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Autonomy and heteronomy
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<h2 id="definitions">Definitions</h2> <p>A variety is said to be autonomous if it has an independent cultural status. This may occur if the variety is structurally different from all others, a situation <a href="/facts/Heinz_Kloss/u5vmhJN9">Heinz Kloss</a> called <i><a href="/facts/Abstand_and_ausbau_languages/n7SUwcFP">abstand</a></i>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:2" href="#fn:2"><sup>2</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:3" href="#fn:3"><sup>3</sup></a> Thus <a href="/facts/Language_isolate/229etAHg">language isolates</a> such as <a href="/facts/Basque_language/rEMpH97p">Basque</a> are necessarily autonomous.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:4" href="#fn:4"><sup>4</sup></a> Where several closely related varieties are found together, a <a href="/facts/Standard_language/1AV0uont">standard language</a> is autonomous because it has its own orthography, dictionaries, grammar books and literature.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5"><sup>5</sup></a> In the terminology of Heinz Kloss, these are the attributes of <i><a href="/facts/Abstand_and_ausbau_languages/n7SUwcFP">ausbau</a></i>, or the elaboration of a language to serve as a literary standard.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6"><sup>6</sup></a> </p><p>A variety is said to be heteronomous with respect to a <a href="/facts/Language_family/IpJv9o5S">genetically related</a> standardized variety if speakers read and write the other variety, which they consider the standard form of their speech, and any standardizing changes in their speech are toward that standard.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7"><sup>7</sup></a> In such cases, the heteronomous variety is said to be dependent on, or oriented toward, the autonomous one. In the terminology of Heinz Kloss, the heteronomous varieties are said to be under the "roof" of the standard variety.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8"><sup>8</sup></a> For example, the various <a href="/facts/German_dialects/e6W9NA9g">regional varieties of German</a> (so called "dialects"), such as <a href="/facts/Alemannic_German/F9JVuJa1">Alemannic</a>, <a href="/facts/Bavarian_language/mdBH4q9z">Austro-Bavarian</a>, Central, Eastern, and Northern <a href="/facts/Hessian_dialects/sjrvuB3a">Hessian</a>, <a href="/facts/Colognian_dialect/wM3cALSV">Kölsch</a>, <a href="/facts/Low_German/BPxhrjlB">Low German</a>, and more, are heteronomous with respect to <a href="/facts/Standard_German/9qsa3C2S">Standard German</a>, even though many of them are not mutually intelligible.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9"><sup>9</sup></a> </p> <p>A <a href="/facts/Dialect_continuum/0QAuqxp3">dialect continuum</a> may be partitioned by these dependency relationships, which are often determined by extra-linguistic factors. For example, although Germanic varieties spoken on either side of the Dutch–German border are very similar, those spoken in the <a href="/facts/Netherlands/y8xn5stT">Netherlands</a> are oriented toward Standard <a href="/facts/Dutch_language/yIB5lbsx">Dutch</a>, whereas those spoken in <a href="/facts/Germany/paluuWBX">Germany</a> are oriented toward <a href="/facts/Standard_German/9qsa3C2S">Standard German</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10"><sup>10</sup></a> </p><p>Within this framework, a <i>language</i> may be defined as an autonomous variety together with all the varieties that are heteronomous with respect to it.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11"><sup>11</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12"><sup>12</sup></a> Stewart noted that an essentially equivalent definition had been stated by <a href="/facts/Charles_A._Ferguson/o9dXvhdw">Charles A. Ferguson</a> and <a href="/facts/John_J._Gumperz/vv1NkEBE">John J. Gumperz</a> in 1960.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13"><sup>13</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14"><sup>14</sup></a> In these terms, <a href="/facts/Danish_language/sTcGXTMJ">Danish</a> and <a href="/facts/Norwegian_language/TGEyeerM">Norwegian</a>, though mutually intelligible to a large degree, are considered separate languages.