5nwn47z">military bases</a> in <a href="/facts/Pasha_Liman_Base/eI2jyxMR">Albania</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:278" href="#fn:278"><sup>278</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Iraq%25E2%2580%2593Turkey_relations/S0wAqGNX">Iraq</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:279" href="#fn:279"><sup>279</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Qatar%25E2%2580%2593Turkey_relations/3rIDQqfu">Qatar</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:280" href="#fn:280"><sup>280</sup></a> and <a href="/facts/Camp_TURKSOM/NJUHxumV">Somalia</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:281" href="#fn:281"><sup>281</sup></a> The country also maintains a force of <a href="/facts/Turkish_military_forces_in_Northern_Cyprus/H4ckYAt0">36,000 troops</a> in <a href="/facts/Northern_Cyprus/8NvuJlvQ">Northern Cyprus</a> since 1974.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:282" href="#fn:282"><sup>282</sup></a> </p> <h3>Human rights</h3> <p class="note">Main article: <a href="/facts/Human_rights_in_Turkey/MsJf3EUM">Human rights in Turkey</a></p> <p>Article two of the Turkish Constitution includes references to upholding the rule of law and human rights.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:283" href="#fn:283"><sup>283</sup></a> In the 2000s, legal changes were made for public use of and teaching in the Kurdish language. This included opening a <a href="/facts/TRT_Kurd%25C3%25AE/jgAXvBpW">Kurdish-language national TV channel</a>. Various "openings" were made to address concerns of minorities such as <a href="/facts/Alevism/vWRLewNg">Alevi</a>, <a href="/facts/Kurds_in_Turkey/h3UrQcJN">ethnic Kurds</a>, and <a href="/facts/Romani_people_in_Turkey/vsovoRxd">ethnic Romani people</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:284" href="#fn:284"><sup>284</sup></a> Sentences for violence against women were strengthened.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:285" href="#fn:285"><sup>285</sup></a> </p><p>In 2013, <a href="/facts/Gezi_Park_protests/HJk6Kp1Q">widespread protests</a> erupted, sparked by a plan to demolish <a href="/facts/Taksim_Gezi_Park/owfaCd2P">Gezi Park</a> but soon growing into general anti-government dissent.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:286" href="#fn:286"><sup>286</sup></a> On 20 May 2016, the Turkish parliament stripped almost a quarter of its members of immunity from prosecution, including 101 deputies from the pro-Kurdish <a href="/facts/Peoples%2527_Democratic_Party_(Turkey)/eAH3tNjQ">HDP</a> and the main opposition <a href="/facts/Republican_People%2527s_Party/A2wGBefn">CHP</a> party.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:287" href="#fn:287"><sup>287</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:288" href="#fn:288"><sup>288</sup></a> According to the <a href="/facts/Committee_to_Protect_Journalists/rvcL0Ezb">Committee to Protect Journalists</a>, there are 13 jailed journalists in Turkey.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:289" href="#fn:289"><sup>289</sup></a> In its 2023 report, the <a href="/facts/European_Commission/Cc5JgbEI">European Commission</a> criticized how democratic institutions in Turkey operate.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:290" href="#fn:290"><sup>290</sup></a> The criticism was rejected by Turkey.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:291" href="#fn:291"><sup>291</sup></a> As of 2023, Turkey was the country with the highest number of <a href="/facts/European_Court_of_Human_Rights/rKo4SK5m">European Court of Human Rights</a> cases.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:292" href="#fn:292"><sup>292</sup></a> </p> <p>Prior to 1858, Ottoman Empire had "a lenient legal accommodation of same-sex intimacy". When prosecuted, the punishment was monetary fines. In 1858, the 1810 French Penal Code was adopted by the Ottomans, which had no penalties for same-sex intimacy that is private.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:293" href="#fn:293"><sup>293</sup></a> Under the Republic, same sex acts have never been criminalized.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:294" href="#fn:294"><sup>294</sup></a> However, LGBT people in Turkey face discrimination, harassment and even violence.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:295" href="#fn:295"><sup>295</sup></a> In a survey conducted in 2016, 33% of respondents said that LGBT people should have equal rights, which increased to 45% in 2020. Another survey in 2018 found that the proportion of people who would not want a homosexual neighbor decreased from 55% in 2018 to 47% in 2019.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:296" href="#fn:296"><sup>296</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:297" href="#fn:297"><sup>297</sup></a> </p><p>When the annual <a href="/facts/Istanbul_Pride/seEyk1h1">Istanbul Pride</a> was inaugurated in 2003, Turkey became the first Muslim-majority country to hold a gay pride march.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:298" href="#fn:298"><sup>298</sup></a> Since 2015, parades at <a href="/facts/Taksim_Square/LK7Fkvfr">Taksim Square</a> and <a href="/facts/%25C4%25B0stiklal_Avenue/lQAzr7DB">İstiklal Avenue</a> have been denied government permission, citing security concerns, but hundreds of people have defied the ban each year.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:299" href="#fn:299"><sup>299</sup></a> The bans were criticized.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:300" href="#fn:300"><sup>300</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="geography">Geography</h2> <p class="note">Main article: <a href="/facts/Geography_of_Turkey/ldMkYM1S">Geography of Turkey</a></p> <p class="note">See also: <a href="/facts/List_of_national_parks_of_Turkey/5ntp3qDA">List of national parks of Turkey</a></p> <p>Turkey covers an area of 783,562 square kilometres (302,535 square miles).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:301" href="#fn:301"><sup>301</sup></a> With <a href="/facts/Turkish_straits/5pbGTezD">Turkish straits</a> and <a href="/facts/Sea_of_Marmara/2EVtFBHk">Sea of Marmara</a> in between, Turkey bridges <a href="/facts/Western_Asia/xXM15vIz">Western Asia</a> and <a href="/facts/Southeastern_Europe/zxgEvCdQ">Southeastern Europe</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:302" href="#fn:302"><sup>302</sup></a> Turkey's Asian side covers 97% of its surface, and is often called <a href="/facts/Anatolia/vMkrLrPr">Anatolia</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:303" href="#fn:303"><sup>303</sup></a> Another definition of Anatolia's eastern boundary is an imprecise line from the <a href="/facts/Black_Sea/M0rLKvge">Black Sea</a> to <a href="/facts/Gulf_of_Iskenderun/B48pgYLW">Gulf of Iskenderun</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:304" href="#fn:304"><sup>304</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Eastern_Thrace/9tznf4uK">Eastern Thrace</a>, Turkey's European side, includes around 10% of the population and covers 3% of the surface area.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:305" href="#fn:305"><sup>305</sup></a> The country is encircled by seas on three sides: the <a href="/facts/Aegean_Sea/Vx4Gg5CT">Aegean Sea</a> to the west, the Black Sea to the north and the <a href="/facts/Mediterranean_Sea/Vr2pzVbM">Mediterranean Sea</a> to the south.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:306" href="#fn:306"><sup>306</sup></a> Turkey is bordered by Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan and Iran to the east.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:307" href="#fn:307"><sup>307</sup></a> To the south, it's bordered by Syria and Iraq.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:308" href="#fn:308"><sup>308</sup></a> To the north, its Thracian area is bordered by Greece and Bulgaria.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:309" href="#fn:309"><sup>309</sup></a> </p><p>Turkey is divided into "<a href="/facts/Geographical_regions_of_Turkey/NqqGpny5">seven major regions</a>": <a href="/facts/Marmara_Region/A2HmVtuC">Marmara</a>, <a href="/facts/Aegean_Region/tsWKTKPQ">Aegean</a>, <a href="/facts/Central_Anatolia_Region/9dQVayMU">Central Anatolia</a>, <a href="/facts/Black_Sea_Region/glEpUYvp">Black Sea</a>, <a href="/facts/Eastern_Anatolia_Region/yTGF68uT">Eastern Anatolia</a>, <a href="/facts/Southeastern_Anatolia_Region/M2v09jWw">Southeastern Anatolia</a> and the <a href="/facts/Mediterranean_Region%2c_Turkey/WsIDvYMv">Mediterranean</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:310" href="#fn:310"><sup>310</sup></a> As a general trend, the inland <a href="/facts/Anatolian_Plateau/vMkrLrPr">Anatolian Plateau</a> becomes increasingly rugged as it progresses eastward.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:311" href="#fn:311"><sup>311</sup></a> Mountain ranges include <a href="/facts/K%25C3%25B6ro%25C4%259Flu_Mountains/fMs3H7Py">Köroğlu</a> and <a href="/facts/Pontic_Mountains/zeNBez4V">Pontic</a> mountain ranges to the north, and the <a href="/facts/Taurus_Mountains/xsYD0aff">Taurus Mountains</a> to the south. The <a href="/facts/Turkish_Lakes_Region/P3rlXz7A">Lakes Region</a> contains some of the largest lakes in Turkey such as <a href="/facts/Lake_Bey%25C5%259Fehir/c4aNUTP7">Lake Beyşehir</a> and <a href="/facts/Lake_E%25C4%259Firdir/vJ3tDrX9">Lake Eğirdir</a>. </p> <p>Geographers have used the eastern Anatolian plateau, Iranian plateau, and <a href="/facts/Armenian_plateau/ySwNXG0X">Armenian plateau</a> terms to refer to the mountainous area around where <a href="/facts/Arabian_Plate/sMnNpuC3">Arabian</a> and <a href="/facts/Eurasian_Plate/WztRQ8pA">Eurasian</a> tectonic plates merge. The eastern Anatolian plateau and Armenian plateau definitions largely overlap.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:312" href="#fn:312"><sup>312</sup></a> The <a href="/facts/Eastern_Anatolia_Region/yTGF68uT">Eastern Anatolia Region</a> contains <a href="/facts/Mount_Ararat/jershl2B">Mount Ararat</a>, Turkey's highest point at 5,137 metres (16,854 feet),<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:313" href="#fn:313"><sup>313</sup></a> and <a href="/facts/Lake_Van/JK4utXj4">Lake Van</a>, the largest lake in the country.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:314" href="#fn:314"><sup>314</sup></a> Eastern Turkey is home to the sources of rivers such as the <a href="/facts/Euphrates/RbCk68gt">Euphrates</a>, <a href="/facts/Tigris/Rc8Ka6k8">Tigris</a> and <a href="/facts/Aras_River/Cs9jTTlL">Aras</a>. The <a href="/facts/Southeastern_Anatolia_Region/M2v09jWw">Southeastern Anatolia Region</a> includes the northern plains of <a href="/facts/Upper_Mesopotamia/MH8EA0Su">Upper Mesopotamia</a>. </p><p><a href="/facts/List_of_earthquakes_in_Turkey/HKrwoI4x">Earthquakes</a> happen frequently in Turkey.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:315" href="#fn:315"><sup>315</sup></a> Almost the entire population lives in areas with varying seismic risk levels, with around 70% in highest or second-highest seismic areas.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:316" href="#fn:316"><sup>316</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:317" href="#fn:317"><sup>317</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Anatolian_Sub-Plate/GS8gHT4F">Anatolian plate</a> is bordered by <a href="/facts/North_Anatolian_Fault/UdhQ3FsU">North Anatolian Fault</a> zone to the north; <a href="/facts/East_Anatolian_Fault/h1LkbhPj">East Anatolian Fault</a> zone and Bitlis–Zagros collision zone to the east; <a href="/facts/Hellenic_subduction_zone/gfskFkEx">Hellenic</a> and Cyprus subduction zones to the south; and <a href="/facts/Aegean_Sea_Plate/gqp6W8hL">Aegean extensional zone</a> to the west.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:318" href="#fn:318"><sup>318</sup></a> After <a href="/facts/1999_%25C4%25B0zmit_earthquake/9FzLnmjl">1999 İzmit</a> and <a href="/facts/1999_D%25C3%25BCzce_earthquake/zVNbyhhm">1999 Düzce</a> earthquakes, North Anatolian Fault zone activity "is considered to be one of the most dangerous natural hazards in Turkey".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:319" href="#fn:319"><sup>319</sup></a> <a href="/facts/2023_Turkey%25E2%2580%2593Syria_earthquakes/ypCmUXL2">2023 Turkey–Syria earthquakes</a> were the deadliest in contemporary Turkish history.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:320" href="#fn:320"><sup>320</sup></a> Turkey is sometimes unfavorably compared to <a href="/facts/Chile/uEyTfEcx">Chile</a>, a country with a similar <a href="/facts/List_of_countries_by_Human_Development_Index/seg5TkPK">developmental level</a> that is more successful with <a href="/facts/Earthquake_preparedness/nfDw4qgl">earthquake preparedness</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:321" href="#fn:321"><sup>321</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:322" href="#fn:322"><sup>322</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:323" href="#fn:323"><sup>323</sup></a> </p> <h3>Biodiversity</h3> <p class="note">Main articles: <a href="/facts/Wildlife_of_Turkey/8DG3n1fK">Wildlife of Turkey</a>, <a href="/facts/Fauna_of_Turkey/aeKAAEyl">Fauna of Turkey</a>, and <a href="/facts/Flora_and_vegetation_of_Turkey/kN72rwf9">Flora and vegetation of Turkey</a></p> <p class="note">See also: <a href="/facts/Environmental_issues_in_Turkey/Qg1bhD33">Environmental issues in Turkey</a></p> <p>Turkey's position at the crossroads of the land, sea and air routes between the three <a href="/facts/Old_World/jt02swyQ">Old World</a> continents and the variety of the habitats across <a href="/facts/List_of_ecoregions_in_Turkey/xCwbPVmu">its ecoregions</a> have produced considerable species diversity and a vibrant ecosystem.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:324" href="#fn:324"><sup>324</sup></a> Out of the 36 <a href="/facts/Biodiversity_hotspot/rGVdhvvG">biodiversity hotspots</a> in the world, Turkey includes 3 of them.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:325" href="#fn:325"><sup>325</sup></a> These are the <a href="/facts/Mediterranean_Basin/azjFD5mW">Mediterranean</a>, <a href="/facts/Irano-Anatolian/PEILqrnJ">Irano-Anatolian</a>, and <a href="/facts/Caucasus/sE8P8Ejg">Caucasus</a> hotspots.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:326" href="#fn:326"><sup>326</sup></a> </p><p>The <a href="/facts/Forest_in_Turkey/bIHEKw1C">forests of Turkey</a> are home to the <a href="/facts/Quercus_cerris/hvVgPHjq">Turkey oak</a>. The most commonly found species of the genus <a href="/facts/Platanus/7bKQWPHo"><i>Platanus</i> (plane)</a> is the <i><a href="/facts/Platanus_orientalis/R18Uh5IQ">orientalis</a></i>. The <a href="/facts/Pinus_brutia/xv9rIG7Q">Turkish pine (<i>Pinus brutia</i>)</a> is mostly found in Turkey and other east Mediterranean countries. Several wild species of <a href="/facts/Tulip/oq5B0jMb">tulip</a> are native to Anatolia, and the flower was first <a href="/facts/Tulip/oq5B0jMb">introduced to Western Europe</a> with species taken from the Ottoman Empire in the 16th century.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:327" href="#fn:327"><sup>327</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:328" href="#fn:328"><sup>328</sup></a> </p><p>There are <a href="/facts/List_of_national_parks_of_Turkey/5ntp3qDA">40 national parks</a>, 189 nature parks, 31 nature preserve areas, 80 wildlife protection areas and 109 nature monuments in Turkey such as <a href="/facts/Gallipoli_Peninsula_Historical_National_Park/nm9vdlk1">Gallipoli Peninsula Historical National Park</a>, <a href="/facts/Mount_Nemrut_National_Park/8SeBERMu">Mount Nemrut National Park</a>, <a href="/facts/Troy/RYze9Kpu">Ancient Troy National Park</a>, <a href="/facts/%25C3%2596l%25C3%25BCdeniz_Nature_Park/dXn6zj7R">Ölüdeniz Nature Park</a> and <a href="/facts/Polonezk%25C3%25B6y_Nature_Park/ITgERFId">Polonezköy Nature Park</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:329" href="#fn:329"><sup>329</sup></a> The <a href="/facts/Northern_Anatolian_conifer_and_deciduous_forests/lRSYc7ew">Northern Anatolian conifer and deciduous forests</a> is an <a href="/facts/Ecoregion/MbBgAph9">ecoregion</a> which covers most of the Pontic Mountains in northern Turkey, while the <a href="/facts/Caucasus_mixed_forests/YFXzLs89">Caucasus mixed forests</a> extend across the eastern end of the range. The region is home to Eurasian wildlife such as the <a href="/facts/Eurasian_sparrowhawk/n8k040f2">Eurasian sparrowhawk</a>, <a href="/facts/Golden_eagle/MrasUBNd">golden eagle</a>, <a href="/facts/Eastern_imperial_eagle/UXQPMJyq">eastern imperial eagle</a>, <a href="/facts/Lesser_spotted_eagle/L9bLwrPw">lesser spotted eagle</a>, <a href="/facts/Caucasian_black_grouse/fhpoPvT1">Caucasian black grouse</a>, <a href="/facts/Red-fronted_serin/fVbsyrBG">red-fronted serin</a>, and <a href="/facts/Wallcreeper/QIPQtVCH">wallcreeper</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:330" href="#fn:330"><sup>330</sup></a> </p><p>The <a href="/facts/Panthera_pardus_tulliana/St05wts2">Anatolian leopard</a> is still found in very small numbers in the northeastern and southeastern regions of Turkey.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:331" href="#fn:331"><sup>331</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:332" href="#fn:332"><sup>332</sup></a> The <a href="/facts/Eurasian_lynx/nYcoLMHH">Eurasian lynx</a>, the <a href="/facts/European_wildcat/b577EyKH">European wildcat</a> and the <a href="/facts/Caracal/sn0m6vV8">caracal</a> are other <a href="/facts/Felidae/Fryfw7gm">felid</a> species which are found in the forests of Turkey. The <a href="/facts/Caspian_tiger/guXb68XJ">Caspian tiger</a>, now extinct, lived in the easternmost regions of Turkey until the latter half of the 20th century.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:333" href="#fn:333"><sup>333</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:334" href="#fn:334"><sup>334</sup></a> Renowned domestic animals from Ankara include the <a href="/facts/Turkish_Angora/g2Mel1BE">Angora cat</a>, <a href="/facts/Angora_rabbit/GboQda8L">Angora rabbit</a> and <a href="/facts/Angora_goat/4y43UDyk">Angora goat</a>; and from <a href="/facts/Van_Province/uLGbfnDT">Van Province</a> the <a href="/facts/Turkish_Van/Mo0nl6wC">Van cat</a>. The national dog breeds are the <a href="/facts/Kangal_Shepherd_Dog/ceRo8NQ0">Kangal</a> (<a href="/facts/Anatolian_Shepherd/ceRo8NQ0">Anatolian Shepherd</a>), <a href="/facts/Aksaray_Malaklisi/kHaaeC3G">Malaklı</a> and <a href="/facts/Akbash/cujnu7Yu">Akbaş</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:335" href="#fn:335"><sup>335</sup></a> </p> <h3>Climate</h3> <p class="note">Main article: <a href="/facts/Climate_of_Turkey/rnCsK7dy">Climate of Turkey</a></p> <p class="note">See also: <a href="/facts/Climate_change_in_Turkey/LdIvkuQk">Climate change in Turkey</a></p> <p>The coastal areas of Turkey bordering the Aegean and Mediterranean Seas have a <a href="/facts/Temperate/6WPypCzC">temperate</a> <a href="/facts/Mediterranean_climate/gGsJAKE5">Mediterranean climate</a>, with hot, dry summers and mild to cool, wet winters.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:336" href="#fn:336"><sup>336</sup></a> The coastal areas bordering the Black Sea have a temperate <a href="/facts/Oceanic_climate/xUD1y78o">oceanic climate</a> with warm, wet summers and cool to cold, wet winters.