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Japanese serow
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<h2 id="taxonomy">Taxonomy</h2> <p>Taxonomically <a href="/facts/Coenraad_Jacob_Temminck/sDC9WWp5">Coenraad Jacob Temminck</a> first described the Japanese serow in 1836,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:2" href="#fn:2"><sup>2</sup></a> and named it <i>Antilope crispa</i>. <a href="/facts/John_Edward_Gray/6JdrIDH0">John Edward Gray</a> gave it its current name in 1846.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:3" href="#fn:3"><sup>3</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Pierre_Marie_Heude/b5WlADed">Pierre Marie Heude</a> proposed many new genera and species in a system published in 1898; <i>Capricornis</i> became <i>Capricornulus</i>, which included <i>crispus</i>, <i>pryerianus</i>, and <i>saxicola</i>. The system did not find acceptance.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:4" href="#fn:4"><sup>4</sup></a> </p> <p>There is no fossil record of the Japanese serow; its evolutionary history and the closeness of its relation to the <a href="/facts/Taiwan_serow/D11V6Wdf">Taiwan serow</a> (<i>Capricornis swinhoei</i>) are speculative.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5"><sup>5</sup></a> Its taxonomic position has led to it being called a "living fossil".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6"><sup>6</sup></a> Karyotype studies indicate it was the earliest species to split from the common <i>Capricornis</i> ancestor.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7"><sup>7</sup></a> The closest relative to the Japanese serow is the <a href="/facts/Taiwan_serow/D11V6Wdf">Taiwan serow</a> (<i>Capricornis swinhoei</i>). Genetically, there is little difference between Japanese and Taiwan serows; their <a href="/facts/Karyotype/UM8j41yA">karyotype</a> is essentially the same: <a href="/facts/Ploidy/U8zl4AQe">2n</a>=50, <a href="/facts/Karyotype/UM8j41yA">FN</a>=60.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8"><sup>8</sup></a> The Taiwan serow is smaller and shorter-haired, with browner fur and a white patch under the chin and throat.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9"><sup>9</sup></a> </p><p><a href="/facts/Phylogenetics/bw4rsovt">Phylogenetically</a>, <i>Capricornis</i> is closer to <a href="/facts/Goat/BrsPJmdX">goats</a> and <a href="/facts/Sheep/cjkJyI4f">sheep</a> than <a href="/facts/Cattle/44qV9B6S">cattle</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10"><sup>10</sup></a> The nomenclature and status of <i>Capricornis</i> taxa are not completely resolved.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11"><sup>11</sup></a> Some researchers have considered <i>Capricornis</i> a junior <a href="/facts/Synonym_(taxonomy)/BHLdox7E">synonym</a> of <i>Naemorhedus</i>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12"><sup>12</sup></a> a classification that includes <a href="/facts/Goral/azVcUh8o">gorals</a>;<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13"><sup>13</sup></a> molecular analysis has not supported this classification.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14"><sup>14</sup></a> <i>Capricornis</i> has a lower <a href="/facts/Canine_tooth/p3mRABtg">canine</a>, which <i>Naemorhedus</i> species usually do not.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15"><sup>15</sup></a> </p><p>In Japan, the serow is widely thought of as a kind of deer, though deer and serows are in different families. In the past, the Japanese word <i><i>kamoshika</i></i><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16"><sup>16</sup></a> was written using the <a href="/facts/Kanji/E1IN7hVL">Chinese character</a> for <i><i>shika</i></i>, meaning "deer".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17"><sup>17</sup></a> Today, when written using Chinese characters, the characters for "antelope" and "sheep"<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18"><sup>18</sup></a> are used. Sometimes the serow is mistaken for a <a href="/facts/Wild_boar/Sk8TgJkS">wild boar</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19"><sup>19</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="appearance-and-anatomy">Appearance and anatomy</h2> <p>The Japanese serow<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20"><sup>20</sup></a> is a small <a href="/facts/Bovid/pUVW36Nh">bovid</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21"><sup>21</sup></a> whose displayed <a href="/facts/Morphology_(biology)/Nl3B0myy">morphology</a> is <a href="/facts/Primitive_(phylogenetics)/PqDfhuWm">primitive</a> in relation to other bovids. It has a stocky body whose size varies little between sexes or geographic location; it stands about 70–85 centimetres (28–33 in) tall (70–75 centimetres (28–30 in) at the shoulder)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22"><sup>22</sup></a> and weighs 30–50 kilograms (66–110 lb).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23"><sup>23</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24"><sup>24</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25"><sup>25</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26"><sup>26</sup></a> The hoof is <a href="/facts/Cloven_hoof/stzq18md">cloven</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27"><sup>27</sup></a> Compared to mainland <a href="/facts/Serow/YNG8I8xq">serow</a>, the ears are shorter and the coat is typically longer and woollier—about 10 centimetres (3.9 in) on the body. It has a bushy tail<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28"><sup>28</sup></a> of 6–6.5 centimetres (2.4–2.6 in)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29"><sup>29</sup></a> and no mane.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30"><sup>30</sup></a> </p><p>Its fur is whitish around the neck,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31"><sup>31</sup></a> and fur on the body may be black, black with a dorsal white spot, dark brown, or whitish.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32"><sup>32</sup></a> The coat lightens in summer.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33"><sup>33</sup></a> There are three well-developed <a href="/facts/Skin_gland/XAoxW5q4">skin glands</a>:<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34"><sup>34</sup></a> large <a href="/facts/Preorbital_gland/wr8l2CsK">preorbital</a> glands in both sexes, which increase in size as the animal ages;<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35"><sup>35</sup></a> poorly developed<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36"><sup>36</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Interdigital_gland/pJ24FeKt">interdigital</a> glands in all four legs;<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37"><sup>37</sup></a> and <a href="/facts/Preputial_gland/UNsYhxIh">preputial glands</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38"><sup>38</sup></a> The adult's 32 permanent teeth form by 30 months, and have a <a href="/facts/Dentition/yMEdzfHh">dental formula</a> of 0.0.3.33.1.3.3.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39"><sup>39</sup></a> The inner sides of the teeth become blackened with a hard-to-remove substance, likely tree resin.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40"><sup>40</sup></a> The tongue has a V-shaped <a href="/facts/Anterior_tongue/oW4tp3a0">apex</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:41" href="#fn:41"><sup>41</sup></a> </p> <p><a href="/facts/Sexual_dimorphism/nx9wulFy">Differentiation between the sexes</a> is not well developed;<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:42" href="#fn:42"><sup>42</sup></a> body size, growth, survival, and feeding habits show negligible difference.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:43" href="#fn:43"><sup>43</sup></a> Both sexes have short,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:44" href="#fn:44"><sup>44</sup></a> backwards-curving horns measuring 12–16 centimetres (4.7–6.3 in);<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:45" href="#fn:45"><sup>45</sup></a> the sheaths have a series of transverse rings. Horns begin to develop at about four months<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:46" href="#fn:46"><sup>46</sup></a> and continue to grow throughout the lifespan.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:47" href="#fn:47"><sup>47</sup></a> </p><p>Environment affects the size of the first growth ring. Size, curvature, and thickness and number of transverse rings are indicative of age. Up to two years, there are thicker transverse rings, of greater length and flexion than in adults. Into adulthood, thinner horn rings force the thick transverse rings upward. Growth increment slows earlier in maturation in females than in males.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:48" href="#fn:48"><sup>48</sup></a> Researchers use genitalia and sexual behaviour to distinguish the sexes.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:49" href="#fn:49"><sup>49</sup></a> Females have two pairs of <a href="/facts/Mammary_gland/6fVBnNSA">mammae</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:50" href="#fn:50"><sup>50</sup></a> </p><p>Hearing is sensitive<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:51" href="#fn:51"><sup>51</sup></a> and eyesight is strong—the serow is able to detect and react to movement from a distance, and it can see well in low lighting. Sense of smell is also strong, and the serow can be observed raising its head and sniffing the air around it.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:52" href="#fn:52"><sup>52</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="distribution-ecology-and-behaviour">Distribution, ecology, and behaviour</h2> <p><i>Capricornis crispus</i> is the only wild bovine <a href="/facts/Ruminant/tTcBMxk4">ruminant</a> in Japan,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:53" href="#fn:53"><sup>53</sup></a> and is <a href="/facts/Endemism/xt4IpIsl">endemic</a> to three of the four main islands of Japan:<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:54" href="#fn:54"><sup>54</sup></a> primarily northern and central <a href="/facts/Honshu/Rp7Ew35d">Honshu</a>, and small areas in <a href="/facts/Shikoku/j9cUI49U">Shikoku</a> and <a href="/facts/Kyushu/eM5yaMe3">Kyushu</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:55" href="#fn:55"><sup>55</sup></a> It can tolerate colder, snowier climates better than mainland serows.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:56" href="#fn:56"><sup>56</sup></a> The animal is found solitary, in pairs, or in small family groups<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:57" href="#fn:57"><sup>57</sup></a> in open grassland and forests at an elevation of about 1,000 metres (3,300 ft),<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:58" href="#fn:58"><sup>58</sup></a> and uses caves to rest in.