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Boiled egg
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<h2 id="history">History</h2> <p>Eggs have a long history of use as a food source, following the history of the <a href="/facts/Domestic_Chicken/RD2eTd83">domestic Chicken</a>, and recipes that include boiled eggs have been recorded since the first known cookbook, <i><a href="/facts/De_re_coquinaria/2ulUgHAm">De re coquinaria</a></i>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:1" href="#fn:1"><sup>1</sup></a> in which at least one recipe calls for the use of preserved boiled eggs.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:2" href="#fn:2"><sup>2</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Alexander_Pope/Tj8QDdeV">Alexander Pope</a> is recorded as having recommended the method of cooking eggs over the embers or ashes of an open fire.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:3" href="#fn:3"><sup>3</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="scientific-background">Scientific background</h2> <p>The process of cooking an egg causes the <a href="/facts/Protein/Jxmagu3E">proteins</a> within the yolk and albumin to <a href="/facts/Denaturation_(biochemistry)/Eh1hc3Bg">denature</a> and solidify, resulting in a solid egg white and yolk.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:4" href="#fn:4"><sup>4</sup></a> Coagulation (denaturing) of egg white proteins begins in the 55–60 °C (131–140 °F) temperature range, and egg yolks thicken at the slightly higher temperature of 65 °C (149 °F), solidifying at 70 °C (158 °F). As such, the yolk of an egg will never solidify before the white, though in a boiled egg heat will take longer to reach the yolk through the albumin (compared to a <a href="/facts/Fried_egg/DKFVbqEz">fried egg</a>), making this doubly true.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5"><sup>5</sup></a> The process may be reversed through breaking the connections between the proteins, which has been demonstrated through the application of either <a href="/facts/Sodium_borohydride/D2Hwts5x">sodium borohydride</a> or <a href="/facts/Vitamin_C/IA2f1fTm">vitamin C</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6"><sup>6</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="variations">Variations</h2> <p>There are variations both in degree of cooking and in the method of how eggs are boiled, and a variety of <a href="/facts/Kitchen_gadget/d0T8Letc">kitchen gadgets</a> for eggs exist. These variations include: </p> <h3>Hard-boiled eggs</h3> <p> Hard-boiled or hard-cooked<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7"><sup>7</sup></a> eggs are boiled long enough for the yolk to solidify (about 10 minutes).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8"><sup>8</sup></a> They can be eaten warm or cold. Hard-boiled eggs are the basis for many dishes, such as <a href="/facts/Egg_salad/yIv0bEqT">egg salad</a>, <a href="/facts/Cobb_salad/zVbs9cVw">cobb salad</a> and <a href="/facts/Scotch_egg/y6VQ6II3">Scotch eggs</a>, and may be further prepared as <a href="/facts/Deviled_egg/fDvYf4VW">deviled eggs</a>. </p> <p>There are several techniques for hard-boiling an egg.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9"><sup>9</sup></a> One method is to bring water to a boil and cook for ten minutes.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10"><sup>10</sup></a> Another method is to bring the water to a boil, but then remove the pan from the heat and allow eggs to cook in the gradually cooling water.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11"><sup>11</sup></a> Over-cooking eggs will typically result in a thin green <a href="/facts/Iron(II)_sulfide/byDMQhD8">iron(II) sulfide</a> coating on the yolk,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12"><sup>12</sup></a> though the coating has been reported as having little effect on flavor.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13"><sup>13</sup></a> This reaction occurs more rapidly in older eggs as the whites are more alkaline.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14"><sup>14</sup></a> Rinsing<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15"><sup>15</sup></a> or immersing the egg in cold water after boiling is a common method of halting the cooking process to prevent this effect,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16"><sup>16</sup></a> and in commercial operations the discoloration is removed by immersing peeled eggs in a bath of <a href="/facts/Organic_acid/2Pfb26Lp">organic acid</a> after cooking.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17"><sup>17</sup></a> </p> <p>Hard-boiled eggs are recommended by the United States Department of Agricultural Food Safety and Inspection Service to be used within two hours if kept at room temperature, or within a week if kept refrigerated and in the shell.