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:337" href="#fn:337"><sup>337</sup></a> The Turkish Black Sea coast receives the most precipitation and is the only region of Turkey that receives high precipitation throughout the year.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:338" href="#fn:338"><sup>338</sup></a> The eastern part of the Black Sea coast averages 2,200 millimetres (87 in) annually which is the highest precipitation in the country.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:339" href="#fn:339"><sup>339</sup></a> The coastal areas bordering the Sea of Marmara, which connects the Aegean Sea and the Black Sea, have a transitional climate between a temperate Mediterranean climate and a temperate oceanic climate with warm to hot, moderately dry summers and cool to cold, wet winters.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:340" href="#fn:340"><sup>340</sup></a> </p> <p>Snow falls on the coastal areas of the Sea of Marmara and the Black Sea almost every winter but usually melts in no more than a few days.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:341" href="#fn:341"><sup>341</sup></a> However, snow is rare in the coastal areas of the Aegean Sea and very rare in the coastal areas of the Mediterranean Sea.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:342" href="#fn:342"><sup>342</sup></a> Winters on the Anatolian plateau are especially severe. Temperatures of −30 to −40 °C (−22 to −40 °F) do occur in northeastern Anatolia, and snow may lie on the ground for at least 120 days of the year, and during the entire year on the summits of the highest mountains. In central Anatolia the temperatures can drop below −20 °C (−4 °F) with the mountains being even colder. Mountains close to the coast prevent Mediterranean influences from extending inland, giving the central Anatolian Plateau a <a href="/facts/Continental_climate/Yn5Erc8Y">continental climate</a> with sharply contrasting seasons.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:343" href="#fn:343"><sup>343</sup></a> </p><p>Due to socioeconomic, climatic, and geographic factors, Turkey is highly <a href="/facts/Climate_change_vulnerability/Rg2g1RvL">vulnerable to climate change</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:344" href="#fn:344"><sup>344</sup></a> This applies to nine out of ten climate vulnerability dimensions, such as "average annual risk to wellbeing".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:345" href="#fn:345"><sup>345</sup></a> <a href="/facts/OECD/CI9W2zGv">OECD</a> median is two out of ten.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:346" href="#fn:346"><sup>346</sup></a> Inclusive and swift growth is needed for decreasing vulnerability.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:347" href="#fn:347"><sup>347</sup></a> Turkey aims to achieve <a href="/facts/Net_zero_emissions/RQn7yNdI">net zero emissions</a> by 2053.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:348" href="#fn:348"><sup>348</sup></a> Accomplishing climate goals would require large investments, but would also result in net economic benefits, broadly due to reduced imports of fuel and due to better health from lowering air pollution.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:349" href="#fn:349"><sup>349</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="economy">Economy</h2> <p class="note">Main article: <a href="/facts/Economy_of_Turkey/GwsvVoao">Economy of Turkey</a></p> <p class="note">See also: <a href="/facts/Tourism_in_Turkey/vg1bpy1n">Tourism in Turkey</a></p> <p>Turkey is an <a href="/facts/Gross_national_income/KeJVJcR5">upper-middle</a>-income country and an <a href="/facts/Emerging_market/DAdHmQnE">emerging market</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:350" href="#fn:350"><sup>350</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:351" href="#fn:351"><sup>351</sup></a> A founding member of the <a href="/facts/OECD/CI9W2zGv">OECD</a> and <a href="/facts/G20/pFut6kJQ">G20</a>, it has the <a href="/facts/List_of_countries_by_GDP_(nominal)/k3Lf3RIL">16th-largest economy by nominal</a> and <a href="/facts/List_of_countries_by_GDP_(PPP)/fDw3Ibeo">12th-largest</a> by <a href="/facts/Purchasing_power_parity/qpRMGaXG">PPP</a>-adjusted GDP in the world.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:352" href="#fn:352"><sup>352</sup></a> It is classified among <a href="/facts/Newly_industrialized_countries/FoGN9n5F">newly industrialized countries</a>. The <a href="/facts/Service_sector/IbtKqotL">service sector</a> accounts for 61% of the economy, whereas industry accounts for 32% and agriculture contributes about 7%.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:353" href="#fn:353"><sup>353</sup></a> According to <a href="/facts/International_Monetary_Fund/tPSTWWS4">IMF</a> estimates, Turkey's GDP per capita by PPP is $42,451 in 2025, while its nominal GDP per capita is $16,709.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:354" href="#fn:354"><sup>354</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Foreign_direct_investment/6FC93H4n">Foreign direct investment</a> in Turkey peaked at $22.05 billion in 2007 and dropped to $13.09 billion in 2022.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:355" href="#fn:355"><sup>355</sup></a> Potential growth is weakened by long-lasting structural and macro obstacles, such as slow rates of productivity growth and high inflation.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:356" href="#fn:356"><sup>356</sup></a> </p><p>Turkey has a diversified economy; main industries include automobiles, electronics, textiles, construction, steel, mining, and food processing.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:357" href="#fn:357"><sup>357</sup></a> Machinery and manufacturing lead among products in Turkey's merchandise exports.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:358" href="#fn:358"><sup>358</sup></a> Turkey is a <a href="/facts/List_of_largest_producing_countries_of_agricultural_commodities/Ktztd5bP">major agricultural producer</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:359" href="#fn:359"><sup>359</sup></a> It ranks <a href="/facts/List_of_countries_by_steel_production/8Mv08ykW">8th in crude steel production</a>, and <a href="/facts/List_of_countries_by_motor_vehicle_production/g3VKNpDs">13th in motor vehicle production</a>, ship building (by <a href="/facts/Tonnage/Nhp4wSQ4">tonnage</a>), and annual industrial robot installation in the world.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:360" href="#fn:360"><sup>360</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Automotive_industry_in_Turkey/VNlCWkzV">Turkish automative companies</a> include <a href="/facts/TEMSA/blufW1Ky">TEMSA</a>, <a href="/facts/Otokar/VEW0CelR">Otokar</a>, <a href="/facts/BMC_(Turkey)/ucRd4vSC">BMC</a> and <a href="/facts/Togg/TkYzTtML">Togg</a>. Togg is the first all-electric vehicle company of Turkey. <a href="/facts/Ar%25C3%25A7elik/rzRtX2Nd">Arçelik</a>, <a href="/facts/Vestel/12EArHep">Vestel</a>, and <a href="/facts/Beko/GdcYqNkF">Beko</a> are major manufacturers of consumer electronics.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:361" href="#fn:361"><sup>361</sup></a> Arçelik is one of the largest producers of household goods in the world.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:362" href="#fn:362"><sup>362</sup></a> In 2022, Turkey ranked second in the world in terms of the number of international contractors in the top 250 list.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:363" href="#fn:363"><sup>363</sup></a> It is also the fifth largest in the world in terms of textile exports.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:364" href="#fn:364"><sup>364</sup></a> </p> <p>Turkey's services exports are mostly transport and tourism.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:365" href="#fn:365"><sup>365</sup></a> Tourism accounts for about 8% of Turkey's GDP.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:366" href="#fn:366"><sup>366</sup></a> In 2024, Turkey <a href="/facts/World_Tourism_rankings/WHLW8GqP">ranked fourth in the world</a> in the number of international tourist arrivals with 60.6 million foreign tourists.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:367" href="#fn:367"><sup>367</sup></a> Turkey has <a href="/facts/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_Turkey/H5THaEl0">21 UNESCO World Heritage Sites</a> and <a href="/facts/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_Turkey_(Tentative_list)/8d81cW01">84 World Heritage Sites in tentative list</a>. Turkey is home to 519 <a href="/facts/Blue_Flag_beaches/GX0FHjoc">Blue Flag beaches</a>, third most in the world.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:368" href="#fn:368"><sup>368</sup></a> In 2024, <a href="/facts/Euromonitor_International/4S9xYaKX">Euromonitor International</a> ranked <a href="/facts/Istanbul/Xo1hzGWH">Istanbul</a> and <a href="/facts/Antalya/pVSkzcaY">Antalya</a> among <a href="/facts/List_of_cities_by_international_visitors/Npea9Urd">the top ten most visited cities in the world</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:369" href="#fn:369"><sup>369</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Turkish_Airlines/Qm68uKbz">Turkish Airlines</a> is one of the <a href="/facts/Largest_airlines_in_the_world/uQhIzC7Y">largest airlines in the world</a>. </p><p>Between 2007 and 2021, the share of population below the PPP-$6.85 per day <a href="/facts/Poverty_threshold/VdgLbwUk">international poverty threshold</a> declined from 20% to 7.6%.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:370" href="#fn:370"><sup>370</sup></a> In 2023, 13.9% of the population was below the national at-risk-of-poverty rate.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:371" href="#fn:371"><sup>371</sup></a> In 2021, 34% of the population were at risk of poverty or social exclusion, using <a href="/facts/Eurostat/HsejrVkK">Eurostat</a> definition.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:372" href="#fn:372"><sup>372</sup></a> Unemployment in Turkey was 10.4% in 2022.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:373" href="#fn:373"><sup>373</sup></a> In 2021, it was estimated that 47% of total disposable income was received by the top 20% of income earners, while the lowest 20% received only 6%.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:374" href="#fn:374"><sup>374</sup></a> Compared to the OECD average, <a href="/facts/Labor_force_participation/qGzDQbWt">labor force participation</a> of women is lower. Affordable <a href="/facts/Childcare/ILBlaVb0">childcare</a> and better <a href="/facts/Parental_leave/DIns43dB">parental leave</a> policies are needed to lift women's employment.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:375" href="#fn:375"><sup>375</sup></a> </p> <h3>Infrastructure</h3> <p class="note">Main articles: <a href="/facts/Energy_in_Turkey/mgXhhe1L">Energy in Turkey</a>, <a href="/facts/Renewable_energy_in_Turkey/Q0UBqNHz">Renewable energy in Turkey</a>, and <a href="/facts/Transport_in_Turkey/vctKVRsL">Transport in Turkey</a></p> <p class="note">See also: <a href="/facts/Communications_in_Turkey/g5vUImHM">Communications in Turkey</a> and <a href="/facts/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Turkey/kSoTUAzY">Water supply and sanitation in Turkey</a></p> <p>Turkey is the <a href="/facts/List_of_countries_by_electricity_production/4TVnQd21">15th-largest electricity</a> and <a href="/facts/List_of_countries_by_renewable_electricity_production/vfCKoG5v">13th-largest renewable electricity</a> producer in the world. <a href="/facts/Energy_in_Turkey/mgXhhe1L">Turkey's energy generation</a> capacity increased significantly, with <a href="/facts/Renewable_energy_in_Turkey/Q0UBqNHz">electricity generation from renewable sources</a> tripling in the past decade.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:376" href="#fn:376"><sup>376</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:377" href="#fn:377"><sup>377</sup></a> It produced 43.8% of <a href="/facts/Electricity_sector_in_Turkey/BSnUdXGe">its electricity</a> from such sources in 2019.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:378" href="#fn:378"><sup>378</sup></a> Turkey is also the <a href="/facts/Geothermal_power/1zdrqHdU">fourth-largest producer</a> of <a href="/facts/Geothermal_energy_in_Turkey/GJduFGmk">geothermal power</a> in the world.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:379" href="#fn:379"><sup>379</sup></a> Turkey's first nuclear power station, <a href="/facts/Akkuyu_Nuclear_Power_Plant/eS5zLNXS">Akkuyu</a>, will increase diversification of its energy mix.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:380" href="#fn:380"><sup>380</sup></a> When it comes to <a href="/facts/World_energy_supply_and_consumption/Yujj9NrF">total final consumption</a>, fossil fuels still play a large role, accounting for 73%.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:381" href="#fn:381"><sup>381</sup></a> A major reason of <a href="/facts/Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_Turkey/m2sKRXQP">Turkey's greenhouse gas emissions</a> is the <a href="/facts/Coal_in_Turkey/TRyGb7m9">large proportion of coal</a> in the energy system.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:382" href="#fn:382"><sup>382</sup></a> As of 2017, while the government had invested in low carbon energy transition, <a href="/facts/Fossil_fuel_subsidies/jyMTx22l">fossil fuels were still subsidized</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:383" href="#fn:383"><sup>383</sup></a> By 2053, Turkey aims to have <a href="/facts/Net_zero_emissions/RQn7yNdI">net zero emissions</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:384" href="#fn:384"><sup>384</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:385" href="#fn:385"><sup>385</sup></a> </p> <p>Turkey has made security of its energy supply a top priority, given its heavy reliance on gas and oil imports.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:386" href="#fn:386"><sup>386</sup></a> Turkey's main energy supply sources are <a href="/facts/Energy_in_Russia/PFlsPj7U">Russia</a>, West Asia, and Central Asia.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:387" href="#fn:387"><sup>387</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Gas_in_Turkey/KwhAt7fE">Gas production</a> began in 2023 in the recently discovered <a href="/facts/Sakarya_gas_field/HGYsVBe8">Sakarya gas field</a>. When fully operational, it will supply about 30% of the natural gas needed domestically.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:388" href="#fn:388"><sup>388</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:389" href="#fn:389"><sup>389</sup></a> Turkey aims to become a hub for regional energy transportation.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:390" href="#fn:390"><sup>390</sup></a> Several oil and gas pipelines span the country, including the <a href="/facts/Blue_Stream/QK6FnB2l">Blue Stream</a>, <a href="/facts/TurkStream/SBg4z2lM">TurkStream</a>, and <a href="/facts/Baku%25E2%2580%2593Tbilisi%25E2%2580%2593Ceyhan_pipeline/kM367zsS">Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan</a> pipelines.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:391" href="#fn:391"><sup>391</sup></a> </p><p>As of 2023, Turkey has 3,726 kilometers of <a href="/facts/Otoyol/yIoHI3Cy">controlled-access highways</a> and 29,373 kilometers of <a href="/facts/Dual_carriageway/EvfvIXY6">divided highways</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:392" href="#fn:392"><sup>392</sup></a> Multiple bridges and tunnels connect Asian and European sides of Turkey; the <a href="/facts/%25C3%2587anakkale_1915_Bridge/6KUyteHh">Çanakkale 1915 Bridge</a> on the <a href="/facts/Dardanelles/rxUhLwvj">Dardanelles</a> strait is the <a href="/facts/List_of_longest_suspension_bridge_spans/Dvu1yTED">longest suspension bridge in the world</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:393" href="#fn:393"><sup>393</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Marmaray/rXclLt48">Marmaray</a> and <a href="/facts/Eurasia_Tunnel/HnM3a1sN">Eurasia</a> tunnels under the <a href="/facts/Bosporus/3Id0Pfum">Bosporus</a> connect both sides of Istanbul.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:394" href="#fn:394"><sup>394</sup></a> The <a href="/facts/Osman_Gazi_Bridge/jMuBgkvu">Osman Gazi Bridge</a> connects the northern and southern shores of the <a href="/facts/Gulf_of_%25C4%25B0zmit/5Q0uhemP">Gulf of İzmit</a>. </p><p><a href="/facts/Turkish_State_Railways/6rIw8QrD">Turkish State Railways</a> operates both conventional and high speed trains, with the government expanding both.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:395" href="#fn:395"><sup>395</sup></a> <a href="/facts/High-speed_rail_in_Turkey/W8dhMUVd">High-speed rail</a> lines include the <a href="/facts/Ankara-Istanbul_high-speed_railway/0gQXdAPo">Ankara-Istanbul</a>, <a href="/facts/Ankara-Konya_high-speed_railway/SAl6khAA">Ankara-Konya</a>, and <a href="/facts/Ankara%25E2%2580%2593Sivas_high-speed_railway/KCqkTyPP">Ankara-Sivas</a> routes.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:396" href="#fn:396"><sup>396</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Istanbul_Metro/3Gl2G8r3">Istanbul Metro</a> is the largest subway network in the country with around 704 million annual ridership in 2019.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:397" href="#fn:397"><sup>397</sup></a> There are <a href="/facts/List_of_airports_in_Turkey/85MA3Wp1">115 airports</a> as of 2024.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:398" href="#fn:398"><sup>398</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Istanbul_Airport/l0XJGvgg">Istanbul Airport</a> is one of the <a href="/facts/List_of_busiest_airports_by_passenger_traffic/RC2ySbmH">top 10 busiest airports</a> in the world. Turkey aims to become a transportation hub.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:399" href="#fn:399"><sup>399</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:400" href="#fn:400"><sup>400</sup></a> It is part of various routes that connect Asia and Europe, including <a href="/facts/Trans-Caspian_International_Transport_Route/1wpn8KIE">the Middle Corridor</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:401" href="#fn:401"><sup>401</sup></a> In 2024, Turkey, Iraq, UAE, and Qatar signed an agreement to link Iraqi port facilities to Turkey via road and rail connections.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:402" href="#fn:402"><sup>402</sup></a> </p> <h3>Science and technology</h3> <p class="note">Main article: <a href="/facts/Science_and_technology_in_Turkey/6VlAWbug">Science and technology in Turkey</a></p> <p class="note">See also: <a href="/facts/Scientific_and_Technological_Research_Council_of_Turkey/J3FzNdv5">Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey</a></p> <p>Turkey's spending on <a href="/facts/Research_and_development/2h5UddUu">research and development</a> as a share of GDP has risen from 0.47% in 2000 to 1.40% in 2023,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:403" href="#fn:403"><sup>403</sup></a> although it is still around half of the average for the OECD.