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:59" href="#fn:59"><sup>59</sup></a> It prefers <a href="/facts/Temperate_deciduous_forest/JEKPQjAq">temperate deciduous forest</a>, but also lives in broad-leaved or subalpine <a href="/facts/Temperate_coniferous_forest/76dtmt2J">coniferous forest</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:60" href="#fn:60"><sup>60</sup></a> made up of <a href="/facts/Fagus_crenata/RGSP76Wq">Japanese beech</a>, <a href="/facts/Quercus_crispula/vEfWthGp">Japanese oak</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:61" href="#fn:61"><sup>61</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Alpine_tundra/lRTYfrHa">alpine meadow</a>, and coniferous plantations.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:62" href="#fn:62"><sup>62</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Population_density/70zGTCFc">Population density</a> is low, at an average of 2.6 per square kilometre (6.7/sq mi),<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:63" href="#fn:63"><sup>63</sup></a> and no greater than 20 per square kilometre (52/sq mi).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:64" href="#fn:64"><sup>64</sup></a> </p> <p><i>C. crispus</i> is <a href="/facts/Philopatry/yBLu6IJu">philopatric</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:65" href="#fn:65"><sup>65</sup></a> and territorial,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:66" href="#fn:66"><sup>66</sup></a> and marks trees with sweet-sour-smelling preorbital gland secretions to indicate its territory.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:67" href="#fn:67"><sup>67</sup></a> Males and females establish separate, overlapping ranges, typically 10–15 hectares (25–37 acres),<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:68" href="#fn:68"><sup>68</sup></a> but the male's is typically larger than the female's.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:69" href="#fn:69"><sup>69</sup></a> Aggression is rare, but the serow may react with hostility to territorial breaches.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:70" href="#fn:70"><sup>70</sup></a> Due to the extinction of its once-primary predator, the <a href="/facts/Honshu_wolf/wUVgInEL">Japanese wolf</a>, the <a href="/facts/Japanese_black_bear/HAygmcA6">Japanese black bear</a> is its only predator. It flees with a whistling snort when it detects danger.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:71" href="#fn:71"><sup>71</sup></a> It is an agile, sure-footed mountain dweller that is able to sprint up mountains and to jump from cliff to cliff to safety; hunters have likened this display of agility to the <a href="/facts/Ninja/T6x4eMkV">ninja</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:72" href="#fn:72"><sup>72</sup></a> </p><p>The <a href="/facts/Diurnality/GgXnXvN7">diurnal</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:73" href="#fn:73"><sup>73</sup></a> Japanese serow is a <a href="/facts/Browsing_(herbivory)/CofkS0Nv">browser</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:74" href="#fn:74"><sup>74</sup></a> that feeds in early morning and late afternoon, primarily on fleshy or coniferous leaves, plant shoots, and acorns.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:75" href="#fn:75"><sup>75</sup></a> It feeds on <a href="/facts/Alder/KbD9YG8w">alder</a>, <a href="/facts/Carex/6Yhzcr6D">sedge</a>, Japanese <a href="/facts/Witch-hazel/yDLghsWN">witch-hazel</a> (<i>Hamamelis japonica</i>), and <a href="/facts/Cryptomeria/oj38smcd">Japanese cedar</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:76" href="#fn:76"><sup>76</sup></a> It adjusts its diet to what food is locally available,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:77" href="#fn:77"><sup>77</sup></a> and, as a ruminant, the serow has a four-chambered stomach.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:78" href="#fn:78"><sup>78</sup></a> Studies indicate that even severe winters have a negligible impact on the serow's food intake, suggesting that, given its solitary social structure, it selects its territory to ensure sufficient food supply.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:79" href="#fn:79"><sup>79</sup></a> Defecation occurs in set locations.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:80" href="#fn:80"><sup>80</sup></a> </p><p>Life expectancies may be up to 20–25 years.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:81" href="#fn:81"><sup>81</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:82" href="#fn:82"><sup>82</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Parapoxvirus/I0SwkWPo">Parapoxvirus</a> is common, though rarely fatal; infection causes <a href="/facts/Papule/2J7QwJdE">papular</a> and <a href="/facts/Nodule_(medicine)/BgCs3GNE">nodular</a> lesions.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:83" href="#fn:83"><sup>83</sup></a> There have been epidemics of <a href="/facts/Orf_(disease)/9YlXo4Qc">contagious pustular dermatitis</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:84" href="#fn:84"><sup>84</sup></a> Bacteria such as <i><a href="/facts/Escherichia_coli/nR4Gvl56">E. coli</a></i> and <i><a href="/facts/Lyme_disease/820IycaC">Lyme borreliosis</a></i> are common,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:85" href="#fn:85"><sup>85</sup></a> and <i><a href="/facts/Toxoplasma_gondii/LzFxHk0j">Toxoplasma gondii</a></i> has been reported.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:86" href="#fn:86"><sup>86</sup></a> <i>C. crispus</i> is susceptible to numerous parasites, such as the <a href="/facts/Nematode/yLMJ43Eu">nematode</a> <i><a href="/facts/Trichuris_discolor/cdPKfy3o">Trichuris discolor</a></i> and the <a href="/facts/Lungworm/mTSPszyK">lungworm</a> <i><a href="/facts/Protostrongylus_shiozawai/oBD7bA5g">Protostrongylus shiozawai</a></i>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:87" href="#fn:87"><sup>87</sup></a> </p> <h3>Reproduction</h3> <p><i>Capricornis crispus</i> is socially <a href="/facts/Monogamous_pairing_in_animals/AvmMepzc">monogamous</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:88" href="#fn:88"><sup>88</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:89" href="#fn:89"><sup>89</sup></a> Females reach sexual maturity at 30 months.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:90" href="#fn:90"><sup>90</sup></a> First breeding takes place at age 2.5–3 years; breeding occurs once a year,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:91" href="#fn:91"><sup>91</sup></a> between September and January.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:92" href="#fn:92"><sup>92</sup></a> In a <a href="/facts/Courtship_display/U8Jl6SFq">courtship ritual</a> resembling that of goats or gazelles, the male Japanese serow licks the female's mouth, strikes her on the hindlegs with his forelegs, and rubs her genitalia with his horns.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:93" href="#fn:93"><sup>93</sup></a> Both sexes display <a href="/facts/Flehmen_response/C52jEXve">Flehmen responses</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:94" href="#fn:94"><sup>94</sup></a> </p><p>Birth takes place between June and August<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:95" href="#fn:95"><sup>95</sup></a> after a <a href="/facts/Gestation_period/WgfFSV9R">gestation period</a> of about 210–220 days.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:96" href="#fn:96"><sup>96</sup></a> It takes about half an hour, and the female walks about during the birth. The single fawn is 30 centimetres (1 ft) tall and reaches adult height in a year.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:97" href="#fn:97"><sup>97</sup></a> The fawn stays with its mother for 1–2 years. It then moves gradually from its mother's range until it establishes its own.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:98" href="#fn:98"><sup>98</sup></a> Young that do not disperse on their own may be chased away by the mother.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:99" href="#fn:99"><sup>99</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="relationship-with-humans">Relationship with humans</h2> <p>The earliest record of human contact with the serow is of a small number of prehistoric <a href="/facts/J%25C5%258Dmon_period/TNVsWsyV">Jōmon period</a> bones unearthed by archaeologists, primarily in mountainous regions. It is speculated the serow was hunted for its hide and for food.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:100" href="#fn:100"><sup>100</sup></a> What is believed to be the earliest written record appears in the <i><i><a href="/facts/Nihon_Shoki/5pClhB9u">Nihon Shoki</a></i></i> (720): the <a href="/facts/Emperor_Tenmu/QtdoKy4j">Emperor Tenmu</a> (r. 672–686) sent the hides of a <i><i>yamashishi</i></i> to senior statesmen; this <i><i>yamashishi</i></i> likely refers to the serow, and recurs elsewhere in the <i>Nihon Shoki</i>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:101" href="#fn:101"><sup>101</sup></a> </p><p>The 8th-century <i><i><a href="/facts/Man%2527y%25C5%258Dsh%25C5%25AB/Mm1Wh1eS">Man'yōshū</a></i></i> contains a <a href="/facts/Waka_(poetry)/Ryofsa1e">waka</a> poem by <a href="/facts/Kakinomoto_no_Hitomaro/p809AzTM">Kakinomoto no Hitomaro</a> that mentions a group of <i>shishi</i>; a number of writers have concluded this animal is the serow, but others have pointed out the serow is normally solitary.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:102" href="#fn:102"><sup>102</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Heian_period/PmIGpfCx">Heian period</a> (794–1185) documents record gifts of serow horns brought to the capital. Japan's earliest extant medical work, the Daidōruijuhō [ja] (808), appears to record the use of serow horn and flesh for medicinal purposes.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:103" href="#fn:103"><sup>103</sup></a> </p><p>For centuries following the Heian period, mention of the serow becomes scarce. There is some belief that it was still hunted for medicinal use. The <a href="/facts/Edo_period/BWxv9h57">Edo period</a> (1603–1868) saw records increase. The <i><i><a href="/facts/Wakan_Sansai_Zue/7SVbbLaM">Wakan Sansai Zue</a></i></i> encyclopaedia of 1712 contains an illustrated entry on the serow. Laws prohibiting hunting [ja] came into effect, but exceptions were made where animals damaged crops.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:104" href="#fn:104"><sup>104</sup></a> Following the <a href="/facts/Meiji_Restoration/DLkCDHk4">Meiji Restoration</a> in 1868, realistic depictions appeared of the serow, beginning with one in <a href="/facts/Keisuke_Ito_(botanist)/TtmQQwgK">Keisuke Ito</a>'s <i>Fauna Japonica</i> (1870).