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15"><sup>15</sup></a> Conversely, although the <a href="/facts/Varieties_of_Chinese/MNGv4yrP">varieties of Chinese</a> are mutually unintelligible and have significant differences in phonology, syntax and vocabulary, they may be viewed as comprising a single language because they are all heteronomous with respect to <a href="/facts/Standard_Chinese/ofl48GA8">Standard Chinese</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16"><sup>16</sup></a> Similarly, a heteronomous variety may be considered a <i>dialect</i> of a language defined in this way.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17"><sup>17</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="change-of-status">Change of status</h2> <p>Autonomy and heteronomy are largely <a href="/facts/Political_sociology/48UfHpGT">sociopolitical</a> constructs rather than the result of intrinsic linguistic differences, and thus may change over time.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18"><sup>18</sup></a> </p><p>Heteronomous varieties may become dependent on a different standard as a result of social or political changes. For example, the <a href="/facts/Scanian_dialects/CXnfYTMt">Scanian dialects</a> spoken at the southern tip of <a href="/facts/Sweden/u3qC7lyj">Sweden</a>, were considered dialects of <a href="/facts/Danish_language/sTcGXTMJ">Danish</a> when the area was part of the kingdom of <a href="/facts/Denmark/KVtykzsw">Denmark</a>. A few decades after <a href="/facts/Treaty_of_Roskilde/y9UYoklF">the area was transferred to Sweden</a>, these varieties were generally regarded as dialects of Swedish, although the dialects themselves had not changed.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19"><sup>19</sup></a> </p><p>Efforts to achieve autonomy are often connected with <a href="/facts/Nationalist/IECpIhm0">nationalist</a> movements and the establishment of <a href="/facts/Nation_state/1T5FVEJP">nation states</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20"><sup>20</sup></a> An example of a variety that has gained autonomy is <a href="/facts/Afrikaans/jYqEPHmA">Afrikaans</a>, which was formerly considered a dialect of <a href="/facts/Dutch_language/yIB5lbsx">Dutch</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21"><sup>21</sup></a> Sometimes it is stated that examples of varieties that have gained autonomy include <a href="/facts/Serbian_language/quNDpTCd">Serbian</a>, <a href="/facts/Croatian_language/o2Y8WHuy">Croatian</a>, and <a href="/facts/Bosnian_language/T6magSgv">Bosnian</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22"><sup>22</sup></a> but "the four varieties - Bosnian, Croatian, Montenegrin, and Serbian - are all totally mutually comprehensible [...] What there is, is a common, polycentric standard language - just like, say, French, which has Belgian, Swiss, French, and Canadian variants but is definitely not four different languages. [...] Linguistic scientists are agreed that BCSM is essentially a single language with four different standard variants bearing different names".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23"><sup>23</sup></a> </p><p>Examples of languages that have previously been considered to be autonomous but are now sometimes considered heteronomous are <a href="/facts/Occitan_language/w0etTc3w">Occitan</a>, sometimes considered a dialect of <a href="/facts/French_language/qe1DnaQh">French</a>; <a href="/facts/Low_German/BPxhrjlB">Low German</a>, occasionally considered to be a dialect of <a href="/facts/German_language/oWaQIDA8">German</a>;<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24"><sup>24</sup></a> and <a href="/facts/Modern_Scots/Cf65MbDe">Scots</a> with regard to <a href="/facts/British_English/ymJR5Rnd">Standard English</a>, though the German linguist <a href="/facts/Heinz_Kloss/u5vmhJN9">Heinz Kloss</a> considered Scots a <i>Halbsprache</i> ('half language') in terms of an <a href="/facts/Abstand_and_ausbau_languages/n7SUwcFP">abstand and ausbau languages</a> framework<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25"><sup>25</sup></a> due to its prestigious literary conventions as, for example, described in the 1921 <i>Manual of Modern Scots</i>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26"><sup>26</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="see-also">See also</h2> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Abstand_and_ausbau_languages/n7SUwcFP">Abstand and ausbau languages</a></li> <li>"<a href="/facts/A_language_is_a_dialect_with_an_army_and_navy/PyknuGs5">A language is a dialect with an army and navy</a>"</li> <li><a href="/facts/Language_secessionism/HQJ71D8C">Language secessionism</a></li></ul> <p>Works cited </p> <ul><li>Ammon, Ulrich (2004), "Standard Variety", in Wiegand, Herbert Ernst (ed.), <i>Sociolinguistics: An International Handbook of the Science of Language and Society, vol. 1</i> (2nd ed.), Berlin: deGruyter, pp. 273–283, <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-3-11-014189-4.