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:404" href="#fn:404"><sup>404</sup></a> <a href="/facts/List_of_countries_by_number_of_scientific_and_technical_journal_articles/K35W08hT">Turkey ranks 16th in the world</a> in terms of article output in scientific and technical journals, and 35th in <a href="/facts/Nature_Index/HCAnyVGM">Nature Index</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:405" href="#fn:405"><sup>405</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:406" href="#fn:406"><sup>406</sup></a> Turkish patent office ranks 21st worldwide in overall patent applications, and 3rd in industrial design applications. Vast majority of applicants to the Turkish patent office are Turkish residents. In all patent offices globally, <a href="/facts/World_Intellectual_Property_Indicators/htbtur3v">Turkish residents rank 21st for overall patent applications</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:407" href="#fn:407"><sup>407</sup></a> In 2024, Turkey ranked 37th in the world and 3rd among its upper-middle income group in the <a href="/facts/Global_Innovation_Index/mIqcsoF4">Global Innovation Index</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:408" href="#fn:408"><sup>408</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Istanbul/Xo1hzGWH">Istanbul</a> and <a href="/facts/Ankara/llGIJ0vj">Ankara</a> rank among the top 100 science and technology clusters in the world.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:409" href="#fn:409"><sup>409</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Scientific_and_Technological_Research_Council_of_Turkey/J3FzNdv5">TÜBİTAK</a> is one of the main agencies for funding and carrying out research.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:410" href="#fn:410"><sup>410</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:411" href="#fn:411"><sup>411</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:412" href="#fn:412"><sup>412</sup></a> </p><p>Although Turkey needs more national innovation,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:413" href="#fn:413"><sup>413</sup></a> it is improving in areas such as high technology and defense.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:414" href="#fn:414"><sup>414</sup></a> To boost the output of high-<a href="/facts/Value-added/TCDUk1bH">value-added</a> products, Turkey launched its National Technology Initiative in 2019.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:415" href="#fn:415"><sup>415</sup></a> In line with its research priorities, Turkey developed roadmaps in various areas such as <a href="/facts/Materials_science/N5HrXRYW">advanced materials</a>, <a href="/facts/Artificial_intelligence/lJGauQwX">artificial intelligence</a>, <a href="/facts/Biotechnology/8eFnI6FB">biotechnology</a>, <a href="/facts/Internet_of_things/rwwGAxn3">internet of things</a>, <a href="/facts/Nanoelectronics/6wRdmMCB">nanoelectronics</a>, <a href="/facts/Robotics/wkmvodJz">robotics</a>, and <a href="/facts/Quantum_technology/cp14mdhq">quantum technology</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:416" href="#fn:416"><sup>416</sup></a> Some of the main science and technology programs include the National Research Program, Industry and Technology Strategy, Climate Change Strategy, National Artificial Intelligence Strategy, and <a href="/facts/Space_program_of_Turkey/xloyMPCP">National Space Program</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:417" href="#fn:417"><sup>417</sup></a> In 2024 and 2025, Turkey's first <a href="/facts/Particle_accelerator/Pkuc08xC">electron accelerator</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:418" href="#fn:418"><sup>418</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Quantum_computing/nbbcgmvq">quantum computer</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:419" href="#fn:419"><sup>419</sup></a> and <a href="/facts/T%25C3%25BCrksat_6A/emAUyr5N">communication satellite manufactured domestically</a> became operational.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:420" href="#fn:420"><sup>420</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="demographics">Demographics</h2> <p class="note">Main article: <a href="/facts/Demographics_of_Turkey/BTEN9Pbx">Demographics of Turkey</a></p> <p class="note">See also: <a href="/facts/Turkish_people/3Rg0k6vU">Turkish people</a></p> <p>According to the <i>Address-Based Population Recording System</i>, the country's population was 85,372,377 in 2023, excluding Syrians under temporary protection.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:421" href="#fn:421"><sup>421</sup></a> 93% lived in <a href="/facts/Urban_area/fu9v8h5P">province and district centers</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:422" href="#fn:422"><sup>422</sup></a> People within the 15–64 and 0–14 age groups corresponded to 68.3% and 21.4% of the total population, respectively. Those aged 65 years or older made up 10.2%.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:423" href="#fn:423"><sup>423</sup></a> Between 1950 and 2020, Turkey's population more than quadrupled from 20.9 million to 83.6 million;<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:424" href="#fn:424"><sup>424</sup></a> however, the population growth rate was 0.1% in 2023.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:425" href="#fn:425"><sup>425</sup></a> In 2023, the <a href="/facts/Total_fertility_rate/ugganzwn">total fertility rate</a> was 1.51 children per woman, <a href="/facts/Sub-replacement_fertility/AG7SSeDT">below the replacement rate of 2.10 per woman</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:426" href="#fn:426"><sup>426</sup></a> In a 2018 health survey, the ideal children number was 2.8 children per woman, rising to 3 per married woman.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:427" href="#fn:427"><sup>427</sup></a> </p> <h3>Ethnicity and language</h3> <p class="note">See also: <a href="/facts/Turkish_people/3Rg0k6vU">Turkish people</a>, <a href="/facts/Minorities_in_Turkey/AofyXqjK">Minorities in Turkey</a>, <a href="/facts/Languages_of_Turkey/AeoV2dxd">Languages of Turkey</a>, and <a href="/facts/Turkish_language/C5X56Ijp">Turkish language</a></p> <p>Article 66 of the <a href="/facts/Turkish_Constitution/278cuUPM">Turkish Constitution</a> defines a <i>Turk</i> as anyone who is a citizen.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:428" href="#fn:428"><sup>428</sup></a> It is estimated that there are at least 47 ethnic groups represented in Turkey.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:429" href="#fn:429"><sup>429</sup></a> Reliable data on the ethnic mix of the population is not available because census figures do not include statistics on ethnicity after the <a href="/facts/1965_Turkish_census/plhPCJNC">1965 Turkish census</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:430" href="#fn:430"><sup>430</sup></a> According to <a href="/facts/The_World_Factbook/q4qMpEQh">the World Factbook</a>, 70–75% of the country's citizens are ethnic Turks.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:431" href="#fn:431"><sup>431</sup></a> Based on a survey, <a href="/facts/KONDA_Research_and_Consultancy/CYXnFUd0">KONDA</a>'s estimation was 76% in 2006, with 78% of adult citizens self-identifying their ethnic background as <i>Turk</i>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:432" href="#fn:432"><sup>432</sup></a> In 2021, 77% of adult citizens identified as such in a survey.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:433" href="#fn:433"><sup>433</sup></a> </p><p><a href="/facts/Kurds_in_Turkey/h3UrQcJN">Kurds</a> are the largest ethnic minority.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:434" href="#fn:434"><sup>434</sup></a> Their exact numbers remain disputed,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:435" href="#fn:435"><sup>435</sup></a> with estimates ranging from 12 to 20% of the population.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:436" href="#fn:436"><sup>436</sup></a> The Kurds make up a majority in the provinces of <a href="/facts/A%25C4%259Fr%25C4%25B1_Province/cL0uwsPN">Ağrı</a>, <a href="/facts/Batman_Province/DhFxzbdW">Batman</a>, <a href="/facts/Bing%25C3%25B6l_Province/pe2nspV2">Bingöl</a>, <a href="/facts/Bitlis_Province/1hVcJBw3">Bitlis</a>, <a href="/facts/Diyarbak%25C4%25B1r_Province/pcQjAucJ">Diyarbakır</a>, <a href="/facts/Hakkari_Province/vSDPwkzx">Hakkari</a>, <a href="/facts/I%25C4%259Fd%25C4%25B1r_Province/SeRYlYds">Iğdır</a>, <a href="/facts/Mardin_Province/2kev8y7g">Mardin</a>, <a href="/facts/Mu%25C5%259F_Province/7FEt9djs">Muş</a>, <a href="/facts/Siirt_Province/U5FPHp4e">Siirt</a>, <a href="/facts/%25C5%259E%25C4%25B1rnak_Province/RxGcDQDk">Şırnak</a>, <a href="/facts/Tunceli_Province/hghBa0Fk">Tunceli</a> and <a href="/facts/Van_Province/uLGbfnDT">Van</a>; a near majority in <a href="/facts/%25C5%259Eanl%25C4%25B1urfa_Province/wRSyv8TP">Şanlıurfa</a> (47%); and a large minority in <a href="/facts/Kars_Province/Xmv5dJqA">Kars</a> (20%).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:437" href="#fn:437"><sup>437</sup></a> In addition, internal migration has resulted in <a href="/facts/Kurdish_diaspora/xHJWV267">Kurdish diaspora</a> communities in all of the major cities in central and western Turkey. In Istanbul, there are an estimated three million Kurds, making it the city with the largest Kurdish population in the world.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:438" href="#fn:438"><sup>438</sup></a> 19% of adult citizens identified as ethnic Kurds in a survey in 2021.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:439" href="#fn:439"><sup>439</sup></a> Some people have multiple ethnic identities, such as both Turk and Kurd.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:440" href="#fn:440"><sup>440</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:441" href="#fn:441"><sup>441</sup></a> In 2006, an estimated 2.7 million ethnic Turks and Kurds were related from interethnic marriages.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:442" href="#fn:442"><sup>442</sup></a> </p> <p>According to the World Factbook, non-Kurdish ethnic minorities are 7–12% of the population.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:443" href="#fn:443"><sup>443</sup></a> In 2006, KONDA estimated that non-Kurdish and non-Zaza ethnic minorities constituted 8.2% of the population; these were people who gave general descriptions such as Turkish citizen, people with <a href="/facts/Turkic_people/ocd7rpI3">other Turkic backgrounds</a>, <a href="/facts/Arabs_in_Turkey/haw9oA9j">Arabs</a>, and others.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:444" href="#fn:444"><sup>444</sup></a> In 2021, 4% of adult citizens identified as non-ethnic Turk or non-ethnic Kurd in a survey.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:445" href="#fn:445"><sup>445</sup></a> According to the Constitutional Court, there are only four officially recognized <a href="/facts/Minorities_in_Turkey/AofyXqjK">minorities in Turkey</a>: the three non-Muslim minorities recognized in the <a href="/facts/Treaty_of_Lausanne/u3edX8Q9">Treaty of Lausanne</a> (<a href="/facts/Armenians_in_Turkey/1wdQUKMD">Armenians</a>, <a href="/facts/Greeks_in_Turkey/uP3f44eM">Greeks</a>, and <a href="/facts/Jews_in_Turkey/kd6dWFpR">Jews</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:446" href="#fn:446"><sup>446</sup></a>) and the <a href="/facts/Bulgarians_in_Turkey/WMud0GUp">Bulgarians</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:447" href="#fn:447"><sup>447</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:448" href="#fn:448"><sup>448</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:449" href="#fn:449"><sup>449</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:450" href="#fn:450"><sup>450</sup></a> In 2013, the Ankara 13th Circuit Administrative Court ruled that the minority provisions of the Lausanne Treaty should also apply to <a href="/facts/Assyrians_in_Turkey/RNEzcnLn">Assyrians in Turkey</a> and the <a href="/facts/Syriac_language/mLhEtdSW">Syriac language</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:451" href="#fn:451"><sup>451</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:452" href="#fn:452"><sup>452</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:453" href="#fn:453"><sup>453</sup></a> Other unrecognized ethnic groups include <a href="/facts/Albanians_in_Turkey/rHIdWoBa">Albanians</a>, <a href="/facts/Bosniaks_in_Turkey/ClMRLfhJ">Bosniaks</a>, <a href="/facts/Circassians_in_Turkey/HGycDlV0">Circassians</a>, <a href="/facts/Georgians_in_Turkey/PNxsgkbh">Georgians</a>, <a href="/facts/Laz_people/W89IbrS3">Laz</a>, <a href="/facts/Pomaks/AABAewCA">Pomaks</a>, and <a href="/facts/Romani_people/HAj6w0kU">Roma</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:454" href="#fn:454"><sup>454</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:455" href="#fn:455"><sup>455</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:456" href="#fn:456"><sup>456</sup></a> </p><p>The <a href="/facts/Official_language/yCH2URym">official language</a> is <a href="/facts/Turkish_language/C5X56Ijp">Turkish</a>, which is the most widely spoken <a href="/facts/Turkic_languages/RXqsmfgh">Turkic language</a> in the world.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:457" href="#fn:457"><sup>457</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:458" href="#fn:458"><sup>458</sup></a> It is spoken by 85%<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:459" href="#fn:459"><sup>459</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:460" href="#fn:460"><sup>460</sup></a> to 90%<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:461" href="#fn:461"><sup>461</sup></a> of the population as a <a href="/facts/First_language/1yK3tnLb">first language</a>. Kurdish speakers are the largest linguistic minority.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:462" href="#fn:462"><sup>462</sup></a> A survey estimated 13% of the population speak Kurdish or Zaza as a first language.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:463" href="#fn:463"><sup>463</sup></a> Other minority languages include Arabic, <a href="/facts/Languages_of_the_Caucasus/GXBJ449t">Caucasian languages</a>, and <a href="/facts/Gagauz_language/sjAx9TD1">Gagauz</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:464" href="#fn:464"><sup>464</sup></a> The <a href="/facts/Linguistic_rights/XglcEWeK">linguistic rights</a> of the officially recognized minorities are <i>de jure</i> recognized and protected for <a href="/facts/Armenian_language/tELuE2wG">Armenian</a>, <a href="/facts/Bulgarian_language/susG15pr">Bulgarian</a>, <a href="/facts/Greek_language/pzDd6eIz">Greek</a>, <a href="/facts/Hebrew_language/hqKCSy9d">Hebrew</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:465" href="#fn:465"><sup>465</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:466" href="#fn:466"><sup>466</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:467" href="#fn:467"><sup>467</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:468" href="#fn:468"><sup>468</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:469" href="#fn:469"><sup>469</sup></a> and <a href="/facts/Syriac_language/mLhEtdSW">Syriac</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:470" href="#fn:470"><sup>470</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:471" href="#fn:471"><sup>471</sup></a> There are multiple <a href="/facts/List_of_endangered_languages_in_Asia/8UFgBQJo">endangered languages in Turkey</a>. </p> <table><tbody><tr><th colspan="10"> <ul><li>v</li><li>t</li><li>e</li></ul> Largest cities or towns in Turkey<a href="/facts/Turkish_Statistical_Institute/QQJEmp1p">TÜİK</a>'s address-based calculation from 31 December 2023 published on 7 February 2024.</th></tr><tr><th><a href="/facts/List_of_cities_in_Turkey_by_population/6dWwp6cA">Rank</a></th><th><a href="/facts/List_of_cities_in_Turkey/6dWwp6cA">Name</a></th><th><a href="/facts/List_of_cities_in_Turkey_by_population/6dWwp6cA">Pop.</a></th><th><a href="/facts/List_of_cities_in_Turkey_by_population/6dWwp6cA">Rank</a></th><th><a href="/facts/List_of_cities_in_Turkey/6dWwp6cA">Name</a></th><th><a href="/facts/List_of_cities_in_Turkey_by_population/6dWwp6cA">Pop.</a></th></tr><tr><td>1</td><td><a href="/facts/Istanbul/Xo1hzGWH">Istanbul</a></td><td>15,655,924</td><td>11</td><td><a href="/facts/Mersin/tR6AvN0z">Mersin</a></td><td>1,938,389</td></tr><tr><td>2</td><td><a href="/facts/Ankara/llGIJ0vj">Ankara</a></td><td>5,803,482</td><td>12</td><td><a href="/facts/Diyarbak%25C4%25B1r/kHqcXpPe">Diyarbakır</a></td><td>1,818,133</td></tr><tr><td>3</td><td><a href="/facts/%25C4%25B0zmir/CUkMRT28">İzmir</a></td><td>4,479,525</td><td>13</td><td><a href="/facts/Hatay/2pwzAr46">Hatay</a></td><td>1,544,640</td></tr><tr><td>4</td><td><a href="/facts/Bursa/oXpCUeNy">Bursa</a></td><td>3,214,571</td><td>14</td><td><a href="/facts/Manisa/nQCMFVBd">Manisa</a></td><td>1,475,716</td></tr><tr><td>5</td><td><a href="/facts/Antalya/pVSkzcaY">Antalya</a></td><td>2,696,249</td><td>15</td><td><a href="/facts/Kayseri/MxJCXkyy">Kayseri</a></td><td>1,445,683</td></tr><tr><td>6</td><td><a href="/facts/Konya/zsLtHPPE">Konya</a></td><td>2,320,241</td><td>16</td><td><a href="/facts/Samsun/LpdfQeQA">Samsun</a></td><td>1,377,546</td></tr><tr><td>7</td><td><a href="/facts/Adana/eHbqr771">Adana</a></td><td>2,270,298</td><td>17</td><td><a href="/facts/Bal%25C4%25B1kesir/3J7SChaQ">Balıkesir</a></td><td>1,273,519</td></tr><tr><td>8</td><td><a href="/facts/%25C5%259Eanl%25C4%25B1urfa/fsawBYpt">Şanlıurfa</a></td><td>2,213,964</td><td>18</td><td><a href="/facts/Tekirda%25C4%259F/nvLFgphz">Tekirdağ</a></td><td>1,167,059</td></tr><tr><td>9</td><td><a href="/facts/Gaziantep/yeXM5DJL">Gaziantep</a></td><td>2,164,134</td><td>19</td><td><a href="/facts/Ayd%25C4%25B1n/RcoJvXzW">Aydın</a></td><td>1,161,702</td></tr><tr><td>10</td><td><a href="/facts/Kocaeli_Province/WVA4U4sb">Kocaeli</a></td><td>2,102,907</td><td>20</td><td><a href="/facts/Van%2c_Turkey/uM5P9blQ">Van</a></td><td>1,127,612</td></tr></tbody></table> <h3>Immigration</h3> <p class="note">Main article: <a href="/facts/Immigration_to_Turkey/3NajyuCz">Immigration to Turkey</a></p> <p>Excluding Syrians under temporary protection, there were 1,570,543 foreign citizens in Turkey in 2023.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:472" href="#fn:472"><sup>472</sup></a> Millions of Kurds fled across the mountains to Turkey and the Kurdish areas of Iran during the <a href="/facts/Gulf_War/6LdLnGdo">Gulf War</a> in 1991. <a href="/facts/Turkey%2527s_migrant_crisis/wnaP8C6k">Turkey's migrant crisis</a> in the 2010s and early 2020s resulted in the influx of millions of refugees and immigrants.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:473" href="#fn:473"><sup>473</sup></a> Turkey hosts the largest number of refugees in the world as of April 2020.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:474" href="#fn:474"><sup>474</sup></a> The <a href="/facts/Disaster_and_Emergency_Management_Presidency/XufR6aK6">Disaster and Emergency Management Presidency</a> manages the refugee crisis in Turkey. Before the start of the <a href="/facts/Syrian_civil_war/UD2gymjC">Syrian civil war</a> in 2011, the estimated number of <a href="/facts/Arabs_in_Turkey/haw9oA9j">Arabs in Turkey</a> varied from 1 million to more than 2 million.