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18"><sup>18</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19"><sup>19</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20"><sup>20</sup></a> Shelled hard-boiled eggs sold in bulk are pickled or sealed in an atmosphere of carbon dioxide and nitrogen for preservation.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21"><sup>21</sup></a> </p><p>Hard-boiled eggs are commonly sliced, particularly for use in sandwiches. For this purpose specialized <a href="/facts/Egg_slicer/rpYBPG7f">egg slicers</a> exist, to ease slicing and yield even slices. For consistent slice sizes in food service, several eggs may have their yolk and white separated and poured into a cylindrical mold for stepwise hard-boiling, to produce what is known as a "long egg" or an "egg loaf". Commercial long eggs are produced in Denmark by its inventor Danæg [da] and in Japan by KENKO Mayonnaise [ja]. The machine for producing long eggs was first introduced in 1974.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22"><sup>22</sup></a> In addition to being sliced, long eggs can also be used in their entirety in <a href="/facts/Gala_pie/KBPlzmAU">gala pies</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23"><sup>23</sup></a> </p><p><i><a href="/facts/Haminados/FQVn1QcG">Haminados</a></i>, braised eggs slowly cooked overnight, is a traditional <a href="/facts/Sephardic_Jewish_cuisine/FVaYvq70">Sephardic Jewish</a> dish first documented in medieval Spain and now part of <a href="/facts/Israeli_cuisine/bGMouovn">Israeli cuisine</a>, where they are typically served on their own or as part of the <a href="/facts/Shabbat/pp5wb0JM">Shabbat</a> stew <i><a href="/facts/Chamin/VUa5YnkA">chamin</a></i> and other dishes.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24"><sup>24</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25"><sup>25</sup></a> </p> <h3>Soft-boiled eggs</h3> <p class="note">"Softboiled" redirects here. For the 1923 film, see <a href="/facts/Soft_Boiled/Q19k6bQ8">Soft Boiled</a>. For the genre of crime fiction, see <a href="/facts/Cozy_mystery/XPVStd3T">Cozy mystery</a>.</p> <p class="note">See also: <a href="/facts/Shirred_eggs/1ylTlSA2">Shirred eggs</a></p> <p>While the traditional <a href="/facts/Egg_timer/VPeJkyzt">egg timer</a> counts to 3 minutes for cooking a soft-boiled egg,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26"><sup>26</sup></a> some how-to guides recommend longer cooking times ranging from five<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27"><sup>27</sup></a> to six minutes.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28"><sup>28</sup></a> Chef <a href="/facts/Heston_Blumenthal/TUVuvBG5">Heston Blumenthal</a>, after "relentless trials", published a recipe for "the perfect boiled egg", suggesting cooking the egg in water that starts cold and covers the egg by no more than a millimeter, removing the pan from the heat as soon as the water starts to bubble. After six minutes, the egg will be ready.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29"><sup>29</sup></a> </p><p>Soft-boiled eggs are not recommended by the <a href="/facts/Food_and_Drug_Administration/rCEnh9WB">Food and Drug Administration</a> for people who may be susceptible to <a href="/facts/Salmonella/2SkCRybG">salmonella</a>, such as very young children, the elderly, and those with weakened immune systems.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30"><sup>30</sup></a> To avoid the issue of salmonella, <a href="/facts/Pasteurized_eggs/hntlwRSj">eggs can be pasteurised</a> in shell at 57 °C for an hour and 15 minutes. The eggs can then be soft-boiled as normal.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31"><sup>31</sup></a> </p><p>Soft-boiled eggs are commonly served in <a href="/facts/Egg_cup/pGouX6Yq">egg cups</a>, where the top of the egg is cut off with a knife, spoon, spring-loaded egg topper, or egg scissors, using an <a href="/facts/Egg_spoon/df9Ij3sS">egg spoon</a> to scoop the egg out. Other methods include breaking the <a href="/facts/Eggshell/eWg3KsVh">eggshell</a> by tapping gently around the top of the shell with a spoon.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32"><sup>32</sup></a> Soft-boiled eggs can be eaten with <a href="/facts/Toast_(food)/MKouP6j9">toast</a> cut into strips, which are then dipped into the runny yolk. In the United Kingdom and Australia, these strips of toast are known as "<a href="/facts/Soldiers_(food)/r142eQ46">soldiers</a>".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33"><sup>33</sup></a> </p><p>In Southeast Asia, a variation of soft-boiled eggs known as half-boiled eggs are commonly eaten for breakfast.