</li> <li>Bisang, Walter (2004), "Dialectology and typology – an integrative perspective", in Kortmann, Bernd (ed.), <i>Dialectology Meets Typology: Dialect Grammar from a Cross-linguistic Perspective</i>, de Gruyter, pp. 11–45, <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-3-11-017949-1.</li> <li><a href="/facts/Jack_Chambers_(linguist)/y9cnpeBl">Chambers, J.K.</a>; <a href="/facts/Peter_Trudgill/3jSNwb5f">Trudgill, Peter</a> (1998), <i>Dialectology</i> (2nd ed.), Cambridge University Press, <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-521-59646-6.</li> <li><a href="/facts/Charles_A._Ferguson/o9dXvhdw">Ferguson, Charles A.</a>; <a href="/facts/John_J._Gumperz/vv1NkEBE">Gumperz, John J.</a> (1960), "Introduction", in Ferguson, Charles A.; Gumperz, John J. (eds.), <i>Linguistic Diversity in South Asia: Studies in Regional, Social, and Functional Variation</i>, Indiana University, Research Center in Anthropology, Folklore, and Linguistics, pp. 1–18.</li> <li><a href="/facts/Peter_Trudgill/3jSNwb5f">Trudgill, Peter</a> (30 November 2017). <a href="https://archive.org/details/PeterTrudgillTimeToMakeFourIntoOne2017">"Time to Make Four into One"</a>. <a href="/facts/The_New_European/HPdAQ6Pn">The New European</a>. p. 46. Retrieved 2024-01-22.</li> <li>—— (2004), <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180929183549/https://www.academia.edu/2570124/Glocalisation_and_the_Ausbau_sociolinguistics_of_modern_Europe">"Glocalisation and the Ausbau sociolinguistics of modern Europe"</a>, in Duszak, A.; Okulska, U. (eds.), <i>Speaking from the margin: Global English from a European perspective</i>, Frankfurt: Peter Lang, pp. 35–49, <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-8204-7328-4, archived from <a href="https://www.academia.edu/2570124">the original</a> on 2018-09-29, retrieved 2017-12-02.</li> <li>—— (1992), "Ausbau sociolinguistics and the perception of language status in contemporary Europe", <i>International Journal of Applied Linguistics</i>, 2 (2): 167–177, <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1473-4192.1992.tb00031.x">10.1111/j.1473-4192.1992.tb00031.x</a>.</li> <li><a href="/facts/William_Alexander_Stewart/Q9nQvwo1">Stewart, William A.</a> (1968), "A sociolinguistic typology for describing national multilingualism", in Fishman, Joshua A. (ed.), <i>Readings in the Sociology of Language</i>, De Gruyter, pp. 531–545, <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2F9783110805376.531">10.1515/9783110805376.531</a>, <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-3-11-080537-6.</li></ul> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>Stewart (1968), p. 535. - Stewart, William A. (1968), "A sociolinguistic typology for describing national multilingualism", in Fishman, Joshua A. (ed.), Readings in the Sociology of Language, De Gruyter, pp. 531–545, doi:10.1515/9783110805376.531, ISBN 978-3-11-080537-6. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2F9783110805376.531" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1515%2F9783110805376.531</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>Stewart (1968), p. 535. - Stewart, William A. (1968), "A sociolinguistic typology for describing national multilingualism", in Fishman, Joshua A. (ed.), Readings in the Sociology of Language, De Gruyter, pp. 531–545, doi:10.1515/9783110805376.531, ISBN 978-3-11-080537-6. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2F9783110805376.531" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1515%2F9783110805376.531</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>Trudgill (2004), p. 36. - —— (2004), "Glocalisation and the Ausbau sociolinguistics of modern Europe", in Duszak, A.; Okulska, U. (eds.), Speaking from the margin: Global English from a European perspective, Frankfurt: Peter Lang, pp. 35–49, ISBN 978-0-8204-7328-4, archived from the original on 2018-09-29, retrieved 2017-12-02. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180929183549/https://www.academia.edu/2570124/Glocalisation_and_the_Ausbau_sociolinguistics_of_modern_Europe" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20180929183549/https://www.academia.edu/2570124/Glocalisation_and_the_Ausbau_sociolinguistics_of_modern_Europe</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:4"><p>Trudgill (2004), p. 36. - —— (2004), "Glocalisation and the Ausbau sociolinguistics of modern Europe", in Duszak, A.; Okulska, U. (eds.), Speaking from the margin: Global English from a European perspective, Frankfurt: Peter Lang, pp. 35–49, ISBN 978-0-8204-7328-4, archived from the original on 2018-09-29, retrieved 2017-12-02. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180929183549/https://www.academia.edu/2570124/Glocalisation_and_the_Ausbau_sociolinguistics_of_modern_Europe" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20180929183549/https://www.academia.edu/2570124/Glocalisation_and_the_Ausbau_sociolinguistics_of_modern_Europe</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:5"><p>Trudgill (2004), p. 36. - —— (2004), "Glocalisation and the Ausbau sociolinguistics of modern Europe", in Duszak, A.; Okulska, U. (eds.), Speaking from the margin: Global English from a European perspective, Frankfurt: Peter Lang, pp. 35–49, ISBN 978-0-8204-7328-4, archived from the original on 2018-09-29, retrieved 2017-12-02. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180929183549/https://www.academia.edu/2570124/Glocalisation_and_the_Ausbau_sociolinguistics_of_modern_Europe" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20180929183549/https://www.academia.edu/2570124/Glocalisation_and_the_Ausbau_sociolinguistics_of_modern_Europe</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:6"><p>Trudgill (2004), p. 36. - —— (2004), "Glocalisation and the Ausbau sociolinguistics of modern Europe", in Duszak, A.; Okulska, U. (eds.), Speaking from the margin: Global English from a European perspective, Frankfurt: Peter Lang, pp. 35–49, ISBN 978-0-8204-7328-4, archived from the original on 2018-09-29, retrieved 2017-12-02. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180929183549/https://www.academia.edu/2570124/Glocalisation_and_the_Ausbau_sociolinguistics_of_modern_Europe" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20180929183549/https://www.academia.edu/2570124/Glocalisation_and_the_Ausbau_sociolinguistics_of_modern_Europe</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:7"><p>Chambers & Trudgill (1998), p. 9. - Chambers, J.K.; Trudgill, Peter (1998), Dialectology (2nd ed.), Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-59646-6. <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:8"><p>Ammon (2004), p. 280. - Ammon, Ulrich (2004), "Standard Variety", in Wiegand, Herbert Ernst (ed.), Sociolinguistics: An International Handbook of the Science of Language and Society, vol. 1 (2nd ed.), Berlin: deGruyter, pp. 273–283, ISBN 978-3-11-014189-4. <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:9"><p>Chambers & Trudgill (1998), p. 4. - Chambers, J.K.; Trudgill, Peter (1998), Dialectology (2nd ed.), Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-59646-6. <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:10"><p>Trudgill (1992), p. 169. - —— (1992), "Ausbau sociolinguistics and the perception of language status in contemporary Europe", International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 2 (2): 167–177, doi:10.1111/j.1473-4192.1992.tb00031.x. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1473-4192.1992.tb00031.x" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1473-4192.1992.tb00031.x</a> <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:11"><p>Stewart (1968), p. 535. - Stewart, William A. (1968), "A sociolinguistic typology for describing national multilingualism", in Fishman, Joshua A. (ed.), Readings in the Sociology of Language, De Gruyter, pp. 531–545, doi:10.1515/9783110805376.531, ISBN 978-3-11-080537-6. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2F9783110805376.531" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1515%2F9783110805376.531</a> <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:12"><p>Chambers & Trudgill (1998), p. 11. - Chambers, J.K.; Trudgill, Peter (1998), Dialectology (2nd ed.), Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-59646-6. <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:13"><p>Stewart (1968), p. 535. - Stewart, William A. (1968), "A sociolinguistic typology for describing national multilingualism", in Fishman, Joshua A. (ed.), Readings in the Sociology of Language, De Gruyter, pp. 531–545, doi:10.1515/9783110805376.531, ISBN 978-3-11-080537-6. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2F9783110805376.531" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1515%2F9783110805376.531</a> <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:14"><p>Ferguson & Gumperz (1960), p. 5. - Ferguson, Charles A.; Gumperz, John J. (1960), "Introduction", in Ferguson, Charles A.; Gumperz, John J. (eds.), Linguistic Diversity in South Asia: Studies in Regional, Social, and Functional Variation, Indiana University, Research Center in Anthropology, Folklore, and Linguistics, pp. 1–18. <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:15"><p>Chambers & Trudgill (1998), p. 11. - Chambers, J.K.; Trudgill, Peter (1998), Dialectology (2nd ed.), Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-59646-6. <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:16"><p>Bisang (2004), p. 13. - Bisang, Walter (2004), "Dialectology and typology – an integrative perspective", in Kortmann, Bernd (ed.), Dialectology Meets Typology: Dialect Grammar from a Cross-linguistic Perspective, de Gruyter, pp. 11–45, ISBN 978-3-11-017949-1. <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:17"><p>Stewart (1968), p. 535. - Stewart, William A. (1968), "A sociolinguistic typology for describing national multilingualism", in Fishman, Joshua A. (ed.), Readings in the Sociology of Language, De Gruyter, pp. 531–545, doi:10.1515/9783110805376.531, ISBN 978-3-11-080537-6. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2F9783110805376.531" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1515%2F9783110805376.531</a> <a href="#fnref:17" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:18"><p>Trudgill (1992), p. 169. - —— (1992), "Ausbau sociolinguistics and the perception of language status in contemporary Europe", International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 2 (2): 167–177, doi:10.1111/j.1473-4192.1992.tb00031.x. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1473-4192.1992.tb00031.x" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1473-4192.1992.tb00031.x</a> <a href="#fnref:18" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:19"><p>Chambers & Trudgill (1998), pp. 9–11. - Chambers, J.K.; Trudgill, Peter (1998), Dialectology (2nd ed.), Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-59646-6. <a href="#fnref:19" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:20"><p>Trudgill (2004), pp. 35, 46. - —— (2004), "Glocalisation and the Ausbau sociolinguistics of modern Europe", in Duszak, A.; Okulska, U. (eds.), Speaking from the margin: Global English from a European perspective, Frankfurt: Peter Lang, pp. 35–49, ISBN 978-0-8204-7328-4, archived from the original on 2018-09-29, retrieved 2017-12-02. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180929183549/https://www.academia.edu/2570124/Glocalisation_and_the_Ausbau_sociolinguistics_of_modern_Europe" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20180929183549/https://www.academia.edu/2570124/Glocalisation_and_the_Ausbau_sociolinguistics_of_modern_Europe</a> <a href="#fnref:20" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:21"><p>Chambers & Trudgill (1998), pp. 7, 11. - Chambers, J.K.; Trudgill, Peter (1998), Dialectology (2nd ed.), Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-59646-6. <a href="#fnref:21" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:22"><p>Chambers & Trudgill (1998), pp. 7, 11. - Chambers, J.K.; Trudgill, Peter (1998), Dialectology (2nd ed.), Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-59646-6. <a href="#fnref:22" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:23"><p>Trudgill (2017), p. 46. - Trudgill, Peter (30 November 2017). "Time to Make Four into One". The New European. p. 46. Retrieved 2024-01-22. <a href="https://archive.org/details/PeterTrudgillTimeToMakeFourIntoOne2017" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/PeterTrudgillTimeToMakeFourIntoOne2017</a> <a href="#fnref:23" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:24"><p>Trudgill (1992), p. 169. - —— (1992), "Ausbau sociolinguistics and the perception of language status in contemporary Europe", International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 2 (2): 167–177, doi:10.1111/j.1473-4192.1992.tb00031.x. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1473-4192.1992.tb00031.x" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1473-4192.1992.tb00031.x</a> <a href="#fnref:24" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:25"><p>Kloss, Heinz, ²1968, Die Entwicklung neuer germanischer Kultursprachen seit 1800, Düsseldorf: Bagel. pp.70, 79 <a href="#fnref:25" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:26"><p>Grant, William; Dixon, James Main (1921) Manual of Modern Scots. Cambridge, University Press <a href="#fnref:26" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> </ol>