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:475" href="#fn:475"><sup>475</sup></a> </p><p>In November 2020, there were 3.6 million <a href="/facts/Refugees_of_the_Syrian_civil_war_in_Turkey/8bNqezLo">Syrian refugees</a> in Turkey;<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:476" href="#fn:476"><sup>476</sup></a> these included other <a href="/facts/Ethnic_groups_of_Syria/pp0Mlw1U">ethnic groups of Syria</a>, such as <a href="/facts/Syrian_Kurds/qVCETwjh">Syrian Kurds</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:477" href="#fn:477"><sup>477</sup></a> and <a href="/facts/Syrian_Turkmen/U3d4nzuh">Syrian Turkmens</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:478" href="#fn:478"><sup>478</sup></a> As of August 2023, the number of these refugees was estimated to be 3.3 million. The number of Syrians had decreased by about 200,000 people since the beginning of the year.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:479" href="#fn:479"><sup>479</sup></a> The government has granted citizenship to 238 thousand Syrians by November 2023.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:480" href="#fn:480"><sup>480</sup></a> As of May 2023, approximately 96,000 Ukrainian <a href="/facts/Ukrainian_refugee_crisis_(2022%25E2%2580%2593present)/9dWAVw8R">refugees of the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine</a> have sought refuge in Turkey.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:481" href="#fn:481"><sup>481</sup></a> In 2022, nearly 100,000 Russian citizens migrated to Turkey, becoming the first in the list of foreigners who moved to Turkey, meaning an increase of more than 218% from 2021.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:482" href="#fn:482"><sup>482</sup></a> </p> <h3>Religion</h3> <p class="note">Main article: <a href="/facts/Religion_in_Turkey/MmGMMc2H">Religion in Turkey</a></p> <p>Turkey is a <a href="/facts/Secular_state/bG5ltTju">secular state</a> with no official <a href="/facts/State_religion/K7E28FLL">state religion</a>; the constitution provides for <a href="/facts/Freedom_of_religion/ERtoqLEE">freedom of religion</a> and <a href="/facts/Freedom_of_conscience/3fUStDu9">conscience</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:483" href="#fn:483"><sup>483</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:484" href="#fn:484"><sup>484</sup></a> According to the <a href="/facts/CIA_World_Factbook/q4qMpEQh">CIA World Factbook</a>, Muslims constitute 99.8% of the population, most of them being <a href="/facts/Sunni_Islam/WYo0zeq0">Sunni</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:485" href="#fn:485"><sup>485</sup></a> Based on a survey, <a href="/facts/KONDA_Research_and_Consultancy/CYXnFUd0">KONDA</a>'s estimate for Muslims was 99.4% in 2006.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:486" href="#fn:486"><sup>486</sup></a> According to <a href="/facts/Minority_Rights_Group_International/tbRMAEjf">Minority Rights Group International</a>, estimates of share of <a href="/facts/Alevi/vWRLewNg">Alevi</a> are between 10% and 40% of the population.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:487" href="#fn:487"><sup>487</sup></a> KONDA's estimate was 5% in 2006.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:488" href="#fn:488"><sup>488</sup></a> 4% of adult citizens identified as Alevi in a survey in 2021, while 88% identified as Sunni.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:489" href="#fn:489"><sup>489</sup></a> </p><p>The percentage of non-Muslims in modern-day Turkey was 19.1% in 1914, but fell to 2.5% in 1927.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:490" href="#fn:490"><sup>490</sup></a> Currently, non-Muslims constitute 0.2% of the population according to the World Factbook.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:491" href="#fn:491"><sup>491</sup></a> In 2006, KONDA's estimate was that 0.18% of the population adhered to non-Islamic religions.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:492" href="#fn:492"><sup>492</sup></a> Some of the non-Muslim communities are Armenians, <a href="/facts/Assyrians_in_Turkey/RNEzcnLn">Assyrians</a>, Bulgarian Orthodox, <a href="/facts/Catholic_Church_in_Turkey/DYUbd8Hf">Catholics</a>, <a href="/facts/Eastern_Orthodoxy_in_Turkey/bpCfboft">Greeks</a>, Jews, and <a href="/facts/Protestantism_in_Turkey/StGBurbM">Protestants</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:493" href="#fn:493"><sup>493</sup></a> Sources estimate that the <a href="/facts/Christianity_in_Turkey/T0sTlwgc">Christian population in Turkey</a> ranges between 180,000 and 320,000.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:494" href="#fn:494"><sup>494</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:495" href="#fn:495"><sup>495</sup></a> Turkey has <a href="/facts/Jewish_population_by_country/pjjK3KRd">the largest Jewish community</a> among the Muslim-majority countries.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:496" href="#fn:496"><sup>496</sup></a> Currently, there are 439 churches and synagogues in Turkey.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:497" href="#fn:497"><sup>497</sup></a> </p><p>In 2006, KONDA estimated that 0.47% of the population had no religion.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:498" href="#fn:498"><sup>498</sup></a> According to KONDA, the share of adult citizens who identified as nonbelievers increased from 2% in 2011 to 6% in 2021.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:499" href="#fn:499"><sup>499</sup></a> A 2020 Gezici Araştırma poll found that 28.5% of the <a href="/facts/Generation_Z/sNRdPTJ9">Generation Z</a> <a href="/facts/Irreligion_in_Turkey/WJCAvVEz">identified as irreligious</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:500" href="#fn:500"><sup>500</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:501" href="#fn:501"><sup>501</sup></a> </p> <h3>Education</h3> <p class="note">Main article: <a href="/facts/Education_in_Turkey/mwgkz2XX">Education in Turkey</a></p> <p>In the past 20 years, Turkey has improved quality of education and has made significant progress in increasing education access.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:502" href="#fn:502"><sup>502</sup></a> From 2011 to 2021, improvements in education access include significant rise in the rates of <a href="/facts/Secondary_education/Cpsxkx3v">upper secondary</a> and <a href="/facts/Tertiary_education/WMN5RpeC">tertiary education</a> completion, and quadrupling of pre-school institutions.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:503" href="#fn:503"><sup>503</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Programme_for_International_Student_Assessment/KG9RF5hR">PISA</a> results suggest improvements in education quality.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:504" href="#fn:504"><sup>504</sup></a> There is still a gap with OECD countries. Significant challenges include differences in student outcomes from different schools, differences between rural and urban areas, pre-primary education access, and arrival of students who are Syrian refugees.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:505" href="#fn:505"><sup>505</sup></a> </p><p>The <a href="/facts/Ministry_of_National_Education_(Turkey)/weLHf0G5">Ministry of National Education</a> is responsible for pre-tertiary education.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:506" href="#fn:506"><sup>506</sup></a> Compulsory education is free at public schools and lasts 12 years, divided into three parts.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:507" href="#fn:507"><sup>507</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:508" href="#fn:508"><sup>508</sup></a> There are 208 <a href="/facts/List_of_universities_in_Turkey/JL5cG0w6">universities in Turkey</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:509" href="#fn:509"><sup>509</sup></a> Students are placed to universities based on their <a href="/facts/Student_Selection_and_Placement_System/Mfxsf8xe">YKS</a> results and their preferences, by the <a href="/facts/Measuring%2c_Selection_and_Placement_Center/BBkSQdFc">Measuring, Selection and Placement Center</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:510" href="#fn:510"><sup>510</sup></a> All state and private universities are under the control of the <a href="/facts/Council_of_Higher_Education_(Turkey)/JsR0UDpW">Higher Education Board</a>. Since 2016, the president of Turkey directly appoints all rectors of all state and private universities.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:511" href="#fn:511"><sup>511</sup></a> </p><p>According to the 2024 <a href="/facts/Times_Higher_Education_World_University_Rankings/Fg5wftPL">Times Higher Education ranking</a>, the top universities were <a href="/facts/Ko%25C3%25A7_University/VqjmuN22">Koç University</a>, <a href="/facts/Middle_East_Technical_University/60TLQ0cL">Middle East Technical University</a>, <a href="/facts/Sabanc%25C4%25B1_University/jyfKVkQ8">Sabancı University</a>, and <a href="/facts/Istanbul_Technical_University/xnT5QSEl">Istanbul Technical University</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:512" href="#fn:512"><sup>512</sup></a> According to <a href="/facts/Academic_Ranking_of_World_Universities/Bko6kc5H">Academic Ranking of World Universities</a>, the top ones were <a href="/facts/Istanbul_University/PYxBcdNz">Istanbul University</a>, <a href="/facts/University_of_Health_Sciences_(Turkey)/cebjeaND">University of Health Sciences (Turkey)</a>, and <a href="/facts/Hacettepe_University/nFRrv8ap">Hacettepe University</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:513" href="#fn:513"><sup>513</sup></a> For foreign students, Turkey has become a regional hub,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:514" href="#fn:514"><sup>514</sup></a> with a large number of international students<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:515" href="#fn:515"><sup>515</sup></a> and <a href="/facts/T%25C3%25BCrkiye_Scholarships/ecDex0af">international scholarships</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:516" href="#fn:516"><sup>516</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:517" href="#fn:517"><sup>517</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:518" href="#fn:518"><sup>518</sup></a> </p> <h3>Health</h3> <p class="note">Main article: <a href="/facts/Health_care_in_Turkey/43PBNL7l">Health care in Turkey</a></p> <p>The <a href="/facts/Ministry_of_Health_(Turkey)/0tAvklzN">Ministry of Health</a> has run a universal public healthcare system since 2003.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:519" href="#fn:519"><sup>519</sup></a> Known as Universal Health Insurance (<i>Genel Sağlık Sigortası</i>), it is funded by a tax surcharge on employers, currently at 5%.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:520" href="#fn:520"><sup>520</sup></a> Public-sector funding covers approximately 75.2% of health expenditures.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:521" href="#fn:521"><sup>521</sup></a> Despite the universal health care, total expenditure on health as a share of GDP in 2018 was the lowest among OECD countries at 6.3% of GDP, compared to the OECD average of 9.3%.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:522" href="#fn:522"><sup>522</sup></a> There are many private hospitals in the country.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:523" href="#fn:523"><sup>523</sup></a> The government planned several hospital complexes, known as city hospitals, to be constructed since 2013.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:524" href="#fn:524"><sup>524</sup></a> Turkey is one of the top 10 destinations for <a href="/facts/Medical_tourism/YbJ28TqJ">health tourism</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:525" href="#fn:525"><sup>525</sup></a> </p><p>Average life expectancy is 78.6 years (75.9 for males and 81.3 for females), compared with the EU average of 81 years.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:526" href="#fn:526"><sup>526</sup></a> Turkey has high rates of <a href="/facts/Obesity/RBF9y5Vl">obesity</a>, with 29.5% of its adult population having a <a href="/facts/Body_mass_index/UX4YrUTx">body mass index</a> (BMI) value of 30 or above.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:527" href="#fn:527"><sup>527</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Air_pollution_in_Turkey/R4JkJmxV">Air pollution is a major cause</a> of early death.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:528" href="#fn:528"><sup>528</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="culture">Culture</h2> <p class="note">Main article: <a href="/facts/Culture_of_Turkey/xaSXEWmC">Culture of Turkey</a></p> <p class="note">See also: <a href="/facts/Arts_in_Turkey/SjknWPwV">Arts in Turkey</a>, <a href="/facts/Turkish_folklore/FSqdGvA8">Turkish folklore</a>, and <a href="/facts/Festivals_in_Turkey/m5s5cIJr">Festivals in Turkey</a></p> <p>In the 19th century, Turkish identity was debated in the <a href="/facts/Ottoman_Empire/6QvfTRsg">Ottoman Empire</a>, with three main views: Turkism, Islamism and Westernism.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:529" href="#fn:529"><sup>529</sup></a> In addition to Europe or Islam, Turkish culture was also influenced by Anatolia's native cultures.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:530" href="#fn:530"><sup>530</sup></a> After the establishment of the republic, <a href="/facts/Kemalism/MmEBhpWB">Kemalism</a> emphasized Turkish culture, attempted to make "Islam a matter of personal conviction", and pursued modernization.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:531" href="#fn:531"><sup>531</sup></a> Currently, Turkey has various local cultures. Things such as music, <a href="/facts/Turkish_folk_dance/MkbCB2xn">folk dance</a>, or <a href="/facts/Kebab/JYE6lamW">kebap</a> variety may be used to identify a local area. Turkey also has a national culture, such as national sports leagues, music bands, film stars, and trends in fashion.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:532" href="#fn:532"><sup>532</sup></a> Turkey is home to <a href="/facts/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_Turkey/H5THaEl0">21 UNESCO World Heritage</a> sites and <a href="/facts/Intangible_cultural_heritage/3bXsRUoc">31 UNESCO intangible cultural heritage</a> inscriptions.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:533" href="#fn:533"><sup>533</sup></a> </p> <h3>Literature, theatre, and visual arts</h3> <p class="note">Main articles: <a href="/facts/Turkish_literature/SN1d65fv">Turkish literature</a>, <a href="/facts/Theatre_of_Turkey/KrfIvvwL">Theatre of Turkey</a>, and <a href="/facts/Turkish_art/SjknWPwV">Turkish art</a></p> <p><a href="/facts/Turkish_literature/SN1d65fv">Turkish literature</a> goes back more than a thousand years. The Seljuk and Ottoman periods include numerous works of literature and poetry. Turkic tales and poetry from Central Asia were also kept alive. <a href="/facts/Book_of_Dede_Korkut/8AomjGt3">Tales of Dede Korkut</a> is an example of the <a href="/facts/Oral_storytelling/cmzsXXu5">oral narrative</a> tradition. <a href="/facts/D%25C4%25ABw%25C4%2581n_Lugh%25C4%2581t_al-Turk/r8QNvhl0">Dīwān Lughāt al-Turk</a>, from the 11th century, contains Turkish linguistic information and poetry. <a href="/facts/Yunus_Emre/0LcLxrhm">Yunus Emre</a>, influenced by <a href="/facts/Rumi/GmDR4NXX">Rumi</a>, was one of the most important writers of Anatolian Turkish poetry. Ottoman <a href="/facts/Diwan_(poetry)/XEgUqhHq">Divan</a> poetry used "refined diction" and complex vocabulary. It included <a href="/facts/Sufism/NFcCu5gP">Sufi mysticism</a>, romanticism, and formal elements.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:534" href="#fn:534"><sup>534</sup></a> </p><p>Beginning in the 19th century, Ottoman literature was influenced by the West. New genres, such as novels and journalistic style, were introduced. <i><a href="/facts/A%25C5%259Fk-%25C4%25B1_Memnu_(novel)/grrxzDXc">Aşk-ı Memnu</a></i>, written by <a href="/facts/Halid_Ziya_U%25C5%259Fakl%25C4%25B1gil/Uys99JMp">Halid Ziya Uşaklıgil</a>, was the "first truly refined Turkish novel". <a href="/facts/Fatma_Aliye_Topuz/CmtW4jM4">Fatma Aliye Topuz</a>, the first female Turkish novelist, wrote fiction. After the proclamation of the republic in 1923, <a href="/facts/Atat%25C3%25BCrk%2527s_reforms/kR518f4R">Atatürk instituted reforms</a> such as the <a href="/facts/Turkish_language_reform/C5X56Ijp">language reform</a> and <a href="/facts/Turkish_alphabet_reform/Skpn0bkK">alphabet reform</a>. Since then, Turkish literature reflected the socioeconomic conditions in Turkey with increasing variety. "Village Novel" genre appeared in the mid-1950s, which talked about difficulties faced from poverty.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:535" href="#fn:535"><sup>535</sup></a> An example is <a href="/facts/Memed%2c_My_Hawk/GzVxftWa">Memed, My Hawk</a> by <a href="/facts/Ya%25C5%259Far_Kemal/N3NoBzh7">Yaşar Kemal</a>, which was <a href="/facts/1973_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature/bhtzvgI7">Turkey's first Nobel Prize in Literature nominee in 1973</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:536" href="#fn:536"><sup>536</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:537" href="#fn:537"><sup>537</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Orhan_Pamuk/4HVX8wpX">Orhan Pamuk</a> won the <a href="/facts/2006_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature/UAKA8wQS">2006 Nobel Prize in Literature</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:538" href="#fn:538"><sup>538</sup></a> </p><p>Turkey has four "major theatrical traditions": "folk theatre, popular theatre, court theater, and Western theater." Turkish folk theatre goes back thousands of years and has survived among rural communities. Popular theatre includes plays by live actors, puppet and <a href="/facts/Shadow_play/TgVURARw">shadow</a> plays, and <a href="/facts/Meddah/rXxf0VPY">storytelling performances</a>. An example for shadow play is <i><a href="/facts/Karag%25C3%25B6z_and_Hacivat/mK3qeE1m">Karagöz and Hacivat</a></i>. Court theatre was the refined version of popular theatre. Beginning in the 19th century, Western theatre tradition started appearing in Turkey. Following the establishment of Turkish Republic, a state conservatory and the State Theatre Company were formed.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:539" href="#fn:539"><sup>539</sup></a> </p><p>Turkey's visual arts scene can be categorized into two, as "decorative" and "fine" arts. Fine arts, or <i>güzel sanatlar</i>, includes sculpture and <a href="/facts/History_of_Modern_Turkish_painting/Md4BTkze">painting</a>. Turkish artists in these areas have gained global recognition. Photography, fashion design, graphic arts, and graphic design are some of the other areas Turkish artists are known for in the world. The inaugural contemporary Turkish art sale by <a href="/facts/Sotheby%2527s/M6QBSU7x">Sotheby's London</a> was in 2009. <a href="/facts/Istanbul_Modern/F0DpHRs9">Istanbul Modern</a> and the <a href="/facts/Istanbul_Biennial/0R7o92Jl">Istanbul Biennial</a> are examples of art galleries or exhibitions of contemporary Turkish art. Turkey has also seen a resurgence of traditional arts. This includes Ottoman-era traditional arts, such as <a href="/facts/Iznik_pottery/gHT0mYHs">ceramics</a> and <a href="/facts/Anatolian_rug/TwW7tqf5">carpets</a>. Textile and carpet design, glass and ceramics, <a href="/facts/Islamic_calligraphy/GacvVLlz">calligraphy</a>, <a href="/facts/Paper_marbling/67VIm8PE">paper marbling (ebru)</a> are some of the art forms for which modern-day Turkish artists are recognized as leaders in the Islamic world.