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34"><sup>34</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35"><sup>35</sup></a> The major difference is that, instead of the egg being served in an egg cup, it is cracked into a bowl to which dark or light soy sauce or pepper are added. The egg is also cooked for 7 minutes, resulting in a runnier egg instead of the usual gelatin state and is commonly eaten with <a href="/facts/Kaya_toast/teLSnT3z">kaya toast</a> and <a href="/facts/Kopi_(drink)/XujmRt43">kopi</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36"><sup>36</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37"><sup>37</sup></a> </p><p>Boiled eggs are also an ingredient in various <a href="/facts/Philippine_cuisine/M8LIkCA6">Philippine dishes</a>, such as <a href="/facts/Embutido_(Filipino_cuisine)/RfLr0gNY">embutido</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38"><sup>38</sup></a> and <a href="/facts/Chicken_galantina/XY5ct1MN">chicken galantina</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39"><sup>39</sup></a> Boiled or steamed duck eggs that have been incubated for several days are also eaten in the Philippines, Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, and Thailand as the food known as <a href="/facts/Balut_(food)/US4ezKuG">balut</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40"><sup>40</sup></a> </p> <p>In Japan, <a href="/facts/Soy_egg/F3SayrNS">marinated soft-boiled eggs</a> (味付け玉子, <i>ajitsuke tamago</i>) are commonly served alongside <a href="/facts/Ramen/1T9FRHH1">ramen</a>. The eggs are typically steeped in a mixture of soy sauce, <a href="/facts/Mirin/7W1EANDa">mirin</a>, and water after being boiled and peeled. This provides the egg a brownish color that would otherwise be absent from boiling and peeling the eggs alone. Once the eggs have finished steeping, they are usually served on top of the soup.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:41" href="#fn:41"><sup>41</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:42" href="#fn:42"><sup>42</sup></a> A similar method of cooking soft-boiled eggs popular in Japan is that of the hot spring boiled egg (温泉玉子, <i><a href="/facts/Onsen_tamago/zdj4JHrN">onsen tamago</a></i>), which is cooked at a constant temperature of 70 °C (158 °F) as is present in the volcanic <a href="/facts/Hot_spring/YrzFykH1">hot springs</a> of Japan, producing an egg with solid yolk and <a href="/facts/Sol_(colloid)/RsNj5FkF">sol</a>-like white.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:43" href="#fn:43"><sup>43</sup></a> </p> <h3>Other variations</h3> Piercing Some pierce the shell beforehand with an <a href="/facts/Egg_piercer/DCT5S1xq">egg piercer</a> to prevent cracking, following recommendations first published by the Poultry and Egg National Board in 1966.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:44" href="#fn:44"><sup>44</sup></a> The <a href="/facts/American_Egg_Board/FXg2wD5D">American Egg Board</a> currently recommends against this, as it can introduce bacteria and create hairline cracks in the shell through which bacteria can enter the egg.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:45" href="#fn:45"><sup>45</sup></a> A 1975 study showed increased cracking in pierced eggs compared to unpierced eggs.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:46" href="#fn:46"><sup>46</sup></a> Steaming Eggs can be taken straight from the refrigerator and placed in the <a href="/facts/Steamer_(appliance)/G4ouYcmw">steamer</a> at full steam.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:47" href="#fn:47"><sup>47</sup></a> Sous vide Boiled eggs can be made by cooking/coddling in their shell "<a href="/facts/Sous_vide/FHmwdqbH">sous vide</a>" in hot water at steady temperatures anywhere from 60 to 85 °C (140 to 185 °F). The outer egg white cooks at 75 °C (167 °F) and the yolk and the rest of the white sets from 60 to 65 °C (140 to 149 °F).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:48" href="#fn:48"><sup>48</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:49" href="#fn:49"><sup>49</sup></a> Baked eggs Eggs may be cooked to produce a result similar to boiling via baking in an oven by breaking eggs into a <a href="/facts/Muffin_tin/ubk5yfjb">muffin tin</a> or individual <a href="/facts/Ramekin/kAmGVNlV">ramekins</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:50" href="#fn:50"><sup>50</sup></a> Salted eggs In China, eggs (particularly <a href="/facts/Domestic_duck/E3PChqFm">duck</a> eggs) may be preserved by packing them in salt and charcoal or brine. The <a href="/facts/Salted_duck_egg/G881jSkT">salted egg</a> is then boiled or steamed prior to consumption. The process is related to <a href="/facts/Century_egg/y8JMVhrj">century eggs</a>, which are preserved for a long period and are not boiled.