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:105" href="#fn:105"><sup>105</sup></a> </p> <h3>Hunting and conservation</h3> <p>The serow has long been hunted in Japan, especially in northern Japan where, along with bear-hunting, serow-hunting was strongly associated with <i><a href="/facts/Matagi/SrSFprDp">matagi</a></i> culture. Throughout Japan's mountainous regions, the serow has been a valued catch. Its various body parts are used without waste. Prized in particular is its meat—until the mid-20th century, serow meat was so widely eaten in these regions the animal itself was known as "meat".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:106" href="#fn:106"><sup>106</sup></a> Its waterproof hides were used for rafters' backflaps, its horns were ground as a preventive against diseases such as <a href="/facts/Beriberi/pkNW2Icc">beriberi</a>, and a cure for stomach-aches was made from the serow's small intestines and gall bladder.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:107" href="#fn:107"><sup>107</sup></a> </p><p>An animal that once inhabited deep forests far from populated areas, the Japanese serow has increasingly penetrated the outskirts of villages.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:108" href="#fn:108"><sup>108</sup></a> In western Honshū, it had become extinct by the 20th century.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:109" href="#fn:109"><sup>109</sup></a> Elsewhere, it had been hunted to such a severe degree that the Japanese government declared it a "Non-Game Species" in a 1925 hunting law. In 1934, the Law for Protection of Cultural Properties designated it a "Natural Monument Species".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:110" href="#fn:110"><sup>110</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:111" href="#fn:111"><sup>111</sup></a> </p><p><a href="/facts/Poaching/UgYKJV0E">Poaching</a> continued, leading the government to declare the Japanese serow a "Special Natural Monument" in 1955,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:112" href="#fn:112"><sup>112</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:113" href="#fn:113"><sup>113</sup></a> at which point overhunting had brought its numbers to 2000–3000.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:114" href="#fn:114"><sup>114</sup></a> Populations grew as the police put an end to poaching, and post-War monoculture conifer plantations created favourable environments for the animal. By the 1980s, population estimates had grown to up to 100,000 and serow range had reached 40,000 square kilometres (15,000 sq mi).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:115" href="#fn:115"><sup>115</sup></a> Between 1978 and 2003, its distribution increased 170%, and the population had stabilized.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:116" href="#fn:116"><sup>116</sup></a> </p> <p>Conflicts with agriculture and forestry led to a 1978 repeal of the full protection the animal received under the 1955 designation. Thenceforth, 13<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:117" href="#fn:117"><sup>117</sup></a> designated protection areas were established over 23 <a href="/facts/Prefectures_of_Japan/qfbjCbfH">prefectures</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:118" href="#fn:118"><sup>118</sup></a> They cover about 20% of the serow range, have a total area of 11,800 square kilometres (4,600 sq mi), and range in size from 143 square kilometres (55 sq mi) to 2,180 square kilometres (840 sq mi). Culling removed 20,000 serows outside of conservation areas between 1978 and 2005.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:119" href="#fn:119"><sup>119</sup></a> </p><p>The <a href="/facts/IUCN_Red_List/8gemqCLu">IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals</a> ranked the Japanese serow as "least concern" in 2008, as it has wide distribution in Japan, and a large, stable or increasing population.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:120" href="#fn:120"><sup>120</sup></a> The Law for Protection of Cultural Properties [ja]<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:121" href="#fn:121"><sup>121</sup></a> and Wildlife Protection and Hunting Law [ja]<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:122" href="#fn:122"><sup>122</sup></a> provide for the legal management of the Japanese serow. In 1979, the <a href="/facts/Agency_for_Cultural_Affairs/V8I5g7TV">Agency for Cultural Affairs</a>, <a href="/facts/Ministry_of_the_Environment_(Japan)/y6RQxkzD">Environmental Agency</a>, and <a href="/facts/Ministry_of_Agriculture%2c_Forestry_and_Fisheries_(Japan)/vWMSCeaq">Forestry Agency</a> reached an agreement on serow management measures, such as the establishment of protection areas and <a href="/facts/Culling/lAgVgnC5">culling</a> as pest control. The measures were met with resistance from conservationists, naturalist organizations, and some biologists, as the animal had previously been fully protected. A 1999 amendment to the Wildlife Protection and Hunting Law allowed prefectures to manage wildlife populations; by 2007, seven plans had been established for serow management outside of conservation areas.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:123" href="#fn:123"><sup>123</sup></a> </p> <p>Foresters have raised concerns that the rising serow populations have interfered with post-War mountainside <a href="/facts/Reforestation/U4MMM3lq">reforestation</a> efforts, as the animal feeds on the saplings<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:124" href="#fn:124"><sup>124</sup></a> of <a href="/facts/Chamaecyparis_obtusa/DK5jF3ko">Japanese cypress</a>, Japanese cedar, and <a href="/facts/Pinus_densiflora/sdoSof62">Japanese red pine</a>, species with commercial significance.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:125" href="#fn:125"><sup>125</sup></a> Serow have caused damage to farm crops in mountain villages,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:126" href="#fn:126"><sup>126</sup></a> and the villagers have objected to conservationists' efforts. Damage by serows to forests has been characterized in parts of Japan in criminal or martial terms: the media have referred to the problems as <i><i>ningen to shika no sensō</i></i> ("the war between humans and deer") and <i><i>kamoshika sensō</i></i> ("serow war").<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:127" href="#fn:127"><sup>127</sup></a> </p><p>Frustration with the government and conservationists led 400 foresters to launch a lawsuit in the 1980s over serow damage to timber plantations.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:128" href="#fn:128"><sup>128</sup></a> Foresters in <a href="/facts/Gifu_Prefecture/3IRVpFjh">Gifu Prefecture</a> have justified the shooting of serows in the legs, as such shooting would not be fatal.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:129" href="#fn:129"><sup>129</sup></a> Estimating accurate population numbers has been difficult.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:130" href="#fn:130"><sup>130</sup></a> Foresters see the serow as a harmful animal, and resent government interference in controlling serow-hunting.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:131" href="#fn:131"><sup>131</sup></a> They have accused the government and wildlife experts of undercounting serows, while conservationists have counteraccused that foresters may inflate population numbers and levels of forestry damage to promote their own interests.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:132" href="#fn:132"><sup>132</sup></a> </p><p>Conservationists such as Shin Gotō believe that the increased visibility is due not to an absolute increase in populations, but to deforestation which has driven the animal further from its traditional home.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:133" href="#fn:133"><sup>133</sup></a> Serows close to populated areas may feed on farms and cypress, including saplings.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:134" href="#fn:134"><sup>134</sup></a> </p><p><a href="/facts/Clearcutting/vW2txuH3">Clearcutting</a> practices may also contribute to the problem, as clearcut forests create areas of rapid herbaceous growth ideal for herbivores, who see population increases. The situation is temporary, though, and after regrowth of trees leads to the forest canopy closing over after 15–20 years, the herbivore populations are displaced as the herbaceous growth ceases to flourish.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:135" href="#fn:135"><sup>135</sup></a> </p><p>In the 1990s, as the number of young plantations decreased, so did forestry damage from serows. Concern instead turned to damage caused by <a href="/facts/Sika_deer/21mSmU9F">sika deer</a>, wild boars, and <a href="/facts/Japanese_macaque/69ESEQmM">Japanese macaques</a>. In Kyushu in particular, increased grazing and browsing competition from sika deer may be slowing growth of serow populations.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:136" href="#fn:136"><sup>136</sup></a> </p> <h3>Conservation areas</h3> Japanese serow conservation areas<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:137" href="#fn:137"><sup>137</sup></a><table><tbody><tr><th scope="col" colspan="2">Name</th><th scope="col" rowspan="2">Established</th><th scope="col" rowspan="2">Sizeha (acres)</th><th scope="col" rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/Prefectures_of_Japan/qfbjCbfH">Prefecture</a>(s)</th></tr><tr><th scope="col">English</th><th scope="col">Japanese</th></tr><tr><th scope="row"><a href="/facts/Shimokita_Peninsula/vT40vfQ1">Shimokita Peninsula</a></th><td><i><i>Shimokita Hantō</i></i></td><td>April 1981</td><td>37,300 (92,000)</td><td><a href="/facts/Aomori_Prefecture/sjDjA9f6">Aomori</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row"><a href="/facts/%25C5%258Cu_Mountains/ssvNlCB3">Kita-Ōu Mountains</a></th><td><i><i>Kita-Ōu Sankei</i></i></td><td>February 1984</td><td>105,000 (260,000)</td><td><ul><li>Aomori</li><li><a href="/facts/Akita_Prefecture/VuUofdDR">Akita</a></li><li><a href="/facts/Iwate_Prefecture/DbMGKFht">Iwate</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><th scope="row">Kitakami Sankei [ja]</th><td><i><i>Kitakami Sankei</i></i></td><td>July 1982</td><td>41,000 (100,000)</td><td>Iwate</td></tr><tr><th scope="row"><a href="/facts/%25C5%258Cu_Mountains/ssvNlCB3">Minami-Ōu Mountains</a></th><td><i><i>Minami-Ōu Sankei</i></i></td><td>November 1984</td><td>57,700 (143,000)</td><td><ul><li>Akita</li><li>Iwate</li><li><a href="/facts/Yamagata_Prefecture/Vy2IW8Iw">Yamagata</a></li><li><a href="/facts/Miyagi_Prefecture/kc47S92f">Miyagi</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><th