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:540" href="#fn:540"><sup>540</sup></a> </p> <h3>Music and dance</h3> <p class="note">Main articles: <a href="/facts/Turkish_folk_dance/MkbCB2xn">Turkish folk dance</a> and <a href="/facts/Music_of_Turkey/xATzxSQj">Music of Turkey</a></p> <p>Although classifying genres of Turkish music can be problematic, three broad categories can be considered. These are "<a href="/facts/Turkish_folk_music/YhrpwXNI">Turkish folk music</a>", "<a href="/facts/Turkish_art_music/qj7l36Lc">Turkish art music</a>", and multiple popular music styles. These Popular music styles include <a href="/facts/Arabesque_(Turkish_music)/lxy6yx9W">arabesque</a>, pop, and <a href="/facts/Anatolian_rock/bCd5W680">Anatolian rock</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:541" href="#fn:541"><sup>541</sup></a> </p><p>The resurging popularity of pop music gave rise to several international Turkish pop stars such as <a href="/facts/Ajda_Pekkan/xb19EHQ5">Ajda Pekkan</a>, <a href="/facts/Sezen_Aksu/qfo4uT2m">Sezen Aksu</a>, <a href="/facts/Erol_Evgin/oFIjYsG5">Erol Evgin</a>, <a href="/facts/MF%25C3%2596/X9oEuEvh">MFÖ</a>, <a href="/facts/Tarkan_(singer)/XLCnB0Fm">Tarkan</a>, <a href="/facts/Sertab_Erener/ahSw4Br9">Sertab Erener</a>, <a href="/facts/Teoman_(singer)/arb1dday">Teoman</a>, <a href="/facts/Kenan_Do%25C4%259Fulu/5SdJH8Do">Kenan Doğulu</a>, <a href="/facts/Levent_Y%25C3%25BCksel/k7kkJu86">Levent Yüksel</a> and <a href="/facts/Hande_Yener/9cJx1uTu">Hande Yener</a>. Internationally acclaimed Turkish <a href="/facts/Jazz/lmUzXGq8">jazz</a> and <a href="/facts/Blues/f2WSr9QQ">blues</a> musicians and composers include <a href="/facts/Ahmet_Ertegun/wNLpsQKn">Ahmet Ertegun</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:542" href="#fn:542"><sup>542</sup></a> </p> <h3>Architecture</h3> <p class="note">Main article: <a href="/facts/Architecture_of_Turkey/jLrnkHDl">Architecture of Turkey</a></p> <p class="note">See also: <a href="/facts/Ottoman_architecture/oXdyCPTC">Ottoman architecture</a></p> <p>Turkey is home to numerous <a href="/facts/Neolithic/wRS0Bnh4">Neolithic</a> settlements, such as <a href="/facts/%25C3%2587atalh%25C3%25B6y%25C3%25BCk/IGF4CjTc">Çatalhöyük</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:543" href="#fn:543"><sup>543</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:544" href="#fn:544"><sup>544</sup></a> From the <a href="/facts/Bronze_Age/c09qWcTt">Bronze Age</a>, important architectural remnants include <a href="/facts/Alaca_H%25C3%25B6y%25C3%25BCk/E285CJ4m">Alaca Höyük</a> and the <a href="/facts/Troy/RYze9Kpu">2nd layer of Troy</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:545" href="#fn:545"><sup>545</sup></a> There are various examples of <a href="/facts/Ancient_Greek_architecture/2vTuKmR4">Ancient Greek</a> and <a href="/facts/Ancient_Roman_architecture/1wtv6yFU">Ancient Roman</a> architectures, especially in the Aegean region.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:546" href="#fn:546"><sup>546</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Byzantine_architecture/MMgGByGp">Byzantine architecture</a> dates back to the 4th century AD. Its best example is <a href="/facts/Hagia_Sophia/HFNJSgux">Hagia Sophia</a>. Byzantine architectural style continued to develop after the <a href="/facts/Fall_of_Constantinople/JwpayQqv">conquest of Istanbul</a>, such as <a href="/facts/Neo-Byzantine_architecture/CgNjGfqE">Byzantine Revival architecture</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:547" href="#fn:547"><sup>547</sup></a> During <a href="/facts/Sultanate_of_Rum/FxM7T3tz">Seljuk Sultanate of Rum</a> and <a href="/facts/Anatolian_beyliks/IPwH9JE0">Turkish principalities</a> period, a distinct architecture emerged, which incorporated Byzantine and <a href="/facts/Armenian_architecture/BKn4ehhY">Armenian</a> architectures with architectural styles found in <a href="/facts/West_Asia/xXM15vIz">West Asia</a> and <a href="/facts/Central_Asia/rB8k0CyT">Central Asia</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:548" href="#fn:548"><sup>548</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Anatolian_Seljuk_architecture/Qw9KnMbP">Seljuk architecture</a> often used stones and bricks, and produced numerous <a href="/facts/Caravanserai/mwSkATtE">caravanserais</a>, <a href="/facts/Madrasa/zrCBh8dM">madrasas</a> and <a href="/facts/Mausoleum/LMhcom0y">mausoleums</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:549" href="#fn:549"><sup>549</sup></a> </p><p><a href="/facts/Ottoman_architecture/oXdyCPTC">Ottoman architecture</a> emerged in northwest Anatolia and Thrace. <a href="/facts/Early_Ottoman_architecture/vq1AH6nf">Early Ottoman architecture</a> mixed "traditional Anatolian Islamic architecture with local building materials and techniques".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:550" href="#fn:550"><sup>550</sup></a> Following the conquest of Istanbul, <a href="/facts/Classical_Ottoman_architecture/7FA2Wkjb">classical Ottoman architecture</a> emerged in the 16th and 17th centuries.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:551" href="#fn:551"><sup>551</sup></a> The most important architect of the classical period is <a href="/facts/Mimar_Sinan/GKE47cLM">Mimar Sinan</a>, whose major works include the <a href="/facts/%25C5%259Eehzade_Mosque/sGnhzUj0">Şehzade Mosque</a>, <a href="/facts/S%25C3%25BCleymaniye_Mosque/5PDjBMAI">Süleymaniye Mosque</a>, and <a href="/facts/Selimiye_Mosque%2c_Edirne/rluwlMBu">Selimiye Mosque</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:552" href="#fn:552"><sup>552</sup></a> Beginning in the 18th century, Ottoman architecture was influenced by European elements, resulting in development of <a href="/facts/Ottoman_Baroque_architecture/j3WBJ3Kg">Ottoman baroque style</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:553" href="#fn:553"><sup>553</sup></a> European influence continued in the 19th century; examples include works of <a href="/facts/Balyan_family/10SzB3h9">Balyan family</a> such as <a href="/facts/Baroque_Revival_architecture/a1SCbsk2">neo-Baroque</a> style <a href="/facts/Dolmabah%25C3%25A7e_Palace/m9C18EJ7">Dolmabahçe Palace</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:554" href="#fn:554"><sup>554</sup></a> The last period of Ottoman architecture consists of the <a href="/facts/First_National_Architectural_Movement/wRhbUv0x">First National Architectural Movement</a>, including works of <a href="/facts/Vedat_Tek/qnrUbDvL">Vedat Tek</a> and <a href="/facts/Mimar_Kemaleddin/XFGYarvW">Mimar Kemaleddin</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:555" href="#fn:555"><sup>555</sup></a> </p><p>Since 1918, Turkish architecture can be divided into three parts. From 1918 to 1950, the first one includes the First National Architectural Movement period, which transitioned into <a href="/facts/Modern_architecture/T3F1gFrv">modernist architecture</a>. Modernist and monumental buildings were preferred for public buildings, whereas "Turkish house" type <a href="/facts/Vernacular_architecture/LvFs1x8W">vernacular architecture</a> influenced private houses. From 1950 to 1980, the second part includes urbanization, modernization, and internationalization. For residential housing, "reinforced concrete, slab-block, medium-rise apartments" became prevalent. Since 1980, the third part is defined by consumer habits and international trends, such as shopping malls and office towers. Luxury residences with "Turkish house style" have been in demand.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:556" href="#fn:556"><sup>556</sup></a> In the 21st century, <a href="/facts/Urban_renewal/xAKjesVQ">urban renewal</a> projects have become a trend.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:557" href="#fn:557"><sup>557</sup></a> Resilience against natural disasters such as earthquakes is one of the main goals for urban renewal projects.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:558" href="#fn:558"><sup>558</sup></a> Around one-third of Turkey's building stock, corresponding to 6.7 million units, were assessed risky and needing urban renewal.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:559" href="#fn:559"><sup>559</sup></a> </p> <h3>Cuisine</h3> <p class="note">Main article: <a href="/facts/Turkish_cuisine/nMRDtnv9">Turkish cuisine</a></p> <p class="note">See also: <a href="/facts/Ottoman_cuisine/FuS9ElCH">Ottoman cuisine</a></p> <p>Turkey has a diverse and rich cuisine, varying geographically.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:560" href="#fn:560"><sup>560</sup></a> Turkish cuisine has been influenced by Anatolian, <a href="/facts/Mediterranean_cuisine/qb3VtqEy">Mediterranean</a>, <a href="/facts/Iranian_cuisine/SlEpbT4z">Iranian</a>, <a href="/facts/Central_Asian_cuisine/N1HRg7rw">Central Asian</a>, and <a href="/facts/Asian_cuisine/nt24x1yR">East Asian</a> cuisines.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:561" href="#fn:561"><sup>561</sup></a> Turkish and Ottoman cuisine have also influenced others. <a href="/facts/D%25C4%25ABw%25C4%2581n_Lugh%25C4%2581t_al-Turk/r8QNvhl0">Dīwān Lughāt al-Turk</a>, from the 11th century, documents "the ancient lineage of much of present-day Turkish cuisine".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:562" href="#fn:562"><sup>562</sup></a> <a href="/facts/G%25C3%25BCve%25C3%25A7/kJolIBwx">Güveç</a>, <a href="/facts/Bulgur/Xza6I8oK">Bulgur</a>, and <a href="/facts/B%25C3%25B6rek/ofylEpWC">Börek</a> are some of the earliest recorded examples of Turkish cuisine. Even though <a href="/facts/Kebab/JYE6lamW">kebab</a> as a word comes from <a href="/facts/Persian_language/jfUYbHbt">Persian</a>, Turkic people had been familiar with using skewers to cook meat. Turkish cuisine can be distinguished by its various kinds of kebabs. Similarly, <a href="/facts/Pilaf/JwIm7Q5V">pilaf</a> dishes were influenced by Turkish cuisine. Further information about cuisine during the Seljuk and Ottoman periods comes from the works of <a href="/facts/Rumi/GmDR4NXX">Rumi</a> and <a href="/facts/Evliya_%25C3%2587elebi/QUUyKc6Y">Evliya Çelebi</a>. The latter describes "food-related guilds of Istanbul".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:563" href="#fn:563"><sup>563</sup></a> </p><p>Food staples in Turkey include <a href="/facts/Bread/Sr4Ucgfq">bread</a> and <a href="/facts/Yogurt/JoQjepa7">yogurt</a>. Some of bread varieties are <a href="/facts/Lavash/E5z6NdJd">lavash</a> and <i>pide</i> (a type of <a href="/facts/Pita/bPFfBnlr">pita</a> bread). <a href="/facts/Ayran/UgLgIpzm">Ayran</a> is a drink made of yoghurt. In western parts of Turkey, <a href="/facts/Olive_oil/ae1Qnt2I">olive oil</a> is used. Grains include wheat, maize, barley, oats, and millet. Beans, chickpeas, nuts, aubergines, and lamb are some of the commonly used ingredients.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:564" href="#fn:564"><sup>564</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Doner_kebab/HoNkeyB6">Doner kebab</a>, originally from Turkey, is marinated lamb slices cooked vertically.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:565" href="#fn:565"><sup>565</sup></a> Seafood includes <a href="/facts/Anchovy/b1HycvUw">anchovy</a> and others. <a href="/facts/Dolma/61PYbvEK">Dolma</a> varieties and <i><a href="/facts/Manti_(food)/p7GIma58">mantı</a></i> are made by stuffing vegetables or pasta.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:566" href="#fn:566"><sup>566</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Sarma_(food)/C1BwPuQH">Sarma</a> is made by rolling edible leaf over the filling.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:567" href="#fn:567"><sup>567</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Yahni/bRxA4YRk">Yahni</a> dishes are vegetable stews.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:568" href="#fn:568"><sup>568</sup></a> Turkey is one of the countries with the <a href="/facts/Meze/ok0y2kLA">meze</a> tradition.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:569" href="#fn:569"><sup>569</sup></a> Honey, <a href="/facts/Pekmez/SoyRfJHV">pekmez</a>, dried fruit, or fruit are used for sweetening.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:570" href="#fn:570"><sup>570</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Filo/c8qUSdmh">Filo</a> is an originally Turkish <a href="/facts/Dough/Ckx1tzXo">dough</a> that is used to make <a href="/facts/Baklava/J43SzFAC">baklava</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:571" href="#fn:571"><sup>571</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Turkish_delight/fJQBFoIq">Turkish delight</a> is a "delicate but gummy jelly".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:572" href="#fn:572"><sup>572</sup></a> </p> <h3>Sports</h3> <p class="note">Main article: <a href="/facts/Sport_in_Turkey/p0eLmz0c">Sport in Turkey</a></p> <p class="note">See also: <a href="/facts/Football_in_Turkey/lbrQnsEC">Football in Turkey</a></p> <p>The most popular sport is <a href="/facts/Association_football/yttjeD0D">association football</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:573" href="#fn:573"><sup>573</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Galatasaray_S.K._(football)/0AGUAg8z">Galatasaray</a> won the <a href="/facts/2000_UEFA_Cup_Final/xlL8N9oD">UEFA Cup</a> and <a href="/facts/2000_UEFA_Super_Cup/YdYWtR3D">UEFA Super Cup</a> in 2000.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:574" href="#fn:574"><sup>574</sup></a> The <a href="/facts/Turkey_national_football_team/cIgQ9f9G">Turkey national football team</a> won the bronze medal at the <a href="/facts/2002_FIFA_World_Cup/0JjaNygg">2002 FIFA World Cup</a>, the <a href="/facts/2003_FIFA_Confederations_Cup/96Rd5xwb">2003 FIFA Confederations Cup</a> and <a href="/facts/UEFA_Euro_2008/WAIJX5Sv">UEFA Euro 2008</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:575" href="#fn:575"><sup>575</sup></a> </p><p>Other mainstream sports such as basketball and volleyball are also popular.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:576" href="#fn:576"><sup>576</sup></a> The <a href="/facts/Turkey_men%2527s_national_basketball_team/vCRNK5tn">men's national basketball team</a> and <a href="/facts/Turkey_women%2527s_national_basketball_team/z5e1JlxB">women's national basketball team</a> have been successful. <a href="/facts/Anadolu_Efes_S.K./U31w1evA">Anadolu Efes S.K.</a> is the most successful Turkish basketball club in international competitions.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:577" href="#fn:577"><sup>577</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:578" href="#fn:578"><sup>578</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Fenerbah%25C3%25A7e_Men%2527s_Basketball/EdwczvTb">Fenerbahçe</a> reached the final of the <a href="/facts/EuroLeague/Y7CWaYB0">EuroLeague</a> in three consecutive seasons (<a href="/facts/2015%25E2%2580%259316_Euroleague/1tRooQRd">2015–2016</a>, <a href="/facts/2016%25E2%2580%259317_EuroLeague/JwfU3GhE">2016–2017</a> and <a href="/facts/2017%25E2%2580%259318_EuroLeague/5GqPzKeB">2017–2018</a>), becoming the European champions in 2017. </p> <p>The final of the <a href="/facts/2013%25E2%2580%259314_EuroLeague_Women/HQcgGGlN">2013–14 EuroLeague Women</a> basketball championship was played between two Turkish teams, <a href="/facts/Galatasaray_S.K._(women%2527s_basketball)/f7uVvhj8">Galatasaray</a> and <a href="/facts/Fenerbah%25C3%25A7e_Women%2527s_Basketball/ElYox4Ih">Fenerbahçe</a>, and won by Galatasaray.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:579" href="#fn:579"><sup>579</sup></a> Fenerbahçe won the <a href="/facts/2023_FIBA_Europe_SuperCup_Women/EArDSogr">2023 FIBA Europe SuperCup Women</a> after two consecutive Euroleague wins in the <a href="/facts/2022%25E2%2580%259323_EuroLeague_Women/lPn3KGuL">2022–23</a> and <a href="/facts/2023%25E2%2580%259324_EuroLeague_Women/YcWMECel">2023–24</a> seasons. </p><p>The <a href="/facts/Turkey_women%2527s_national_volleyball_team/taUTxQXV">women's national volleyball team</a> has won several medals.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:580" href="#fn:580"><sup>580</sup></a> Women's volleyball clubs, namely <a href="/facts/Vak%25C4%25B1fBank_S.K./CWMX92Ia">VakıfBank S.K.</a>, <a href="/facts/Fenerbah%25C3%25A7e_Women%2527s_Volleyball/fHPL9J8J">Fenerbahçe</a> and <a href="/facts/Eczac%25C4%25B1ba%25C5%259F%25C4%25B1_Dynavit/WHeVNekb">Eczacıbaşı</a>, have won numerous European championship titles and medals.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:581" href="#fn:581"><sup>581</sup></a> </p><p>The traditional national sport of Turkey has been <a href="/facts/Oil_wrestling/SEbldJub">yağlı güreş</a> (<i><a href="/facts/Olive_oil/ae1Qnt2I">oil</a> <a href="/facts/Wrestling/mTFzecQw">wrestling</a></i>) since Ottoman times.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:582" href="#fn:582"><sup>582</sup></a> Edirne Province has hosted the annual <a href="/facts/K%25C4%25B1rkp%25C4%25B1nar/TDHr4LcE">Kırkpınar</a> oil wrestling tournament since 1361, making it the oldest continuously held sporting competition in the world.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:583" href="#fn:583"><sup>583</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:584" href="#fn:584"><sup>584</sup></a> In the 19th and early 20th centuries, oil wrestling champions such as <a href="/facts/Yusuf_%25C4%25B0smail/kkjFmmPB">Koca Yusuf</a>, <a href="/facts/Nurullah_Hasan/08MGRzU3">Nurullah Hasan</a> and <a href="/facts/K%25C4%25B1z%25C4%25B1lc%25C4%25B1kl%25C4%25B1_Mahmut/lG4xPAIW">Kızılcıklı Mahmut</a> acquired international fame in Europe and North America by winning world heavyweight wrestling championship titles. International wrestling styles governed by <a href="/facts/International_Federation_of_Associated_Wrestling_Styles/d7j4wKRo">FILA</a> such as <a href="/facts/Freestyle_wrestling/jUVWhsM9">freestyle wrestling</a> and <a href="/facts/Greco-Roman_wrestling/WTYXmG7x">Greco-Roman wrestling</a> are also popular, with many European, World and Olympic championship titles won by Turkish wrestlers both individually and as a national team.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:585" href="#fn:585"><sup>585</sup></a> </p> <h3>Media and cinema</h3> <p class="note">Main article: <a href="/facts/Media_in_Turkey/EVQCNXaL">Media in Turkey</a></p> <p class="note">See also: <a href="/facts/Cinema_of_Turkey/uo65wE8n">Cinema of Turkey</a></p> <p>Hundreds of television channels, thousands of local and national radio stations, several dozen newspapers, a productive and profitable <a href="/facts/Cinema_of_Turkey/uo65wE8n">national cinema</a> and a rapid growth of <a href="/facts/Broadband/nEn3A95N">broadband</a> Internet use constitute a vibrant media industry in Turkey.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:586" href="#fn:586"><sup>586</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:587" href="#fn:587"><sup>587</sup></a> The majority of the TV audiences are shared among public broadcaster <a href="/facts/Turkish_Radio_and_Television_Corporation/CHTd75V0">TRT</a> and the network-style channels such as <a href="/facts/Kanal_D/6w19JJay">Kanal D</a>, <a href="/facts/Show_TV/u3DcoENC">Show TV</a>, <a href="/facts/ATV_(Turkey)/nFqYKNJX">ATV</a> and <a href="/facts/Star_TV_(Turkey)/b4wsLnoV">Star TV</a>. The <a href="/facts/Broadcast_media/AV1f3dGy">broadcast media</a> have a very high penetration as <a href="/facts/Satellite_dishes/4MgSzKnC">satellite dishes</a> and <a href="/facts/Cable_television/GzXa4pbW">cable</a> systems are widely available.