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:51" href="#fn:51"><sup>51</sup></a> The salting or pickling process in a typical salted egg takes 20—50 days.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:52" href="#fn:52"><sup>52</sup></a> <h2 id="dishes-featuring-boiled-eggs">Dishes featuring boiled eggs</h2> <p>Boiled eggs often form part of larger, more elaborate dishes. For example, a boiled egg may garnish a bowl of <a href="/facts/Ramen/1T9FRHH1">ramen</a> (often first marinated in <a href="/facts/Soy_sauce/D8BeXopa">soy sauce</a>), be baked into a pie such as a <a href="/facts/Torta_pasqualina/U1oXGUAD">torta pasqualina</a> [it],<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:53" href="#fn:53"><sup>53</sup></a> or be encased in <a href="/facts/Aspic/SwcDrLb1">aspic</a> (similar to the French dish œufs en gelée, which features poached eggs<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:54" href="#fn:54"><sup>54</sup></a>). They may also be chopped and mixed with mayonnaise to form <a href="/facts/Egg_salad/yIv0bEqT">egg salad</a>, or be deep-fried and then baked within a serving of <a href="/facts/Lamprais/75w6dgp0">lamprais</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:55" href="#fn:55"><sup>55</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="peeling">Peeling</h2> <p>Boiled eggs can vary widely in how easy it is to peel away the shells. In general, the fresher an egg before boiling, the more difficult it is to separate the shell cleanly from the egg white.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:56" href="#fn:56"><sup>56</sup></a> As a fresh egg ages, it gradually loses both moisture and carbon dioxide through pores in the shell; as a consequence, the contents of the egg shrink, it loses protein, and the <a href="/facts/PH/RnSv8D7y">pH</a> of the <a href="/facts/Egg_white/yABu7h1r">albumen</a> becomes more <a href="/facts/Base_(chemistry)/M9wA7qeM">basic</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:57" href="#fn:57"><sup>57</sup></a> Albumen with higher pH (more basic) is less likely to stick to the egg shell, while pockets of air develop in eggs that have lost significant amounts of moisture, also making eggs easier to peel.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:58" href="#fn:58"><sup>58</sup></a> </p><p>Keeping the cooked eggs soaked in water helps keep the membrane under the shell moist for easy peeling. Peeling the egg under cold running water is an effective method of removing the shell. Starting the cooking in hot water also makes the egg easier to peel.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:59" href="#fn:59"><sup>59</sup></a> </p><p>It is often claimed that steaming eggs in a <a href="/facts/Pressure_cooker/ugtHltbF">pressure cooker</a> makes them easier to peel.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:60" href="#fn:60"><sup>60</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Double_blind_testing/6ALSxX8M">Double blind testing</a> has failed to show any advantage of pressure cooking over steaming, and has further shown that starting boiling in cold water is counterproductive. Shocking the eggs by rapidly cooling them helped, and cooling them in ice water for 15 minutes or longer gave more successful peeling. Shocking was also found to remove the dimple in the base of the egg caused by the air space.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:61" href="#fn:61"><sup>61</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="safety">Safety</h2> <p>There are several <a href="/facts/Foodborne_illness/9lxqlJqg">foodborne illnesses</a> associated with eggs,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:62" href="#fn:62"><sup>62</sup></a> most if not all of which are caused by <a href="/facts/Pathogenic_bacteria/X5QcVN5j">pathogenic bacteria</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:63" href="#fn:63"><sup>63</sup></a> The harmful bacteria associated with eggs are mostly of the <a href="/facts/Genus/m8EFjSms">genus</a> <i><a href="/facts/Salmonella/2SkCRybG">Salmonella</a></i>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:64" href="#fn:64"><sup>64</sup></a> but other harmful bacteria that can grow at refrigerated temperatures have been found in retail egg products, such as <i><a href="/facts/Bacillus_cereus/dJwKR6uG">Bacillus cereus</a></i> and <i><a href="/facts/Staphylococcus_aureus/9yDVBMsc">Staphylococcus aureus</a></i>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:65" href="#fn:65"><sup>65</sup></a> Previous studies indicated that "the complete coagulation of [the] whole egg" was sufficient to destroy <i>Salmonella</i> bacteria,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:66" href="#fn:66"><sup>66</sup></a> but it is now known that the only factor in the inactivation or destruction of pathogenic bacteria in eggs is <a href="/facts/Temperature/QyGe4gmj">temperature</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:67" href="#fn:67"><sup>67</sup></a> Boiling eggs at a temperature of at least 62 °C (144 °F) for 30 minutes has been shown to inactivate <i>Salmonella</i> bacteria,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:68" href="#fn:68"><sup>68</sup></a> though the <a href="/facts/Food_and_Drug_Administration/rCEnh9WB">Food and Drug Administration</a> recommends cooking at the higher temperature of 74 °C (165 °F).