scope="row">Asahi—<a href="/facts/Mount_Iide/6AMy4hNU">Iide</a> Mountains</th><td><i><i>Asahi—Iide Sankei</i></i></td><td>March 1985</td><td>122,000 (300,000)</td><td><ul><li>Yamagata</li><li><a href="/facts/Fukushima_Prefecture/a72kC69v">Fukushima</a></li><li><a href="/facts/Niigata_Prefecture/StVhupn9">Niigata</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><th scope="row"><a href="/facts/Mount_Echigo-Komagatake/cBSJzqTz">Echigo</a>—<a href="/facts/Mount_Nikk%25C5%258D-Shirane/efQDzVS0">Nikkō</a>—<a href="/facts/Mount_Mikuni_(Gifu)/DeUMTJkA">Mikuni</a> Mountains</th><td><i><i>Echigo—Nikkō—Mikuni Sankei</i></i></td><td>May 1984</td><td>215,200 (532,000)</td><td><ul><li>Fukushima</li><li>Niigata</li><li><a href="/facts/Tochigi_Prefecture/l460zpvk">Tochigi</a></li><li><a href="/facts/Gunma_Prefecture/PfDqdGxt">Gunma</a></li><li><a href="/facts/Nagano_Prefecture/S5lbg8hC">Nagano</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><th scope="row">Kantō Mountains</th><td><i><i>Kantō Sanchi</i></i></td><td>November 1984</td><td>79,000 (200,000)</td><td><ul><li>Gunma</li><li><a href="/facts/Saitama_Prefecture/4R0fXkgI">Saitama</a></li><li><a href="/facts/Tokyo/GTvuw4ct">Tokyo</a></li><li><a href="/facts/Yamanashi_Prefecture/lRdCCLjc">Yamanashi</a></li><li>Nagano</li></ul></td></tr><tr><th scope="row"><a href="/facts/Minami_Alps_National_Park/aoJMJxSe">Minami Alps</a></th><td><i><i>Minami Arupusu</i></i></td><td>February 1980</td><td>122,000 (300,000)</td><td><ul><li>Yamanashi</li><li>Nagano</li><li><a href="/facts/Shizuoka_Prefecture/I9tJRlCk">Shizuoka</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><th scope="row"><a href="/facts/Hida_Mountains/BaozGDsz">Kita Alps</a></th><td><i><i>Kita Arupusu</i></i></td><td>November 1979</td><td>195,600 (483,000)</td><td><ul><li>Niigata</li><li>Nagano</li><li><a href="/facts/Toyama_Prefecture/pXFHvh8q">Toyama</a></li><li><a href="/facts/Gifu_Prefecture/3IRVpFjh">Gifu</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><th scope="row">Shirayama</th><td><i><i>Shirayama</i></i></td><td>February 1982</td><td>53,700 (133,000)</td><td><ul><li>Toyama</li><li><a href="/facts/Ishikawa_Prefecture/Ut0xWbFr">Ishikawa</a></li><li>Gifu</li><li><a href="/facts/Fukui_Prefecture/a2UC9P13">Fukui</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><th scope="row"><a href="/facts/Suzuka_Mountains/mRQSKsUb">Suzuka Mountains</a></th><td><i><i>Suzuka Sanchi</i></i></td><td>September 1983</td><td>14,100 (35,000)</td><td><ul><li><a href="/facts/Shiga_Prefecture/CIFeTv5t">Shiga</a></li><li><a href="/facts/Mie_Prefecture/1j7qCW8b">Mie</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><th scope="row"><a href="/facts/Ibuki_Mountains/NzS2TQnD">Ibuki</a>—<a href="/facts/Hira_Mountains/p6N7MWAu">Hira</a> Mountains</th><td><i><i>Ibuki—Hira Sankei</i></i></td><td>March 1986</td><td>67,500 (167,000)</td><td><ul><li>Gifu</li><li>Shiga</li><li>Fukui</li><li><a href="/facts/Kyoto_Prefecture/v9q4S8Sk">Kyoto</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><th scope="row"><a href="/facts/Kii_Mountains/u3PIAM0h">Kii Mountains</a></th><td><i><i>Kii Sankei</i></i></td><td>July 1989</td><td>79,500 (196,000)</td><td><ul><li>Mie</li><li><a href="/facts/Nara_Prefecture/o2bmD2pH">Nara</a></li><li><a href="/facts/Wakayama_Prefecture/Yj39Rrxo">Wakayama</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><th scope="row">Shikoku Mountains</th><td><i><i>Shikoku Sanchi</i></i></td><td><a href="/facts/TBA/4QV9cAsm">TBA</a></td><td><a href="/facts/TBA/4QV9cAsm">TBA</a></td><td><ul><li><a href="/facts/Tokushima_Prefecture/TxBaSxcP">Tokushima</a></li><li><a href="/facts/K%25C5%258Dchi_Prefecture/vjEs0Rw6">Kōchi</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><th scope="row">Kyushu Mountains</th><td><i><i>Kyushu Sanchi</i></i></td><td><a href="/facts/TBA/4QV9cAsm">TBA</a></td><td><a href="/facts/TBA/4QV9cAsm">TBA</a></td><td><ul><li><a href="/facts/%25C5%258Cita_Prefecture/Ttyc5vGE">Ōita</a></li><li><a href="/facts/Kumamoto_Prefecture/7TUxKpJe">Kumamoto</a></li><li><a href="/facts/Miyazaki_Prefecture/wlVb5cE9">Miyazaki</a></li></ul></td></tr></tbody></table> <h3>Cultural significance</h3> <p>Labelled a "living national treasure of the forest",<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:138" href="#fn:138"><sup>138</sup></a> the Japanese serow has achieved emblematic status in Japan with national associations. It is seen as a relic species harking back to the formation of the <a href="/facts/Japanese_archipelago/zvCaDa4M">Japanese archipelago</a> as distinct from mainland Asia. In a symbolic gesture in 1973, the Chinese government gifted Japan a <a href="/facts/Giant_panda/BMbbMGg7">giant panda</a>, to which the Japanese government returned two Japanese serow. Municipalities and other regions of Japan have adopted the serow as a local symbol.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:139" href="#fn:139"><sup>139</sup></a> </p><p>In Japan, the Japanese serow is most commonly known as <i><i>kamoshika</i></i> or <i><i>kamoshishi</i></i>. It has historically been given a variety of names, often based on its appearance, some of which translate as "mountain sheep", "wool deer", "nine tail cow", and "cow demon". Regional names abound, some of which translate as "dancing beast", "foolish beast", or "idiot". Japanese people often characterize the serow as "weird" or "abnormal", and it is seen as a "phantom animal" as it tends to live alone in the depths of distant forests, and appears to observe forest workers from areas high in the mountains.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:140" href="#fn:140"><sup>140</sup></a> </p><p>The serow has a reputation in Japan for its speed and agility. Superior athletes are compared to the serow, as it is known not only for its agility, but also its sprinting ability. The <a href="/facts/Yamaha_Motor_Company/BeUzhlFB">Yamaha Motor Company</a> has marketed the <a href="/facts/Yamaha_XT_225/zK77rD9C">XT 225</a> sport motorcycle as the Yamaha Serow. In Japanese, the word <i><i>ochiru</i></i> means both "to fail an exam" and "to fall"; as the serow is known for its sure-footedness on mountain cliffs, students can buy <i><i><a href="/facts/Omamori/5YNlJvlL">omamori</a></i></i> charms marked with a serow hoofprint in the hope it will help them pass exams.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:141" href="#fn:141"><sup>141</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="see-also">See also</h2> <ul><li><a href="/facts/List_of_Special_Places_of_Scenic_Beauty%2c_Special_Historic_Sites_and_Special_Natural_Monuments/cum7VtnM">List of Special Places of Scenic Beauty, Special Historic Sites and Special Natural Monuments</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/History_of_the_domestic_sheep/zprdwveC">History of the domestic sheep</a></li></ul> <h2 id="notes">Notes</h2> <h3>Citations</h3> <h3>Works cited</h3> <h4>Books</h4> <ul><li>Abe, Hisashi, ed. (2008). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PDukPQAACAAJ"><i>日本の哺乳類 (Nihon no Honyuurui)</i></a> [<i>A Guide to the Mammals of Japan</i>] (in Japanese). <a href="/facts/Tokai_University/epmbkT7p">Tokai University</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-4-486-01802-5.</li> <li>Burton, Maurice; Burton, Robert, eds. (2002). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_YicMQmIA7wC&pg=PA2323"><i>International Wildlife Encyclopedia</i></a>. Marshall Cavendish. pp. 2323–2324. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-7614-7266-7.</li> <li><a href="/facts/Peter_Grubb_(zoologist)/zvcJzNLN">Grubb, P.</a> (2005). <a href="http://www.departments.bucknell.edu/biology/resources/msw3/browse.asp?id=14200789">"Order Artiodactyla"</a>. In <a href="/facts/Don_E._Wilson/uflYWPqE">Wilson, D.E.</a>; Reeder, D.M (eds.). <a href="http://www.google.com/books?id=JgAMbNSt8ikC&pg=PA704"><i>Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference</i></a> (3rd ed.). Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 704. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-8018-8221-0. <a href="/facts/OCLC_(identifier)/Yqad8waq">OCLC</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/62265494">62265494</a>.</li> <li>Honda, Katsuhisa; Tatsukawa, Ryo; Miura, Shingo (1987). "Heavy metal accumulation in wild Japanese serow". In Soma, Hiroaki (ed.). <i>The Biology and Management of Capricornis and Related Mountain Antelopes</i>. Springer. pp. 365–387. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-94-011-8030-6.</li> <li>Iijima, Masahiro; Tsuchiya, Kimiyuki (2010). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4BxPSwAACAAJ"><i>日本哺乳類大図鑑 (Nihon Honyuurui Daizukan)</i></a> [<i>The Encyclopedia of Wild Mammals in Japan</i>] (in Japanese). Kaiseisha [ja]. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-4-03-971170-0.</li> <li>Kishimoto, Ryosuke (2003). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zIu2K6KFsXEC&pg=PA147">"Social monogamy and social polygyny in a solitary ungulate, the Japanese Serow (<i>Capricornis crispus</i>)"</a>. In <a href="/facts/Christophe_Boesch/1MUnpdhy">Reichard, Ulrich H.</a>; Boesch, Christophe (eds.). <i>Monogamy: Mating Strategies and Partnerships in Birds, Humans and Other Mammals</i>. <a href="/facts/Cambridge_University_Press/fgEBSSRq">Cambridge University Press</a>. pp. 147–158. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-521-52577-0.</li> <li>Knight, John (2003). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iDqxEtYjD4YC"><i>Waiting for Wolves in Japan: An Anthropological Study of People-Wildlife Relations: An Anthropological Study of People-Wildlife Relations</i></a>. <a href="/facts/Oxford_University_Press/CYyTzzWG">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-19-158864-8.</li> <li>Lue, Kuang-Yang (1987). "A preliminary study on the ecology of Formosan serow <i>Capricornis crispus swinhoei</i>". In Soma, Hiroaki (ed.). <i>The Biology and Management of Capricornis and Related Mountain Antelopes</i>. Springer Netherlands. pp. 125–133. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-94-011-8030-6_10">10.1007/978-94-011-8030-6_10</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-94-011-8032-0.</li> <li>Maruyama, N.; Ikeda, H.; Tokida, K. (1997). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hJBodAXB9eoC&pg=PA271">"9.4 Japan"</a>. In Shackleton, David M. (ed.). <i>Wild Sheep and Goats and Their Relatives: Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan for Caprinae</i>. IUCN. pp. 271–274. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-2-8317-0353-4.</li> <li>Nawa, Akira (2009). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5iBNQwAACAAJ"><i>森の賢者カモシカ: 鈴鹿山地の定点観察記 (Mori no Kenja Kamoshika: Suzuka Sanchi no Teiten Kansatsu-ki)</i></a> [<i>Serow, Sage of the Forest: Record of Observation in the Suzuka Mountains</i>] (in Japanese). Sunrise Publishing. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-4-88325-389-0.</li> <li>Ono, Yūichi (2000). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YkqKPQAACAAJ"><i>ニホンカモシカのたどった道: 野生動物との共生を探る (Nihonkamoshika no tadotta michi: Yasei doubutsu to no kyōsei wo saguru)</i></a> [<i>The Path Taken by the Japanese Serow: Exploring Symbiosis with Wildlife</i>] (in Japanese). <a href="/facts/Chuokoron-Shinsha/nLIEIfe8">Chuokoron-Shinsha</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-4-12-101539-6.</li></ul> <h4>Journals</h4> <ul><li>Atoji, Yasuro; Suzuki, Yoshitaka; Sugimura, Makoto (December 1988). <a href="http://europepmc.org/articles/PMC1262100/pdf/janat00171-0159.pdf&sa=U&ei=st_dUYwJzYOUBcySgcAH&ved=0CBwQFjAC&sig2=uQmZmALIlqgYc9AWHnP0aw&usg=AFQjCNFSGRqxg9dFb300_zV-oHoVZo-bBw">"Lectin Histochemistry of the Interdigital Gland in the Japanese Serow (<i>Capricornis crispus</i>) in Winter"</a> (PDF). <i><a href="/facts/Journal_of_Anatomy/7b2SAjLq">Journal of Anatomy</a></i>. 161 (161): 159–170. <a href="/facts/PMC_(identifier)/dX1zMt71">PMC</a> <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1262100">1262100</a>. <a href="/facts/PMID_(identifier)/JlHAvMHt">PMID</a> <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3254889">3254889</a>.</li> <li>Doko, Tomoko; Chen, Wenbo (2013). <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140714134611/http://web.sfc.keio.ac.jp/~dokochan/doc/doko_etal2013JEIS_serow.pdf">"The Geographical distribution and habitat use of the Japanese serow (Naemorhedus crispus) in the Fuji-Tanzawa region, Japan"</a> (PDF). <i>Journal of Environmental Information Science</i>. 41 (5): 53–62. Archived from <a href="http://web.sfc.keio.ac.jp/~dokochan/doc/doko_etal2013JEIS_serow.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 2014-07-14. Retrieved 2014-06-25.</li> <li>Inoshima, Yasuo (2010). <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221126051635/http://repository.lib.gifu-u.ac.jp/handle/123456789/39514">"Spatial and Temporal Genetic Homogeneity of Orf Viruses Infecting Japanese Serows (<i>Capricornis crispus</i>)"</a>. <i>Journal of Veterinary Medical Science</i>. 72 (6): 701–707. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1292%2Fjvms.09-0467">10.1292/jvms.09-0467</a>. <a href="/facts/Hdl_(identifier)/rdebSxmC">hdl</a>:<a href="https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12099%2F39514">20.500.12099/39514</a>. <a href="/facts/PMID_(identifier)/JlHAvMHt">PMID</a> <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20124763">20124763</a>. Archived from <a href="http://repository.lib.gifu-u.ac.jp/handle/123456789/39514">the original</a> on 2022-11-26. Retrieved 2014-06-30.</li> <li>Jass, Christopher N.; Mead, Jim I. (15 December 2004). <a href="https://doi.org/10.1644%2F750">"<i>Capricornis crispus</i>"</a>. <i>Mammalian Species</i>. 750: 1–10. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1644%2F750">10.1644/750</a>. <a href="/facts/ISSN_(identifier)/DPAflDvU">ISSN</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1545-1410">1545-1410</a>.</li> <li>Jiang, Zhaowen; Torii, Harumi; Takatsuki, Seiki; Ohba, Takahiro (2008). "Local Variation in Diet Composition of the Japanese Serow During Winter". <i>Zoological Science</i>. 25 (12): 1220–1226. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.2108%2Fzsj.25.1220">10.2108/zsj.25.1220</a>. <a href="/facts/PMID_(identifier)/JlHAvMHt">PMID</a> <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19267649">19267649</a>. <a href="/facts/S2CID_(identifier)/ldJsHa2Y">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:22040240">22040240</a>.</li> <li>Min, M. S.; Okumura, H.; Jo, D. J.; An, J. H.; Kim, K. S.; Kim, C. B.; Shin, N. S.; Lee, M. H.; Han, C. H.; Voloshina, I. V.; Lee, H. (2004). <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS1016-8478%2823%2913052-4">"Molecular Phylogenetic Status of the Korean Goral and Japanese Serow Based on Partial Sequences of the Mitochondrial Cytochrome <i>b</i> Gene"</a>. <i>Molecules and Cells</i>. 17 (2): 365–372. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS1016-8478%2823%2913052-4">10.1016/S1016-8478(23)13052-4</a>. <a href="/facts/ISSN_(identifier)/DPAflDvU">ISSN</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0219-1032">0219-1032</a>. <a href="/facts/PMID_(identifier)/JlHAvMHt">PMID</a> <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15179056">15179056</a>.</li> <li>Natori, Y.; Porter, W. P. (2007). "Model of Japanese Serow (<i>Capricornis crispus</i>) Energetics Predicts Distribution on Honshu, Japan". <i>Ecological Applications</i>. 17 (5): 1441–1459. <a href="/facts/Bibcode_(identifier)/9HtdQSGB">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007EcoAp..17.1441N">2007EcoAp..17.1441N</a>. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1890%2F06-1785.1">10.1890/06-1785.1</a>. <a href="/facts/ISSN_(identifier)/DPAflDvU">ISSN</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1051-0761">1051-0761</a>. <a href="/facts/PMID_(identifier)/JlHAvMHt">PMID</a> <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17708220">17708220</a>.</li> <li>Ochiai, K.; Susaki, K. (2002). <a href="https://doi.org/10.1644%2F1545-1542%282002%29083%3C0964%3Aeotopd%3E2.0.co%3B2">"Effects of Territoriality on Population Density in the Japanese serow (<i>Capricornis crispus</i>)"</a>. <i>Journal of Mammalogy</i>. 83 (4): 964–972. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1644%2F1545-1542%282002%29083%3C0964%3Aeotopd%3E2.0.co%3B2">10.1644/1545-1542(2002)083<0964:eotopd>2.0.co;2</a>. <a href="/facts/JSTOR_(identifier)/YTeVmaJ7">JSTOR</a> <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1383502">1383502</a>.</li> <li>Togashi, Mikiko; Tsujimoto, Tsunenori; Yamauchi, Kiyoshi; Deguchi, Yoshitaka; Hashizume, Kazuyoshi; Kizaki, Keiichiro; Honjou, Sachika; Izaike, Yoshiaki; Osawa, Takeshi (2009). <a href="https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/jrd/55/4/55_20165/_pdf">"Plasma and Fecal Sex Steroid Hormone Profiles During the Estrous Cycle in a Japanese Serow (<i>Capricornis crispus</i>)"</a>. <i>Journal of Reproduction and Development</i>. 55 (4): 412–417. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1262%2Fjrd.20165">10.1262/jrd.20165</a>. <a href="/facts/PMID_(identifier)/JlHAvMHt">PMID</a> <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19404003">19404003</a>.</li> <li>Sakae, C.; Ishida, T. (February 2012). "Direct Evidence for <i>Toxoplasma gondii</i> Infection in a Wild Serow (<i>Capricornis crispus</i>) from Mainland Japan". <i><a href="/facts/Journal_of_Parasitology/xcsDzdwG">Journal of Parasitology</a></i>. 98 (1): 224–225. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1645%2FGE-2881.1">10.1645/GE-2881.1</a>. <a href="/facts/ISSN_(identifier)/DPAflDvU">ISSN</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1937-2345">1937-2345</a>. <a href="/facts/PMID_(identifier)/JlHAvMHt">PMID</a> <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21882974">21882974</a>. <a href="/facts/S2CID_(identifier)/ldJsHa2Y">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:7779970">7779970</a>.</li> <li>Liu, Wei; Yao, Yong-fang; Yu, Qin; Ni, Qing-yong; Zhang, Ming-wang; Yang, Jian-dong; Mai, Miao-miao; Xu, Huai-liang (2013). "Genetic variation and phylogenetic relationship between three serow species of the genus <i>Capricornis</i> based on the complete mitochondrial DNA control region sequences". <i>Molecular Biology Reports</i>. 40 (12): 6793–6802. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11033-013-2796-8">10.1007/s11033-013-2796-8</a>. <a href="/facts/PMID_(identifier)/JlHAvMHt">PMID</a> <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24057256">24057256</a>. <a href="/facts/S2CID_(identifier)/ldJsHa2Y">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:18421161">18421161</a>.</li></ul> <h4>Web</h4> <ul><li>Tokida, K. (2020). <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/3811/22151909">"<i>Capricornis crispus</i>"</a>. <i><a href="/facts/IUCN_Red_List/8gemqCLu">IUCN Red List of Threatened Species</a></i>. 2020: e.T3811A22151909. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.2305%2FIUCN.UK.2020-2.RLTS.T3811A22151909.en">10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-2.RLTS.T3811A22151909.en</a>. Retrieved 11 November 2021.</li></ul> <h2 id="external-links">External links</h2> Wikimedia Commons has media related to Capricornis crispus. <ul><li><a href="http://www.alpine-plants-jp.com/mt_animal_etc/nihonkamosika_1.htm">Images</a> at Flavon's Wild herb and Alpine plants</li> <li><a href="http://www.ultimateungulate.com/Artiodactyla/Capricornis_crispus.html">Japanese serow</a> at Ultimate Ungulate</li></ul> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>Japanese serow (Japanese: ニホンカモシカ, Hepburn: Nihon kamoshika) <a href="/wiki/Japanese_language" target="_blank">/wiki/Japanese_language</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>Tokida 2020; Grubb 2005. - Tokida, K. (2020). "Capricornis crispus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2020: e.T3811A22151909. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-2.RLTS.T3811A22151909.en. Retrieved 11 November 2021. <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/3811/22151909" target="_blank">https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/3811/22151909</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>As Capricornis crispa; Robert Swinhoe amended it for gender agreement in 1870.[2] <a href="/wiki/Robert_Swinhoe" target="_blank">/wiki/Robert_Swinhoe</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:4"><p>Jass & Mead 2004, p. 1. - Jass, Christopher N.; Mead, Jim I. (15 December 2004). "Capricornis crispus". Mammalian Species. 750: 1–10. doi:10.1644/750. ISSN 1545-1410. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1644%2F750" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1644%2F750</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:5"><p>Jass & Mead 2004, p. 2. - Jass, Christopher N.; Mead, Jim I. (15 December 2004). "Capricornis crispus". Mammalian Species. 750: 1–10. doi:10.1644/750. ISSN 1545-1410. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1644%2F750" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1644%2F750</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:6"><p>Togashi et al. 2009, p. 412. - Togashi, Mikiko; Tsujimoto, Tsunenori; Yamauchi, Kiyoshi; Deguchi, Yoshitaka; Hashizume, Kazuyoshi; Kizaki, Keiichiro; Honjou, Sachika; Izaike, Yoshiaki; Osawa, Takeshi (2009). "Plasma and Fecal Sex Steroid Hormone Profiles During the Estrous Cycle in a Japanese Serow (Capricornis crispus)". Journal of Reproduction and Development. 