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:588" href="#fn:588"><sup>588</sup></a> The <a href="/facts/RT%25C3%259CK/61PtXsWE">Radio and Television Supreme Council (RTÜK)</a> is the government body overseeing the broadcast media.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:589" href="#fn:589"><sup>589</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:590" href="#fn:590"><sup>590</sup></a> By circulation, the <a href="/facts/List_of_newspapers_in_Turkey/ULFHA52t">most popular newspapers</a> are <i><a href="/facts/Posta_(newspaper)/PGW9vudx">Posta</a></i>, <i><a href="/facts/H%25C3%25BCrriyet/gwcsTeyx">Hürriyet</a></i>, <i><a href="/facts/S%25C3%25B6zc%25C3%25BC/Ic5nxP30">Sözcü</a></i>, <i><a href="/facts/Sabah_(newspaper)/6rsYeyU2">Sabah</a></i> and <i><a href="/facts/Habert%25C3%25BCrk/daS4vm7V">Habertürk</a></i>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:591" href="#fn:591"><sup>591</sup></a> </p> <p><a href="/facts/Filiz_Ak%25C4%25B1n/RK3coLFy">Filiz Akın</a>, <a href="/facts/Fatma_Girik/CIjW4qsT">Fatma Girik</a>, <a href="/facts/H%25C3%25BClya_Ko%25C3%25A7yi%25C4%259Fit/dkblMRYy">Hülya Koçyiğit</a>, and <a href="/facts/T%25C3%25BCrkan_%25C5%259Eoray/BhSTuLPP">Türkan Şoray</a> represent their period of Turkish cinema.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:592" href="#fn:592"><sup>592</sup></a> Turkish directors like <a href="/facts/Metin_Erksan/jJUWVKal">Metin Erksan</a>, <a href="/facts/Nuri_Bilge_Ceylan/mg7SkA60">Nuri Bilge Ceylan</a>, <a href="/facts/Y%25C4%25B1lmaz_G%25C3%25BCney/Jd9Cx1U5">Yılmaz Güney</a>, <a href="/facts/Zeki_Demirkubuz/jd3Kq6R3">Zeki Demirkubuz</a> and <a href="/facts/Ferzan_%25C3%2596zpetek/h8lVgtMR">Ferzan Özpetek</a> won numerous international awards such as the <a href="/facts/Palme_d%2527Or/R57obDSr">Palme d'Or</a> and <a href="/facts/Golden_Bear/zGSMCg8D">Golden Bear</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:593" href="#fn:593"><sup>593</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Turkish_television_drama/3IK13Yaz">Turkish television dramas</a> are increasingly becoming popular beyond Turkey's borders and are among the country's most vital exports, both in terms of profit and public relations.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:594" href="#fn:594"><sup>594</sup></a> After sweeping the <a href="/facts/Middle_East/8CD6pLWv">Middle East</a>'s television market over the past decade, Turkish shows have aired in more than a dozen <a href="/facts/South_America/PhrFEMk7">South</a> and <a href="/facts/Central_America/CXKgTuxC">Central American</a> countries in 2016.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:595" href="#fn:595"><sup>595</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:596" href="#fn:596"><sup>596</sup></a> Turkey is today the world's second largest exporter of television series.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:597" href="#fn:597"><sup>597</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:598" href="#fn:598"><sup>598</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:599" href="#fn:599"><sup>599</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="see-also">See also</h2> <ul> <li>Turkey portal</li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Outline_of_Turkey/IJzk2ze1">Outline of Turkey</a></li></ul> <h2 id="notes">Notes</h2> <h3>Sources</h3> <ul><li>Agoston, G; Masters, B (2009). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QjzYdCxumFcC"><i>Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire</i></a>. Facts On File, Incorporated. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 9780816062591.</li> <li>Armour, Ian D. (2012). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9b6f5vhKJiAC"><i>A History of Eastern Europe 1740-1918: Empires, Nations and Modernisation</i></a> (2nd ed.). London New York: Bloomsbury Academic. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-84966-661-9.</li> <li><a href="https://inhak.adalet.gov.tr/Resimler/Dokuman/6022024100041Avrupa%20%C4%B0nsan%20Haklar%C4%B1%20Mahkemesi%202023%20Y%C4%B1l%C4%B1%20%C4%B0statistikleri%20De%C4%9Ferlendirme%20Notu.pdf">Avrupa İnsan Hakları Mahkemesi 2023 Yılı İstatistikleri Değerlendirme Notu</a> (PDF). <i>Republic of Türkiye Ministry of Justice Human Rights Department</i> (Report). 2024.</li> <li>Baird, Forrest E. (2016). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=w-5mDAAAQBAJ"><i>Philosophic Classics Ancient Philosophy, Volume I</i></a>. 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BRILL. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F9789004471177">10.1163/9789004471177</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-90-04-47018-7. <ul><li><a href="/facts/Peter_Benjamin_Golden/3xa4WxCH">Golden, Peter B.</a> "Reflections on the Ethnonym Türk". In Tasar, Frank & Eden (2021), pp. 1–50. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F9789004471177_002">10.1163/9789004471177_002</a></li></ul></li> <li>Tockner, Klement; Zarfl, Christiane; Robinson, Christopher T., eds. (2022). <i>Rivers of Europe</i> (2nd ed.). <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FC2017-0-03745-X">10.1016/C2017-0-03745-X</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-08-102612-0. <ul><li>Akbulut, Nuray (Emir); Bayarı, Serdar; Akbulut, Aydın; Özyurt, Naciye Nur; Sahin, Yalcın. "Rivers of Turkey". In Tockner, Zarfl & Robinson (2022), pp. 853–882. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FB978-0-08-102612-0.00021-3">10.1016/B978-0-08-102612-0.00021-3</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170215004933/http://www.konda.com.tr/tr/raporlar/2006_09_KONDA_Toplumsal_Yapi.pdf">Toplumsal Yapı Araştırması 2006</a> (PDF) (Report). <a href="/facts/KONDA_Research_and_Consultancy/CYXnFUd0">KONDA Research and Consultancy</a>. 2006. Archived from <a href="http://www.konda.com.tr/tr/raporlar/2006_09_KONDA_Toplumsal_Yapi.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 15 February 2017. Retrieved 21 February 2015.</li> <li><a href="/facts/Theo_van_den_Hout/cgBoNaUX">van den Hout, Theo</a> (2011). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QDJNg5Nyef0C"><i>The Elements of Hittite</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-521-13300-5.</li> <li>Wiseman, Alexander W., ed. (2021). <i>Annual Review of Comparative and International Education 2020</i>. International Perspectives on Education and Society. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1108%2FS1479-3679202140">10.1108/S1479-3679202140</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-80071-908-8. <ul><li>Oz, Yakup. "The Emergence of Turkey as a Regional Hub for International Students: A Macro-Level Analysis". In Wiseman (2021), pp. 307–328. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1108%2FS1479-367920210000040017">10.1108/S1479-367920210000040017</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/facts/World_Intellectual_Property_Organization/lenC10SK">World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO)</a> (2024). <a href="https://www.wipo.int/web-publications/global-innovation-index-2024/assets/67729/2000%20Global%20Innovation%20Index%202024_WEB3lite.pdf">Global Innovation Index 2024: Unlocking the Promise of Social Entrepreneurship</a> (PDF) (Report). Geneva: WIPO. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.34667%2Ftind.50062">10.34667/tind.50062</a>.</li> <li><a href="/facts/World_Bank_Group/9z4A2PDl">World Bank Group</a> (2022). <a href="http://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/099006106072221642/pdf/P177479041cc100c80bacc031005338a440.pdf">Türkiye - Country Climate and Development Report</a> (PDF) (Report). Washington, D.C.: World Bank Group. <a href="/facts/Hdl_(identifier)/rdebSxmC">hdl</a>:<a href="https://hdl.handle.net/10986%2F37521">10986/37521</a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240505172225/https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/099006106072221642/pdf/P177479041cc100c80bacc031005338a440.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 5 May 2024. Retrieved 5 May 2024.</li></ul> <h2 id="external-links">External links</h2> <p>General </p> <ul><li><a href="https://data.oecd.org/turkey.htm">OECD Data | Türkiye</a></li> <li> Geographic data related to <a href="https://www.openstreetmap.org/relation/174737">Turkey</a> at <a href="/facts/OpenStreetMap/Hd3yejum">OpenStreetMap</a></li></ul> <p>Tourism </p> <ul><li> Wikimedia Atlas of Turkey</li> <li><a href="https://goturkiye.com/">Go Türkiye – Türkiye's official tourism portal</a></li> <li><a href="http://www.kultur.gov.tr/">Official website of the Ministry of Culture and Tourism</a></li> <li></li></ul> <p>Government </p> <ul><li><a href="https://tccb.gov.tr/en/">Official website of the Presidency of the Republic of Türkiye</a></li> <li><a href="http://global.tbmm.gov.tr/">Official website of the Grand National Assembly of Türkiye</a></li></ul> <p>Economy </p> <ul><li><a href="http://www.ekonomi.gov.tr/">Official website of the Ministry of Economy</a></li></ul> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>Turkish: Türkiye, Turkish: [ˈtyɾcije] <a href="/wiki/Turkish_language" target="_blank">/wiki/Turkish_language</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>Turkish: Türkiye Cumhuriyeti, Turkish: [ˈtyɾcije dʒumˈhuːɾijeti] ⓘ <a href="/wiki/Turkish_language" target="_blank">/wiki/Turkish_language</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>"The Results of Address Based Population Registration System, 2024". www.tuik.gov.tr. Turkish Statistical Institute. 6 February 2025. Retrieved 6 February 2025. <a href="https://data.tuik.gov.tr/Bulten/Index?p=The-Results-of-Address-Based-Population-Registration-System-2024-53783&dil=2" target="_blank">https://data.tuik.gov.tr/Bulten/Index?p=The-Results-of-Address-Based-Population-Registration-System-2024-53783&dil=2</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:4"><p>"Turkey (Turkiye)". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 19 May 2024. <a href="https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/turkey-turkiye/#people-and-society" target="_blank">https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/turkey-turkiye/#people-and-society</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:5"><p>Howard 2016, p. 24 - Howard, Douglas A. (2016). The History of Turkey (2nd ed.). Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood. ISBN 978-1-4408-3466-0. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hE28CwAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=hE28CwAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:6"><p>Sagona & Zimansky 2015, p. 1 Howard 2016, p. xv McMahon & Steadman 2012a, pp. 3–12 Matthews 2012, p. 49 - Sagona, Antonio; Zimansky, Paul (2015). Ancient Turkey. Routledge. doi:10.4324/9780203880463. ISBN 978-1-134-44027-6. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SsLKBgAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=SsLKBgAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:7"><p>Ahmed 2006, p. 1576: "Turkey's diversity is derived from its central location near the world's earliest civilizations as well as a history replete with population movements and invasions. The Hattite culture was prominent during the Bronze Age prior to 2000 BCE, but was replaced by the Indo-European Hittites who conquered Anatolia by the second millennium. Meanwhile, Turkish Thrace came to be dominated by another Indo-European group, the Thracians for whom the region is named." Steadman 2012, p. 234: "By the time of the Old Assyrian Colony period in the early second millennium b.c.e . (see Michel, chapter 13 in this volume) the languages spoken on the plateau included Hattian, an indigenous Anatolian language, Hurrian (spoken in northern Syria), and Indo-European languages known as Luwian, Hittite, and Palaic" Michel 2012, p. 327 Melchert 2012, p. 713 Howard 2016, p. 26 <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:8"><p>Howard 2016, p. 29: "The sudden disappearance of the Persian Empire and the conquest of virtually the entire Middle Eastern world from the Nile to the Indus by Alexander the Great caused tremendous political and cultural upheaval. ... statesmen throughout the conquered regions attempted to implement a policy of Hellenization. For indigenous elites, this amounted to the forced assimilation of native religion and culture to Greek models. It met resistance in Anatolia as elsewhere, especially from priests and others who controlled temple wealth." Ahmed 2006, p. 1576: "Subsequently, hellenization of the elites transformed Anatolia into a largely Greek-speaking region" McMahon & Steadman 2012a, p. 5 McMahon 2012, p. 16 Sams 2012, p. 617 Kaldellis 2024, p. 26 - Howard, Douglas A. (2016). The History of Turkey (2nd ed.). Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood. ISBN 978-1-4408-3466-0. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hE28CwAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=hE28CwAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:9"><p>Davison 1990, pp. 3–4: "So the Seljuk sultanate was a successor state ruling part of the medieval Greek empire, and within it the process of Turkification of a previously Hellenized Anatolian population continued. That population must already have been of very mixed ancestry, deriving from ancient Hittite, Phrygian, Cappadocian, and other civilizations as well as Roman and Greek." Howard 2016, pp. 33–44 - Davison, Roderic H. (1990). Essays in Ottoman and Turkish History, 1774-1923: The Impact of the West. The University of Texas Press. doi:10.7560/720640. ISBN 9780292720640. <a href="https://doi.org/10.7560%2F720640" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.7560%2F720640</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:10"><p>Howard 2016, pp. 38–39 - Howard, Douglas A. (2016). The History of Turkey (2nd ed.). Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood. ISBN 978-1-4408-3466-0. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hE28CwAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=hE28CwAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:11"><p>Howard 2016, p. 45 Somel 2010, p. xcvii - Howard, Douglas A. (2016). The History of Turkey (2nd ed.). Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood. ISBN 978-1-4408-3466-0. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hE28CwAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=hE28CwAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:12"><p>Hanioğlu 2012, pp. 15–25 Kayalı 2012, pp. 26–28 Davison 1990, pp. 115–116 <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:13"><p>Kaser 2011, p. 336: "The emerging Christian nation states justified the prosecution of their Muslims by arguing that they were their former “suppressors”. The historical balance: between about 1820 and 1920, millions of Muslim casualties and refugees back to the remaining Ottoman Empire had to be registered; estimations speak about 5 million casualties and the same number of displaced persons" Fábos 2005, p. 437: "Muslims had been the majority in Anatolia, the Crimea, the Balkans, and the Caucasus and a plurality in southern Russia and sections of Romania. Most of these lands were within or contiguous with the Ottoman Empire. By 1923, 'only Anatolia, eastern Thrace, and a section of the southeastern Caucasus remained to the Muslim land ... Millions of Muslims, most of them Turks, had died; millions more had fled to what is today Turkey. Between 1821 and 1922, more than five million Muslims were driven from their lands. Five and one-half million Muslims died, some of them killed in wars, others perishing as refugees from starvation and disease' (McCarthy 1995, 1). Since people in the Ottoman Empire were classified by religion, Turks, Albanians, Bosnians, and all other Muslim groups were recognized—and recognized themselves—simply as Muslims. Hence, their persecution and forced migration is of central importance to an analysis of 'Muslim migration.'" Schayegh, Cyrus (2024). "A Late/Post-Imperial Region of Difference: The Ottoman Empire and its Successor Polities in Southeastern Europe, Turkey, and the Arab East, c. 1850s–1940s". Journal of World History. 35 (4): 579–622. doi:10.1353/jwh.2024.a943172. Between 1821 and the 1919–1922 Turko-Greek War, about five and a half million Muslims died of religious-ethnic war-related causes, including disease and hunger during forced migration, in southeastern Europe and the Crimea and Caucasus. Karpat 2001, p. 343: "The main migrations started from Crimea in 1856 and were followed by those from the Caucasus and the Balkans in 1862 to 1878 and 1912 to 1916. These have continued to our day. The quantitative indicators cited in various sources show that during this period a total of about 7 million migrants from Crimea, the Caucasus, the Balkans, and the Mediterranean islands settled in Anatolia. These immigrants were overwhelmingly Muslim, except for a number of Jews who left their homes in the Balkans and Russia in order to live in the Ottoman lands. By the end of the century the immigrants and their descendants constituted some 30 to 40 percent of the total population of Anatolia, and in some western areas their percentage was even higher." ... "The immigrants called themselves Muslims rather than Turks, although most of those from Bulgaria, Macedonia, and eastern Serbia descended from the Turkish Anatolian stock who settled in the Balkans in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries." Karpat 2004, pp. 5–6: "Migration was a major force in the social and cultural reconstruction of the Ottoman state in the nineteenth century. While some seven to nine million, mostly Muslim, refugees from lost territories in the Caucasus, Crimea, Balkans and Mediterranean islands migrated to Anatolia and Eastern Thrace, during the last quarter of the nineteenth and the early part of the twentieth centuries..." Pekesen 2012: "The immigration had far-reaching social and political consequences for the Ottoman Empire and Turkey." ... "Between 1821 and 1922, some 5.3 million Muslims migrated to the Empire.50 It is estimated that in 1923, the year the republic of Turkey was founded, about 25 per cent of the population came from immigrant families.51" Biondich 2011, p. 93: "The road from Berlin to Lausanne was littered with millions of casualties. In the period between 1878 and 1912, as many as two million Muslims emigrated voluntarily or involuntarily from the Balkans. When one adds those who were killed or expelled between 1912 and 1923, the number of Muslim casualties from the Balkan far exceeds three million. By 1923 fewer than one million remained in the Balkans" Armour 2012, p. 213: "To top it all, the Empire was host to a steady stream of Muslim refugees. Russia between 1854 and 1876 expelled 1.4 million Crimean Tartars, and in the mid-1860s another 600,000 Circassians from the Caucasus. Their arrival produced further economic dislocation and expense." Bosma, Lucassen & Oostindie 2012a, p. 17: "In total, many millions of Turks (or, more precisely, Muslim immigrants, including some from the Caucasus) were involved in this ‘repatriation’ – sometimes more than once in a lifetime – the last stage of which may have been the immigration of seven hundred thousand Turks from Bulgaria between 1940 and 1990. Most of these immigrants settled in urban north-western Anatolia. Today between a third and a quarter of the Republic’s population are descendants of these Muslim immigrants, known as Muhacir or Göçmen" - Kaser, Karl (2011). The Balkans and the Near East: Introduction to a Shared History. Berlin Wien: LIT Verlag Münster. ISBN 978-3-643-50190-5. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=j3i8muwLf8AC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=j3i8muwLf8AC</a> <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:14"><p>Tatz, Colin; Higgins, Winton (2016). The Magnitude of Genocide. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-4408-3161-4. <a href="978-1-4408-3161-4" target="_blank">978-1-4408-3161-4</a> <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:15"><p>Schaller, Dominik J.; Zimmerer, Jürgen (2008). "Late Ottoman genocides: the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire and Young Turkish population and extermination policies – introduction". Journal of Genocide Research. 10 (1): 7–14. doi:10.1080/14623520801950820. ISSN 1462-3528. S2CID 71515470. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:16"><p>Morris, Benny; Ze'evi, Dror (2021). The Thirty-Year Genocide - Turkey's Destruction of Its Christian Minorities, 1894–1924. Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674251434. <a href="9780674251434" target="_blank">9780674251434</a> <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:17"><p>Pamuk 2012, p. 50 Kayali 2008, p. 112 <a href="#fnref:17" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:18"><p>"Turkey". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Archived from the original on 28 August 2022. Retrieved 29 February 2024. <a href="https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/turkey-turkiye/#geography" target="_blank">https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/turkey-turkiye/#geography</a> <a href="#fnref:18" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:19"><p>Birben, Üstüner (2019). "The Effectiveness of Protected Areas in Biodiversity Conservation: The Case of Turkey". CERNE. 25 (4): 424–438. doi:10.1590/01047760201925042644. ISSN 0104-7760. Turkey has 3 out of the 36 biodiversity hotspots on Earth: the Mediterranean, Caucasus, and Irano-Anatolian hotspots Ahmed 2006, pp. 1575–1576 World Bank Türkiye - Country Climate and Development Report 2022, p. 7 <a href="https://doi.org/10.1590%2F01047760201925042644" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1590%2F01047760201925042644</a> <a href="#fnref:19" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:20"><p>Atun, Rifat (2015). "Transforming Turkey's Health System — Lessons for Universal Coverage". New England Journal of Medicine. 373 (14): 1285–1289. doi:10.1056/NEJMp1410433. PMID 26422719. OECD Taking stock of education reforms for access and quality in Türkiye 2023, p. 35 World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) 2024, p. 22 <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:20" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:21"><p>Berg, Miriam (2023). Turkish Drama Serials: The Importance and Influence of a Globally Popular Television Phenomenon. University of Exeter Press. pp. 1–2. ISBN 978-1-80413-043-8. <a href="978-1-80413-043-8" target="_blank">978-1-80413-043-8</a> <a href="#fnref:21" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:22"><p>Agoston & Masters 2009, p. 574 - Agoston, G; Masters, B (2009). Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire. Facts On File, Incorporated. ISBN 9780816062591. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QjzYdCxumFcC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=QjzYdCxumFcC</a> <a href="#fnref:22" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:23"><p>Howard 2016, p. 31 - Howard, Douglas A. (2016). The History of Turkey (2nd ed.). Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood. ISBN 978-1-4408-3466-0. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hE28CwAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=hE28CwAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:23" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:24"><p>Everett-Heath 2020, Türkiye (Turkey) - Everett-Heath, John (2020). Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Place Names (6 ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acref/9780191905636.001.0001. ISBN 9780191905636. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facref%2F9780191905636.001.0001" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facref%2F9780191905636.001.0001</a> <a href="#fnref:24" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:25"><p>Golden 2021, p. 30 <a href="#fnref:25" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:26"><p>Clauson 1972, pp. 542–543 - Clauson, Gerard (1972). An Etymological Dictionary of Pre-thirteenth-century Turkish. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-864112-4. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=l6AZAQAAIAAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=l6AZAQAAIAAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:26" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:27"><p>Golden 2021, pp. 6–7 <a href="#fnref:27" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:28"><p>Everett-Heath 2020, Türkiye (Turkey) - Everett-Heath, John (2020). Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Place Names (6 ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acref/9780191905636.001.0001. ISBN 9780191905636. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facref%2F9780191905636.001.0001" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facref%2F9780191905636.001.0001</a> <a href="#fnref:28" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:29"><p>Golden 2021, pp. 9, 16 <a href="#fnref:29" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:30"><p>Jenkins, Romilly James Heald (1967). De Administrando Imperio by Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus. Corpus fontium historiae Byzantinae (New, revised ed.). Dumbarton Oaks Center for Byzantine Studies. p. 65. ISBN 978-0-88402-021-9. Archived from the original on 20 January 2023. Retrieved 28 August 2013. According to Constantine Porphyrogenitus, writing in his De Administrando Imperio (c. 950 AD) "Patzinakia, the Pecheneg realm, stretches west as far as the Siret River (or even the Eastern Carpathian Mountains), and is four days distant from Tourkia [i.e. Hungary]." <a href="978-0-88402-021-9" target="_blank">978-0-88402-021-9</a> <a href="#fnref:30" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:31"><p>Findley 2005, p. 51 - Findley, Carter V. (2005). The Turks in World History. Oxford University Press, USA. 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(2016). The History of Turkey (2nd ed.). Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood. ISBN 978-1-4408-3466-0. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hE28CwAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=hE28CwAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:52" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:53"><p>Howard 2016, p. 26 - Howard, Douglas A. (2016). The History of Turkey (2nd ed.). Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood. ISBN 978-1-4408-3466-0. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hE28CwAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=hE28CwAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:53" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:54"><p>Howard 2016, p. 26 - Howard, Douglas A. (2016). The History of Turkey (2nd ed.). Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood. ISBN 978-1-4408-3466-0. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hE28CwAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=hE28CwAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:54" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:55"><p>Steadman 2012, p. 234 <a href="#fnref:55" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:56"><p>Steadman 2012, p. 234 <a href="#fnref:56" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:57"><p>Michel 2012, p. 327 <a href="#fnref:57" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:58"><p>Steadman 2012, p. 234 <a href="#fnref:58" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:59"><p>Sagona & Zimansky 2015, p. 246 - Sagona, Antonio; Zimansky, Paul (2015). Ancient Turkey. Routledge. doi:10.4324/9780203880463. ISBN 978-1-134-44027-6. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SsLKBgAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=SsLKBgAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:59" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:60"><p>Beckman 2012, p. 522 <a href="#fnref:60" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:61"><p>The origin of Indo-European languages is unknown.[62] They may be native to Anatolia[63] or non-native.[64] <a href="#fnref:61" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:62"><p>Howard 2016, p. 26 - Howard, Douglas A. (2016). The History of Turkey (2nd ed.). Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood. ISBN 978-1-4408-3466-0. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hE28CwAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=hE28CwAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:62" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:63"><p>Howard 2016, p. 26 - Howard, Douglas A. (2016). The History of Turkey (2nd ed.). Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood. ISBN 978-1-4408-3466-0. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hE28CwAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=hE28CwAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:63" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:64"><p>Howard 2016, p. 26 - Howard, Douglas A. (2016). The History of Turkey (2nd ed.). Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood. ISBN 978-1-4408-3466-0. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hE28CwAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=hE28CwAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:64" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:65"><p>Howard 2016, pp. 26–27 - Howard, Douglas A. (2016). The History of Turkey (2nd ed.). Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood. ISBN 978-1-4408-3466-0. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hE28CwAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=hE28CwAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:65" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:66"><p>Ahmed 2006, p. 1576 <a href="#fnref:66" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:67"><p>Jablonka 2012, pp. 724–726 <a href="#fnref:67" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:68"><p>McMahon 2012, p. 17 <a href="#fnref:68" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:69"><p>Howard 2016, p. 27 - Howard, Douglas A. (2016). The History of Turkey (2nd ed.). Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood. ISBN 978-1-4408-3466-0. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hE28CwAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=hE28CwAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:69" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:70"><p>Beckman 2012, p. 522 <a href="#fnref:70" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:71"><p>Yakubovich 2012, p. 538 <a href="#fnref:71" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:72"><p>Zimansky 2012, p. 552 <a href="#fnref:72" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:73"><p>Howard 2016, p. 27 - Howard, Douglas A. (2016). The History of Turkey (2nd ed.). Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood. ISBN 978-1-4408-3466-0. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hE28CwAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=hE28CwAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:73" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:74"><p>Howard 2016, p. 27 - Howard, Douglas A. (2016). The History of Turkey (2nd ed.). Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood. ISBN 978-1-4408-3466-0. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hE28CwAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=hE28CwAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:74" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:75"><p>Howard 2016, p. 28 - Howard, Douglas A. (2016). The History of Turkey (2nd ed.). Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood. ISBN 978-1-4408-3466-0. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hE28CwAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=hE28CwAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:75" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:76"><p>Howard 2016, p. 28 - Howard, Douglas A. (2016). The History of Turkey (2nd ed.). Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood. ISBN 978-1-4408-3466-0. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hE28CwAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=hE28CwAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:76" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:77"><p>Howard 2016, p. 28 - Howard, Douglas A. (2016). The History of Turkey (2nd ed.). Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood. ISBN 978-1-4408-3466-0. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hE28CwAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=hE28CwAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:77" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:78"><p>"Anatolia – Greek colonies on the Anatolian coasts, c. 1180–547 bce". Encyclopedia Britannica. Archived from the original on 21 March 2023. Retrieved 2 February 2024. Before the Greek migrations that followed the end of the Bronze Age (c. 1200 BCE), probably the only Greek-speaking communities on the west coast of Anatolia were Mycenaean settlements at Iasus and Müskebi on the Halicarnassus peninsula and walled Mycenaean colonies at Miletus and Colophon. <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Anatolia/Greek-colonies-on-the-Anatolian-coasts-c-1180-547-bce" target="_blank">https://www.britannica.com/place/Anatolia/Greek-colonies-on-the-Anatolian-coasts-c-1180-547-bce</a> <a href="#fnref:78" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:79"><p>Howard 2016, p. 27 - Howard, Douglas A. (2016). The History of Turkey (2nd ed.). Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood. ISBN 978-1-4408-3466-0. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hE28CwAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=hE28CwAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:79" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:80"><p>Harl 2012, p. 760: "Greek cities on the shores of Asia Minor and on the Aegean islands were the nexus of trade and cultural exchange in the early Greek world, so Archaic Greek civilization was to a great extent the product of the Greek cities of Asia Minor." <a href="#fnref:80" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:81"><p>Harl 2012, pp. 753–756 <a href="#fnref:81" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:82"><p>Greaves 2012, p. 505 <a href="#fnref:82" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:83"><p>Harl 2012, p. 753 <a href="#fnref:83" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:84"><p>Harl 2012, pp. 753–754 <a href="#fnref:84" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:85"><p>Rovelli, C. (2023). Anaximander: And the Birth of Science. Penguin Publishing Group. pp. 20–30. ISBN 978-0-593-54237-8. Retrieved 1 June 2024. <a href="978-0-593-54237-8" target="_blank">978-0-593-54237-8</a> <a href="#fnref:85" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:86"><p>Baird 2016, p. 8 - Baird, Forrest E. (2016). Philosophic Classics Ancient Philosophy, Volume I. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-315-51024-8. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=w-5mDAAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=w-5mDAAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:86" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:87"><p>Howard 2016, p. 28 - Howard, Douglas A. (2016). The History of Turkey (2nd ed.). Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood. ISBN 978-1-4408-3466-0. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hE28CwAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=hE28CwAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:87" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:88"><p>Howard 2016, p. 27 - Howard, Douglas A. (2016). The History of Turkey (2nd ed.). Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood. ISBN 978-1-4408-3466-0. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hE28CwAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=hE28CwAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:88" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:89"><p>Howard 2016, p. 28 - Howard, Douglas A. (2016). The History of Turkey (2nd ed.). Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood. ISBN 978-1-4408-3466-0. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hE28CwAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=hE28CwAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:89" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:90"><p>"The Temple of Artemis at Ephesus: The Un-Greek Temple and Wonder". World History Encyclopedia. Archived from the original on 28 March 2024. Retrieved 17 February 2017. <a href="https://www.worldhistory.org/article/128/" target="_blank">https://www.worldhistory.org/article/128/</a> <a href="#fnref:90" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:91"><p>Howard 2016, p. 28 - Howard, Douglas A. (2016). The History of Turkey (2nd ed.). Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood. ISBN 978-1-4408-3466-0. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hE28CwAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=hE28CwAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:91" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:92"><p>McMahon & Steadman 2012a, p. 5 <a href="#fnref:92" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:93"><p>McMahon 2012, p. 16 <a href="#fnref:93" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:94"><p>Sams 2012, p. 617 <a href="#fnref:94" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:95"><p>Howard 2016, p. 29: "The sudden disappearance of the Persian Empire and the conquest of virtually the entire Middle Eastern world from the Nile to the Indus by Alexander the Great caused tremendous political and cultural upheaval." ... "statesmen throughout the conquered regions attempted to implement a policy of Hellenization. For indigenous elites, this amounted to the forced assimilation of native religion and culture to Greek models. It met resistance in Anatolia as elsewhere, especially from priests and others who controlled temple wealth." - Howard, Douglas A. (2016). The History of Turkey (2nd ed.). Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood. ISBN 978-1-4408-3466-0. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hE28CwAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=hE28CwAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:95" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:96"><p>Mitchell 1995, pp. 3–4 - Mitchell, Stephen (1995). Anatolia: Land, Men, and Gods in Asia Minor Volume I: The Celts and the Impact of Roman Rule. Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0-19-815029-9. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RpjunQEACAAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=RpjunQEACAAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:96" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:97"><p>Howard 2016, p. 29 - Howard, Douglas A. (2016). The History of Turkey (2nd ed.). Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood. ISBN 978-1-4408-3466-0. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hE28CwAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=hE28CwAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:97" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:98"><p>Hoyos 2019, pp. 35–37 - Hoyos, Dexter (2019). Rome Victorious. The Irresistible Rise of the Roman Empire. I.B. Tauris & Co. Ltd. ISBN 978-1-78076-274-6. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nCvloAEACAAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=nCvloAEACAAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:98" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:99"><p>Hoyos 2019, pp. 62, 83, 115 - Hoyos, Dexter (2019). Rome Victorious. The Irresistible Rise of the Roman Empire. I.B. Tauris & Co. Ltd. ISBN 978-1-78076-274-6. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nCvloAEACAAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=nCvloAEACAAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:99" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:100"><p>Howard 2016, p. 30 - Howard, Douglas A. (2016). The History of Turkey (2nd ed.). Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood. ISBN 978-1-4408-3466-0. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hE28CwAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=hE28CwAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:100" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:101"><p>Howard 2016, p. 30 - Howard, Douglas A. (2016). The History of Turkey (2nd ed.). Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood. ISBN 978-1-4408-3466-0. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hE28CwAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=hE28CwAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:101" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:102"><p>Horrocks 2008, pp. 778–779: "Thus the majority of traditional 'Greek' lands, including the coastal areas of Asia Minor, remained essentially Greek-speaking, despite the superimposition of Latin and the later Slavic incursions into the Balkans during the sixth and seventh centuries. Even on the Anatolian plateau, where Hellenic culture had come only with Alexander's conquests, both the extremely heterogeneous indigenous populations and immigrant groups (including Celts, Goths, Jews, and Persians) had become heavily Hellenized, as the steady decline in epigraphic evidence for the native languages and the great mass of public and private inscriptions in Greek demonstrate. Though the disappearance of these languages from the written record did not entail their immediate abandonment as spoken languages,..." <a href="#fnref:102" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:103"><p>van den Hout 2011, p. 1 - van den Hout, Theo (2011). The Elements of Hittite. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-13300-5. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QDJNg5Nyef0C" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=QDJNg5Nyef0C</a> <a href="#fnref:103" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:104"><p>Uchiyama, Junzo; et al. (21 May 2020). "Populations dynamics in Northern Eurasian forests: a long-term perspective from Northeast Asia". Evolutionary Human Sciences. 2. Cambridge University Press: e16. doi:10.1017/ehs.2020.11. PMC 10427466. PMID 37588381. Most linguists and historians agree that Proto-Turkic, the common ancestor of all ancient and contemporary Turkic languages, must have been spoken somewhere in Central-East Asia <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10427466" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10427466</a> <a href="#fnref:104" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:105"><p>Uchiyama, Junzo; et al. (21 May 2020). "Populations dynamics in Northern Eurasian forests: a long-term perspective from Northeast Asia". Evolutionary Human Sciences. 2. Cambridge University Press: e16. doi:10.1017/ehs.2020.11. PMC 10427466. PMID 37588381. To sum up, the palaeolinguistic reconstruction points to a mixed subsistence strategy and complex economy of the Proto-Turkic-speaking community. It is likely that the subsistence of the Early Proto-Turkic speakers was based on a combination of hunting–gathering and agriculture, with a later shift to nomadic pastoralism as an economy basis, partly owing to the interaction of the Late Proto-Turkic groups with the Iranian-speaking herders of the Eastern Steppe. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10427466" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10427466</a> <a href="#fnref:105" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:106"><p>Lee 2023, p. 4: "It should also be noted that even the early Turkic peoples, including the Tiele and the Türks, were made up of heterogeneous elements. Importantly, DNA studies demonstrate that the expansion process of the Turkic peoples involved the Turkicization of various non-Turkic-speaking groups. The "Turks" intermixed with and Turkicized various indigenous groups across Eurasia: Uralic hunter-gatherers in northern Eurasia; Mongolic nomads in Mongolia; Indo-European-speaking nomads and sedentary populations in Xinjiang, Transoxiana, Iran, Kazakhstan, and South Siberia; and Indo-European elements (the Byzantine subjects, among others) in Anatolia and the Balkans.11" Findley 2005, p. 18: "Moreover, Turks do not all physically look alike. They never did. The Turks of Turkey are famous for their range of physical types. Given the Turks' ancient Inner Asian origins, it is easy to imagine that they once presented a uniform Mongoloid appearance. Such traits seem to be more characteristic in the eastern Turkic world; however, uniformity of type can never have prevailed there either. Archeological evidence indicates that Indo-Europeans, or certainly Europoid physical types, inhabited the oases of the Tarim basin and even parts of Mongolia in ancient times. In the Tarim basin, persistence of these former inhabitants' genes among the modern Uyghurs is both observable and scientifically demonstrable.32 Early Chinese sources describe the Kirghiz as blue-eyed and blond or red-haired. The genesis of Turkic ethnic groups from earliest times occurred in confederations of diverse peoples. As if to prove the point, the earliest surviving texts in Turkic languages are studded with terms from other languages." Golden, Peter B. (25 July 2018). "The Ethnogonic Tales of the Türks". The Medieval History Journal. 21 (2): 291–327. doi:10.1177/0971945818775373. ISSN 0971-9458. S2CID 166026934. Archived from the original on 14 February 2021. Retrieved 12 March 2024."Some DNA tests point to the Iranian connections of the Ashina and Ashide,133 highlighting further that the Turks as a whole 'were made up of heterogeneous and somatically dissimilar populations'.134 Geographically, the accounts cover the regions of Inner Mongolia, Gansu, Xinjiang, the Yenisei zone and the Altay, regions with Turkic, Indo-European (Iranian [Saka] and Tokharian), Yeniseic, Uralic and other populations. Wusun elements, like most steppe polities of an ethno-linguistic mix, may have also played a substratal role." Lee, Joo-Yup; Kuang, Shuntu (18 October 2017). "A Comparative Analysis of Chinese Historical Sources and Y-DNA Studies with Regard to the Early and Medieval Turkic Peoples". Inner Asia. 19 (2). Brill: 197–239. doi:10.1163/22105018-12340089. ISSN 2210-5018. Both Chinese histories and modern dna studies indicate that the early and medieval Turkic peoples were made up of heterogeneous populations - Lee, Joo-Yup (2023). The Turkic Peoples in World History. Routledge. doi:10.4324/9781003256496. ISBN 978-1-000-90421-5. <a href="https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9781003256496" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9781003256496</a> <a href="#fnref:106" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:107"><p>Lee 2023, p. 84 - Lee, Joo-Yup (2023). The Turkic Peoples in World History. Routledge. doi:10.4324/9781003256496. ISBN 978-1-000-90421-5. <a href="https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9781003256496" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9781003256496</a> <a href="#fnref:107" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:108"><p>Lee 2023, p. 84 - Lee, Joo-Yup (2023). The Turkic Peoples in World History. Routledge. doi:10.4324/9781003256496. ISBN 978-1-000-90421-5. <a href="https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9781003256496" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9781003256496</a> <a href="#fnref:108" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:109"><p>Lee 2023, p. 84 - Lee, Joo-Yup (2023). The Turkic Peoples in World History. Routledge. doi:10.4324/9781003256496. ISBN 978-1-000-90421-5. <a href="https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9781003256496" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9781003256496</a> <a href="#fnref:109" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:110"><p>Howard 2016, p. 34 - Howard, Douglas A. (2016). The History of Turkey (2nd ed.). Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood. ISBN 978-1-4408-3466-0. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hE28CwAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=hE28CwAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:110" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:111"><p>Lee 2023, p. 84 - Lee, Joo-Yup (2023). The Turkic Peoples in World History. Routledge. doi:10.4324/9781003256496. ISBN 978-1-000-90421-5. <a href="https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9781003256496" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9781003256496</a> <a href="#fnref:111" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:112"><p>Lee 2023, p. 90 - Lee, Joo-Yup (2023). The Turkic Peoples in World History. Routledge. doi:10.4324/9781003256496. ISBN 978-1-000-90421-5. <a href="https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9781003256496" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9781003256496</a> <a href="#fnref:112" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:113"><p>Lee 2023, p. 91 - Lee, Joo-Yup (2023). The Turkic Peoples in World History. Routledge. doi:10.4324/9781003256496. ISBN 978-1-000-90421-5. <a href="https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9781003256496" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9781003256496</a> <a href="#fnref:113" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:114"><p>Howard 2016, p. 34 - Howard, Douglas A. (2016). The History of Turkey (2nd ed.). Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood. ISBN 978-1-4408-3466-0. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hE28CwAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=hE28CwAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:114" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:115"><p>Peacock 2015, p. 9 - Peacock, A. C. S. (2015). The Great Seljuk Empire. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 978-0-7486-3827-7. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hAndCQAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=hAndCQAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:115" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:116"><p>Howard 2016, p. 34 - Howard, Douglas A. (2016). The History of Turkey (2nd ed.). Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood. ISBN 978-1-4408-3466-0. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hE28CwAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=hE28CwAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:116" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:117"><p>Ahmed 2006, p. 1576: "Subsequently, hellenization of the elites transformed Anatolia into a largely Greek-speaking region" <a href="#fnref:117" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:118"><p>Davison 1990, pp. 3–4: "So the Seljuk sultanate was a successor state ruling part of the medieval Greek empire, and within it the process of Turkification of a previously Hellenized Anatolian population continued. That population must already have been of very mixed ancestry, deriving from ancient Hittite, Phrygian, Cappadocian, and other civilizations as well as Roman and Greek." - Davison, Roderic H. (1990). Essays in Ottoman and Turkish History, 1774-1923: The Impact of the West. The University of Texas Press. doi:10.7560/720640. ISBN 9780292720640. <a href="https://doi.org/10.7560%2F720640" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.7560%2F720640</a> <a href="#fnref:118" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:119"><p>Horrocks 2008, pp. 778–779: "Thus the majority of traditional 'Greek' lands, including the coastal areas of Asia Minor, remained essentially Greek-speaking, despite the superimposition of Latin and the later Slavic incursions into the Balkans during the sixth and seventh centuries. Even on the Anatolian plateau, where Hellenic culture had come only with Alexander's conquests, both the extremely heterogeneous indigenous populations and immigrant groups (including Celts, Goths, Jews, and Persians) had become heavily Hellenized, as the steady decline in epigraphic evidence for the native languages and the great mass of public and private inscriptions in Greek demonstrate. Though the disappearance of these languages from the written record did not entail their immediate abandonment as spoken languages,..." <a href="#fnref:119" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:120"><p>Howard 2016, pp. 34–36 - Howard, Douglas A. (2016). The History of Turkey (2nd ed.). Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood. ISBN 978-1-4408-3466-0. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hE28CwAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=hE28CwAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:120" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:121"><p>Howard 2016, p. 36 - Howard, Douglas A. (2016). The History of Turkey (2nd ed.). Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood. ISBN 978-1-4408-3466-0. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hE28CwAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=hE28CwAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:121" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:122"><p>Davison 1990, pp. 3–4: "So the Seljuk sultanate was a successor state ruling part of the medieval Greek empire, and within it the process of Turkification of a previously Hellenized Anatolian population continued. That population must already have been of very mixed ancestry, deriving from ancient Hittite, Phrygian, Cappadocian, and other civilizations as well as Roman and Greek." - Davison, Roderic H. (1990). Essays in Ottoman and Turkish History, 1774-1923: The Impact of the West. The University of Texas Press. doi:10.7560/720640. ISBN 9780292720640. <a href="https://doi.org/10.7560%2F720640" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.7560%2F720640</a> <a href="#fnref:122" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:123"><p>Ahmed 2006, p. 1576 <a href="#fnref:123" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:124"><p>Findley 2005, pp. 71–73, 225 - Findley, Carter V. (2005). The Turks in World History. Oxford University Press, USA. ISBN 978-0-19-517726-8. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ToAjDgAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=ToAjDgAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:124" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:125"><p>Howard 2016, pp. 36–38 - Howard, Douglas A. (2016). The History of Turkey (2nd ed.). Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood. ISBN 978-1-4408-3466-0. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hE28CwAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=hE28CwAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:125" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:126"><p>Howard 2016, p. 33 - Howard, Douglas A. (2016). The History of Turkey (2nd ed.). Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood. ISBN 978-1-4408-3466-0. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hE28CwAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=hE28CwAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:126" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:127"><p>Leiser 2010, p. 303 <a href="#fnref:127" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:128"><p>Davison 1990, p. 4 - Davison, Roderic H. (1990). Essays in Ottoman and Turkish History, 1774-1923: The Impact of the West. The University of Texas Press. doi:10.7560/720640. ISBN 9780292720640. <a href="https://doi.org/10.7560%2F720640" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.7560%2F720640</a> <a href="#fnref:128" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:129"><p>Howard 2016, pp. 37–39 - Howard, Douglas A. (2016). The History of Turkey (2nd ed.). Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood. ISBN 978-1-4408-3466-0. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hE28CwAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=hE28CwAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:129" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:130"><p>Howard 2016, p. 35 - Howard, Douglas A. (2016). The History of Turkey (2nd ed.). Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood. ISBN 978-1-4408-3466-0. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hE28CwAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=hE28CwAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:130" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:131"><p>Howard 2016, p. 38 - Howard, Douglas A. (2016). The History of Turkey (2nd ed.). Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood. ISBN 978-1-4408-3466-0. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hE28CwAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=hE28CwAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:131" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:132"><p>Leiser 2010, pp. 308–310 <a href="#fnref:132" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:133"><p>Howard 2016, pp. 38–39 - Howard, Douglas A. (2016). The History of Turkey (2nd ed.). Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood. ISBN 978-1-4408-3466-0. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hE28CwAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=hE28CwAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:133" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:134"><p>Leiser 2010, pp. 309–310 <a href="#fnref:134" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:135"><p>Fleet 2010, pp. 313–314 <a href="#fnref:135" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:136"><p>Lee 2023, p. 94 - Lee, Joo-Yup (2023). 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