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:69" href="#fn:69"><sup>69</sup></a> </p><p>Bulk hard-boiled eggs have been linked to disease outbreaks such as listeria<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:70" href="#fn:70"><sup>70</sup></a> and <i>S. aureus</i> infections, mainly from contamination and when eggs are not washed in the supply chain.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:71" href="#fn:71"><sup>71</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="see-also">See also</h2> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Coddled_egg/lhc9CwNN">Coddled egg</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Deviled_egg/fDvYf4VW">Deviled egg</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Egg_piercer/DCT5S1xq">Egg piercer</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Haminados/FQVn1QcG">Haminados</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/List_of_egg_dishes/aT0pqCfU">List of egg dishes</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Pickled_beet_egg/WrNnP2Bu">Pickled beet egg</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Tea_egg/8EmLTx8J">Tea egg</a></li> <li> Food portal</li></ul> <h2 id="notes">Notes</h2> <h3>Sources</h3> <ul><li>Nys, Yves; Bain, Maureen; Van Immerseel, Filip, eds. (2011). <i>Improving the safety and quality of eggs and egg products</i>. Vol. 1. Woodhead Publishing Limited. <a href="/facts/EISSN_(identifier)/DPAflDvU">eISSN</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2042-8057">2042-8057</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-85709-391-2.</li> <li>Stadelman, William J.; Cotterill, Owen J., eds. (1995). <a href="https://archive.org/details/eggsciencetechno0000unse_3ed/mode/2up"><i>Egg science and technology</i></a> (4th ed.). New York: <a href="/facts/Routledge/aSwcES11">Routledge</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 1-56022-854-7.</li> <li>Toops, Diane (15 April 2014). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZEadAwAAQBAJ"><i>Eggs: A Global History</i></a>. Reaktion Books. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-78023-311-6.</li> <li>Van Immerseel, Filip; Nys, Yves; Bain, Maureen, eds. (2011). <i>Improving the safety and quality of eggs and egg products</i>. Vol. 2. Woodhead Publishing Limited. <a href="/facts/EISSN_(identifier)/DPAflDvU">eISSN</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2042-8057">2042-8057</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-85709-392-9.</li></ul> <h2 id="external-links">External links</h2> Wikibooks Cookbook has a recipe/module on <ul><li><i>Soft Boiled Eggs</i></li> <li><i>Hard Boiled Eggs</i></li></ul> Wikimedia Commons has media related to Boiled eggs. Look up <i>boiled egg</i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. <ul><li><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150709111015/http://www.incredibleegg.org/recipes-and-more/cooking-school/hard-boil-eggs">Basic Hard-Cooked Eggs</a>, American Egg Board</li> <li><a href="http://newton.ex.ac.uk/teaching/CDHW/egg/">Boiling an Egg – Science Background</a></li> <li><a href="http://blog.khymos.org/2009/04/09/towards-the-perfect-soft-boiled-egg/">Boiling of eggs for molecular gastronomers</a></li></ul> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>Mine, Yoshinori; Guyonnet, Vincent; Hatta, Hajime; Nau, Françoise; Qiu, Ning (12 September 2023). "Traditional Egg and Egg Products". Handbook of Egg Science and Technology. CRC Press. pp. 259–280. ISBN 978-1-000-89961-0. <a href="978-1-000-89961-0" target="_blank">978-1-000-89961-0</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>Kaufman, Cathy K. (2006). Cooking in ancient civilizations. Internet Archive. Westport, Conn. : Greenwood Press. pp. 96, 142. ISBN 978-0-313-33204-3. <a href="978-0-313-33204-3" target="_blank">978-0-313-33204-3</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>Davidson, Alan (20 November 2014), Jaine, Tom (ed.), "egg", The Oxford Companion to Food, Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/acref/9780199677337.001.0001, ISBN 978-0-19-967733-7, retrieved 25 September 2024 <a href="978-0-19-967733-7" target="_blank">978-0-19-967733-7</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:4"><p>Sci Bytes (18 July 2018). "Why do eggs "hard-boil?"". 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