55 (4): 412–417. doi:10.1262/jrd.20165. PMID 19404003. <a href="https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/jrd/55/4/55_20165/_pdf" target="_blank">https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/jrd/55/4/55_20165/_pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:7"><p>Wei et al. 2013, p. 6800. - Liu, Wei; Yao, Yong-fang; Yu, Qin; Ni, Qing-yong; Zhang, Ming-wang; Yang, Jian-dong; Mai, Miao-miao; Xu, Huai-liang (2013). "Genetic variation and phylogenetic relationship between three serow species of the genus Capricornis based on the complete mitochondrial DNA control region sequences". Molecular Biology Reports. 40 (12): 6793–6802. doi:10.1007/s11033-013-2796-8. PMID 24057256. S2CID 18421161. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11033-013-2796-8" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11033-013-2796-8</a> <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:8"><p>Jass & Mead 2004, p. 5. - Jass, Christopher N.; Mead, Jim I. (15 December 2004). "Capricornis crispus". Mammalian Species. 750: 1–10. doi:10.1644/750. ISSN 1545-1410. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1644%2F750" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1644%2F750</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:9"><p>Lue 1987, p. 125. - Lue, Kuang-Yang (1987). "A preliminary study on the ecology of Formosan serow Capricornis crispus swinhoei". In Soma, Hiroaki (ed.). The Biology and Management of Capricornis and Related Mountain Antelopes. Springer Netherlands. pp. 125–133. doi:10.1007/978-94-011-8030-6_10. ISBN 978-94-011-8032-0. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-94-011-8030-6_10" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-94-011-8030-6_10</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:10"><p>Jass & Mead 2004, p. 5. - Jass, Christopher N.; Mead, Jim I. (15 December 2004). "Capricornis crispus". Mammalian Species. 750: 1–10. doi:10.1644/750. ISSN 1545-1410. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1644%2F750" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1644%2F750</a> <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:11"><p>Tokida 2020. - Tokida, K. (2020). "Capricornis crispus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2020: e.T3811A22151909. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-2.RLTS.T3811A22151909.en. Retrieved 11 November 2021. <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/3811/22151909" target="_blank">https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/3811/22151909</a> <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:12"><p>Jass & Mead 2004, p. 1. - Jass, Christopher N.; Mead, Jim I. (15 December 2004). "Capricornis crispus". Mammalian Species. 750: 1–10. doi:10.1644/750. ISSN 1545-1410. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1644%2F750" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1644%2F750</a> <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:13"><p>Tokida 2020. - Tokida, K. (2020). "Capricornis crispus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2020: e.T3811A22151909. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-2.RLTS.T3811A22151909.en. Retrieved 11 November 2021. <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/3811/22151909" target="_blank">https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/3811/22151909</a> <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:14"><p>Min, et al. 2004, p. 369. - Min, M. S.; Okumura, H.; Jo, D. J.; An, J. H.; Kim, K. S.; Kim, C. B.; Shin, N. S.; Lee, M. H.; Han, C. H.; Voloshina, I. V.; Lee, H. (2004). "Molecular Phylogenetic Status of the Korean Goral and Japanese Serow Based on Partial Sequences of the Mitochondrial Cytochrome b Gene". Molecules and Cells. 17 (2): 365–372. doi:10.1016/S1016-8478(23)13052-4. ISSN 0219-1032. PMID 15179056. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS1016-8478%2823%2913052-4" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS1016-8478%2823%2913052-4</a> <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:15"><p>Jass & Mead 2004, p. 1. - Jass, Christopher N.; Mead, Jim I. (15 December 2004). "Capricornis crispus". Mammalian Species. 750: 1–10. doi:10.1644/750. ISSN 1545-1410. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1644%2F750" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1644%2F750</a> <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:16"><p>In Japanese, the word kamoshika refers both to serow and antelope species.[10] <a href="/wiki/Serow" target="_blank">/wiki/Serow</a> <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:17"><p>"Deer" (Japanese: 鹿, Hepburn: shika)[11] <a href="/wiki/Japanese_language" target="_blank">/wiki/Japanese_language</a> <a href="#fnref:17" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:18"><p>Japanese serow ("antelope-sheep") (Japanese: 羚羊, Hepburn: kamoshika)[12] <a href="/wiki/Japanese_language" target="_blank">/wiki/Japanese_language</a> <a href="#fnref:18" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:19"><p>Knight 2003, pp. 128–129. - Knight, John (2003). Waiting for Wolves in Japan: An Anthropological Study of People-Wildlife Relations: An Anthropological Study of People-Wildlife Relations. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-158864-8. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iDqxEtYjD4YC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=iDqxEtYjD4YC</a> <a href="#fnref:19" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:20"><p>Maruyama, Ikeda & Tokida 1997, p. 271. - Maruyama, N.; Ikeda, H.; Tokida, K. (1997). "9.4 Japan". In Shackleton, David M. (ed.). Wild Sheep and Goats and Their Relatives: Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan for Caprinae. IUCN. pp. 271–274. ISBN 978-2-8317-0353-4. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hJBodAXB9eoC&pg=PA271" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=hJBodAXB9eoC&pg=PA271</a> <a href="#fnref:20" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:21"><p>Jass & Mead 2004, p. 2. - Jass, Christopher N.; Mead, Jim I. (15 December 2004). "Capricornis crispus". Mammalian Species. 750: 1–10. doi:10.1644/750. ISSN 1545-1410. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1644%2F750" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1644%2F750</a> <a href="#fnref:21" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:22"><p>Abe 2008, p. 113. - Abe, Hisashi, ed. (2008). 日本の哺乳類 (Nihon no Honyuurui) [A Guide to the Mammals of Japan] (in Japanese). Tokai University. ISBN 978-4-486-01802-5. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PDukPQAACAAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=PDukPQAACAAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:22" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:23"><p>"ニホンカモシカ". Archived from the original on 2020-09-19. Retrieved 2020-06-16. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200919183407/http://www2.pref.iwate.jp/~hp0316/rdb/02honyuurui/0644.html" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20200919183407/http://www2.pref.iwate.jp/~hp0316/rdb/02honyuurui/0644.html</a> <a href="#fnref:23" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:24"><p>"ニホンカモシカ" (PDF). <a href="http://www.tadami-buna.jp/panel-kasidasi/09animal.pdf" target="_blank">http://www.tadami-buna.jp/panel-kasidasi/09animal.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:24" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:25"><p>"カモシカ｜青森県庁ウェブサイト Aomori Prefectural Government". <a href="https://www.pref.aomori.lg.jp/bunka/education/kinen_tokuten_02.html" target="_blank">https://www.pref.aomori.lg.jp/bunka/education/kinen_tokuten_02.html</a> <a href="#fnref:25" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:26"><p>Jass & Mead 2004, p. 2. - Jass, Christopher N.; Mead, Jim I. (15 December 2004). "Capricornis crispus". Mammalian Species. 750: 1–10. doi:10.1644/750. ISSN 1545-1410. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1644%2F750" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1644%2F750</a> <a href="#fnref:26" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:27"><p>Knight 2003, p. 125. - Knight, John (2003). Waiting for Wolves in Japan: An Anthropological Study of People-Wildlife Relations: An Anthropological Study of People-Wildlife Relations. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-158864-8. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iDqxEtYjD4YC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=iDqxEtYjD4YC</a> <a href="#fnref:27" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:28"><p>Burton & Burton 2002, p. 2323. - Burton, Maurice; Burton, Robert, eds. (2002). International Wildlife Encyclopedia. Marshall Cavendish. pp. 2323–2324. ISBN 978-0-7614-7266-7. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_YicMQmIA7wC&pg=PA2323" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=_YicMQmIA7wC&pg=PA2323</a> <a href="#fnref:28" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:29"><p>Iijima & Tsuchiya 2010, p. 115. - Iijima, Masahiro; Tsuchiya, Kimiyuki (2010). 日本哺乳類大図鑑 (Nihon Honyuurui Daizukan) [The Encyclopedia of Wild Mammals in Japan] (in Japanese). Kaiseisha [ja]. ISBN 978-4-03-971170-0. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4BxPSwAACAAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=4BxPSwAACAAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:29" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:30"><p>Burton & Burton 2002, p. 2323. - Burton, Maurice; Burton, Robert, eds. (2002). International Wildlife Encyclopedia. Marshall Cavendish. pp. 2323–2324. ISBN 978-0-7614-7266-7. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_YicMQmIA7wC&pg=PA2323" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=_YicMQmIA7wC&pg=PA2323</a> <a href="#fnref:30" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:31"><p>Iijima & Tsuchiya 2010, p. 114. - Iijima, Masahiro; Tsuchiya, Kimiyuki (2010). 日本哺乳類大図鑑 (Nihon Honyuurui Daizukan) [The Encyclopedia of Wild Mammals in Japan] (in Japanese). Kaiseisha [ja]. ISBN 978-4-03-971170-0. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4BxPSwAACAAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=4BxPSwAACAAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:31" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:32"><p>Jass & Mead 2004, p. 2. - Jass, Christopher N.; Mead, Jim I. (15 December 2004). "Capricornis crispus". Mammalian Species. 750: 1–10. doi:10.1644/750. ISSN 1545-1410. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1644%2F750" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1644%2F750</a> <a href="#fnref:32" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:33"><p>Burton & Burton 2002, p. 2323. - Burton, Maurice; Burton, Robert, eds. (2002). International Wildlife Encyclopedia. Marshall Cavendish. pp. 2323–2324. ISBN 978-0-7614-7266-7. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_YicMQmIA7wC&pg=PA2323" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=_YicMQmIA7wC&pg=PA2323</a> <a href="#fnref:33" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:34"><p>Jass & Mead 2004, p. 3. - Jass, Christopher N.; Mead, Jim I. (15 December 2004). "Capricornis crispus". Mammalian Species. 750: 1–10. doi:10.1644/750. ISSN 1545-1410. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1644%2F750" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1644%2F750</a> <a href="#fnref:34" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:35"><p>Abe 2008, p. 113. - Abe, Hisashi, ed. (2008). 日本の哺乳類 (Nihon no Honyuurui) [A Guide to the Mammals of Japan] (in Japanese). Tokai University. ISBN 978-4-486-01802-5. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PDukPQAACAAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=PDukPQAACAAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:35" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:36"><p>Abe 2008, p. 113. - Abe, Hisashi, ed. (2008). 日本の哺乳類 (Nihon no Honyuurui) [A Guide to the Mammals of Japan] (in Japanese). Tokai University. ISBN 978-4-486-01802-5. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PDukPQAACAAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=PDukPQAACAAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:36" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:37"><p>Atoji, Suzuki & Sugimura 1988, p. 159. - Atoji, Yasuro; Suzuki, Yoshitaka; Sugimura, Makoto (December 1988). "Lectin Histochemistry of the Interdigital Gland in the Japanese Serow (Capricornis crispus) in Winter" (PDF). Journal of Anatomy. 161 (161): 159–170. PMC 1262100. PMID 3254889. <a href="http://europepmc.org/articles/PMC1262100/pdf/janat00171-0159.pdf&sa=U&ei=st_dUYwJzYOUBcySgcAH&ved=0CBwQFjAC&sig2=uQmZmALIlqgYc9AWHnP0aw&usg=AFQjCNFSGRqxg9dFb300_zV-oHoVZo-bBw" target="_blank">http://europepmc.org/articles/PMC1262100/pdf/janat00171-0159.pdf&sa=U&ei=st_dUYwJzYOUBcySgcAH&ved=0CBwQFjAC&sig2=uQmZmALIlqgYc9AWHnP0aw&usg=AFQjCNFSGRqxg9dFb300_zV-oHoVZo-bBw</a> <a href="#fnref:37" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:38"><p>Jass & Mead 2004, p. 3. - Jass, Christopher N.; Mead, Jim I. (15 December 2004). "Capricornis crispus". Mammalian Species. 750: 1–10. doi:10.1644/750. ISSN 1545-1410. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1644%2F750" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1644%2F750</a> <a href="#fnref:38" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:39"><p>Jass & Mead 2004, p. 3. - Jass, Christopher N.; Mead, Jim I. (15 December 2004). "Capricornis crispus". Mammalian Species. 750: 1–10. doi:10.1644/750. ISSN 1545-1410. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1644%2F750" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1644%2F750</a> <a href="#fnref:39" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:40"><p>Nawa 2009, p. 23. - Nawa, Akira (2009). 森の賢者カモシカ: 鈴鹿山地の定点観察記 (Mori no Kenja Kamoshika: Suzuka Sanchi no Teiten Kansatsu-ki) [Serow, Sage of the Forest: Record of Observation in the Suzuka Mountains] (in Japanese). Sunrise Publishing. ISBN 978-4-88325-389-0. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5iBNQwAACAAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=5iBNQwAACAAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:40" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:41"><p>Jass & Mead 2004, p. 4. - Jass, Christopher N.; Mead, Jim I. (15 December 2004). "Capricornis crispus". Mammalian Species. 750: 1–10. doi:10.1644/750. ISSN 1545-1410. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1644%2F750" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1644%2F750</a> <a href="#fnref:41" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:42"><p>Tokida 2020. - Tokida, K. (2020). "Capricornis crispus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2020: e.T3811A22151909. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-2.RLTS.T3811A22151909.en. Retrieved 11 November 2021. <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/3811/22151909" target="_blank">https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/3811/22151909</a> <a href="#fnref:42" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:43"><p>Ochiai & Susaki 2002, p. 970. - Ochiai, K.; Susaki, K. (2002). "Effects of Territoriality on Population Density in the Japanese serow (Capricornis crispus)". Journal of Mammalogy. 83 (4): 964–972. doi:10.1644/1545-1542(2002)083<0964:eotopd>2.0.co;2. JSTOR 1383502. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1644%2F1545-1542%282002%29083%3C0964%3Aeotopd%3E2.0.co%3B2" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1644%2F1545-1542%282002%29083%3C0964%3Aeotopd%3E2.0.co%3B2</a> <a href="#fnref:43" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:44"><p>Burton & Burton 2002, p. 2324. - Burton, Maurice; Burton, Robert, eds. (2002). International Wildlife Encyclopedia. Marshall Cavendish. pp. 2323–2324. ISBN 978-0-7614-7266-7. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_YicMQmIA7wC&pg=PA2323" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=_YicMQmIA7wC&pg=PA2323</a> <a href="#fnref:44" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:45"><p>A mean of 14.5 centimetres (5.7 in) for 30 males and 13.7 centimetres (5.4 in) for 30 females was found in a 1985 study at Gifu University.[28] <a href="/wiki/Gifu_University" target="_blank">/wiki/Gifu_University</a> <a href="#fnref:45" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:46"><p>Jass & Mead 2004, p. 4. - Jass, Christopher N.; Mead, Jim I. (15 December 2004). "Capricornis crispus". Mammalian Species. 750: 1–10. doi:10.1644/750. ISSN 1545-1410. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1644%2F750" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1644%2F750</a> <a href="#fnref:46" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:47"><p>Abe 2008, p. 113. - Abe, Hisashi, ed. (2008). 日本の哺乳類 (Nihon no Honyuurui) [A Guide to the Mammals of Japan] (in Japanese). Tokai University. ISBN 978-4-486-01802-5. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PDukPQAACAAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=PDukPQAACAAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:47" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:48"><p>Jass & Mead 2004, p. 4. - Jass, Christopher N.; Mead, Jim I. (15 December 2004). "Capricornis crispus". Mammalian Species. 750: 1–10. doi:10.1644/750. ISSN 1545-1410. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1644%2F750" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1644%2F750</a> <a href="#fnref:48" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:49"><p>Jass & Mead 2004, p. 4. - Jass, Christopher N.; Mead, Jim I. (15 December 2004). "Capricornis crispus". Mammalian Species. 750: 1–10. doi:10.1644/750. ISSN 1545-1410. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1644%2F750" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1644%2F750</a> <a href="#fnref:49" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:50"><p>Jass & Mead 2004, p. 2. - Jass, Christopher N.; Mead, Jim I. (15 December 2004). "Capricornis crispus". Mammalian Species. 750: 1–10. doi:10.1644/750. ISSN 1545-1410. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1644%2F750" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1644%2F750</a> <a href="#fnref:50" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:51"><p>Nawa 2009, p. 26. - Nawa, Akira (2009). 森の賢者カモシカ: 鈴鹿山地の定点観察記 (Mori no Kenja Kamoshika: Suzuka Sanchi no Teiten Kansatsu-ki) [Serow, Sage of the Forest: Record of Observation in the Suzuka Mountains] (in Japanese). Sunrise Publishing. ISBN 978-4-88325-389-0. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5iBNQwAACAAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=5iBNQwAACAAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:51" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:52"><p>Nawa 2009, p. 25. - Nawa, Akira (2009). 森の賢者カモシカ: 鈴鹿山地の定点観察記 (Mori no Kenja Kamoshika: Suzuka Sanchi no Teiten Kansatsu-ki) [Serow, Sage of the Forest: Record of Observation in the Suzuka Mountains] (in Japanese). Sunrise Publishing. ISBN 978-4-88325-389-0. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5iBNQwAACAAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=5iBNQwAACAAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:52" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:53"><p>Honda, Tatsukawa & Miura 1987, p. 365. - Honda, Katsuhisa; Tatsukawa, Ryo; Miura, Shingo (1987). "Heavy metal accumulation in wild Japanese serow". In Soma, Hiroaki (ed.). The Biology and Management of Capricornis and Related Mountain Antelopes. Springer. pp. 365–387. ISBN 978-94-011-8030-6. <a href="#fnref:53" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:54"><p>Maruyama, Ikeda & Tokida 1997, p. 271. - Maruyama, N.; Ikeda, H.; Tokida, K. (1997). "9.4 Japan". In Shackleton, David M. (ed.). Wild Sheep and Goats and Their Relatives: Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan for Caprinae. IUCN. pp. 271–274. ISBN 978-2-8317-0353-4. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hJBodAXB9eoC&pg=PA271" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=hJBodAXB9eoC&pg=PA271</a> <a href="#fnref:54" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:55"><p>Maruyama, Ikeda & Tokida 1997, p. 271. - Maruyama, N.; Ikeda, H.; Tokida, K. (1997). "9.4 Japan". In Shackleton, David M. (ed.). Wild Sheep and Goats and Their Relatives: Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan for Caprinae. IUCN. pp. 271–274. ISBN 978-2-8317-0353-4. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hJBodAXB9eoC&pg=PA271" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=hJBodAXB9eoC&pg=PA271</a> <a href="#fnref:55" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:56"><p>Burton & Burton 2002, p. 2324. - Burton, Maurice; Burton, Robert, eds. (2002). International Wildlife Encyclopedia. Marshall Cavendish. pp. 2323–2324. ISBN 978-0-7614-7266-7. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_YicMQmIA7wC&pg=PA2323" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=_YicMQmIA7wC&pg=PA2323</a> <a href="#fnref:56" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:57"><p>Tokida 2020. - Tokida, K. (2020). "Capricornis crispus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2020: e.T3811A22151909. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-2.RLTS.T3811A22151909.en. Retrieved 11 November 2021. <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/3811/22151909" target="_blank">https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/3811/22151909</a> <a href="#fnref:57" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:58"><p>Burton & Burton 2002, p. 2323. - Burton, Maurice; Burton, Robert, eds. (2002). International Wildlife Encyclopedia. Marshall Cavendish. pp. 2323–2324. ISBN 978-0-7614-7266-7. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_YicMQmIA7wC&pg=PA2323" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=_YicMQmIA7wC&pg=PA2323</a> <a href="#fnref:58" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:59"><p>Jass & Mead 2004, p. 4. - Jass, Christopher N.; Mead, Jim I. (15 December 2004). "Capricornis crispus". Mammalian Species. 750: 1–10. doi:10.1644/750. ISSN 1545-1410. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1644%2F750" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1644%2F750</a> <a href="#fnref:59" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:60"><p>Tokida 2020. - Tokida, K. (2020). "Capricornis crispus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2020: e.T3811A22151909. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-2.RLTS.T3811A22151909.en. Retrieved 11 November 2021. <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/3811/22151909" target="_blank">https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/3811/22151909</a> <a href="#fnref:60" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:61"><p>Doko & Chen 2013, p. 53. - Doko, Tomoko; Chen, Wenbo (2013). "The Geographical distribution and habitat use of the Japanese serow (Naemorhedus crispus) in the Fuji-Tanzawa region, Japan" (PDF). Journal of Environmental Information Science. 41 (5): 53–62. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-07-14. Retrieved 2014-06-25. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140714134611/http://web.sfc.keio.ac.jp/~dokochan/doc/doko_etal2013JEIS_serow.pdf" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20140714134611/http://web.sfc.keio.ac.jp/~dokochan/doc/doko_etal2013JEIS_serow.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:61" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:62"><p>Tokida 2020. - Tokida, K. (2020). "Capricornis crispus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2020: e.T3811A22151909. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-2.RLTS.T3811A22151909.en. Retrieved 11 November 2021. <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/3811/22151909" target="_blank">https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/3811/22151909</a> <a href="#fnref:62" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:63"><p>Tokida 2020. - Tokida, K. (2020). "Capricornis crispus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2020: e.T3811A22151909. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-2.RLTS.T3811A22151909.en. Retrieved 11 November 2021. <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/3811/22151909" target="_blank">https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/3811/22151909</a> <a href="#fnref:63" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:64"><p>Abe 2008, p. 113. - Abe, Hisashi, ed. (2008). 日本の哺乳類 (Nihon no Honyuurui) [A Guide to the Mammals of Japan] (in Japanese). Tokai University. ISBN 978-4-486-01802-5. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PDukPQAACAAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=PDukPQAACAAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:64" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:65"><p>Abe 2008, p. 113. - Abe, Hisashi, ed. (2008). 日本の哺乳類 (Nihon no Honyuurui) [A Guide to the Mammals of Japan] (in Japanese). Tokai University. ISBN 978-4-486-01802-5. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PDukPQAACAAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=PDukPQAACAAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:65" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:66"><p>Jass & Mead 2004, p. 5. - Jass, Christopher N.; Mead, Jim I. (15 December 2004). "Capricornis crispus". Mammalian Species. 750: 1–10. doi:10.1644/750. ISSN 1545-1410. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1644%2F750" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1644%2F750</a> <a href="#fnref:66" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:67"><p>Ono 2000, p. 25. - Ono, Yūichi (2000). ニホンカモシカのたどった道: 野生動物との共生を探る (Nihonkamoshika no tadotta michi: Yasei doubutsu to no kyōsei wo saguru) [The Path Taken by the Japanese Serow: Exploring Symbiosis with Wildlife] (in Japanese). Chuokoron-Shinsha. ISBN 978-4-12-101539-6. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YkqKPQAACAAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=YkqKPQAACAAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:67" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:68"><p>Knight 2003, p. 126. - Knight, John (2003). Waiting for Wolves in Japan: An Anthropological Study of People-Wildlife Relations: An Anthropological Study of People-Wildlife Relations. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-158864-8. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iDqxEtYjD4YC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=iDqxEtYjD4YC</a> <a href="#fnref:68" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:69"><p>Abe 2008, p. 113. - Abe, Hisashi, ed. (2008). 日本の哺乳類 (Nihon no Honyuurui) [A Guide to the Mammals of Japan] (in Japanese). Tokai University. ISBN 978-4-486-01802-5. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PDukPQAACAAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=PDukPQAACAAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:69" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:70"><p>Jass & Mead 2004, p. 5. - Jass, Christopher N.; Mead, Jim I. (15 December 2004). "Capricornis crispus". Mammalian Species. 750: 1–10. doi:10.1644/750. ISSN 1545-1410. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1644%2F750" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1644%2F750</a> <a href="#fnref:70" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:71"><p>Burton & Burton 2002, p. 2324. - Burton, Maurice; Burton, Robert, eds. (2002). International Wildlife Encyclopedia. Marshall Cavendish. pp. 2323–2324. ISBN 978-0-7614-7266-7. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_YicMQmIA7wC&pg=PA2323" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=_YicMQmIA7wC&pg=PA2323</a> <a href="#fnref:71" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:72"><p>Knight 2003, p. 130. - Knight, John (2003). Waiting for Wolves in Japan: An Anthropological Study of People-Wildlife Relations: An Anthropological Study of People-Wildlife Relations. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-158864-8. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iDqxEtYjD4YC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=iDqxEtYjD4YC</a> <a href="#fnref:72" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:73"><p>Tokida 2020. - Tokida, K. (2020). "Capricornis crispus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2020: e.T3811A22151909. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-2.RLTS.T3811A22151909.en. Retrieved 11 November 2021. <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/3811/22151909" target="_blank">https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/3811/22151909</a> <a href="#fnref:73" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:74"><p>Jiang et al. 2008, p. 1220. - Jiang, Zhaowen; Torii, Harumi; Takatsuki, Seiki; Ohba, Takahiro (2008). "Local Variation in Diet Composition of the Japanese Serow During Winter". Zoological Science. 25 (12): 1220–1226. doi:10.2108/zsj.25.1220. PMID 19267649. S2CID 22040240. <a href="https://doi.org/10.2108%2Fzsj.25.1220" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.2108%2Fzsj.25.1220</a> <a href="#fnref:74" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:75"><p>Tokida 2020. - Tokida, K. (2020). "Capricornis crispus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2020: e.T3811A22151909. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-2.RLTS.T3811A22151909.en. Retrieved 11 November 2021. <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/3811/22151909" target="_blank">https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/3811/22151909</a> <a href="#fnref:75" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:76"><p>Burton & Burton 2002, p. 2324. - Burton, Maurice; Burton, Robert, eds. (2002). International Wildlife Encyclopedia. Marshall Cavendish. pp. 2323–2324. ISBN 978-0-7614-7266-7. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_YicMQmIA7wC&pg=PA2323" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=_YicMQmIA7wC&pg=PA2323</a> <a href="#fnref:76" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:77"><p>Natori & Porter 2007, p. 1443. - Natori, Y.; Porter, W. P. (2007). "Model of Japanese Serow (Capricornis crispus) Energetics Predicts Distribution on Honshu, Japan". Ecological Applications. 17 (5): 1441–1459. Bibcode:2007EcoAp..17.1441N. doi:10.1890/06-1785.1. ISSN 1051-0761. PMID 17708220. <a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007EcoAp..17.1441N" target="_blank">https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007EcoAp..17.1441N</a> <a href="#fnref:77" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:78"><p>Honda, Tatsukawa & Miura 1987, p. 368. - Honda, Katsuhisa; Tatsukawa, Ryo; Miura, Shingo (1987). "Heavy metal accumulation in wild Japanese serow". In Soma, Hiroaki (ed.). The Biology and Management of Capricornis and Related Mountain Antelopes. Springer. pp. 365–387. ISBN 978-94-011-8030-6. <a href="#fnref:78" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:79"><p>Natori & Porter 2007, p. 1456. - Natori, Y.; Porter, W. P. (2007). "Model of Japanese Serow (Capricornis crispus) Energetics Predicts Distribution on Honshu, Japan". Ecological Applications. 17 (5): 1441–1459. Bibcode:2007EcoAp..17.1441N. doi:10.1890/06-1785.1. ISSN 1051-0761. PMID 17708220. <a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007EcoAp..17.1441N" target="_blank">https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007EcoAp..17.1441N</a> <a href="#fnref:79" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:80"><p>Abe 2008, p. 113. - Abe, Hisashi, ed. (2008). 日本の哺乳類 (Nihon no Honyuurui) [A Guide to the Mammals of Japan] (in Japanese). Tokai University. ISBN 978-4-486-01802-5. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PDukPQAACAAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=PDukPQAACAAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:80" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:81"><p>Estimates place life expectancy at birth at 4.8–6.5 years,[1] <a href="#fnref:81" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:82"><p>Tokida 2020; Jass & Mead 2004, p. 4. - Tokida, K. (2020). "Capricornis crispus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2020: e.T3811A22151909. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-2.RLTS.T3811A22151909.en. Retrieved 11 November 2021. <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/3811/22151909" target="_blank">https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/3811/22151909</a> <a href="#fnref:82" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:83"><p>Jass & Mead 2004, p. 4. - Jass, Christopher N.; Mead, Jim I. (15 December 2004). "Capricornis crispus". Mammalian Species. 750: 1–10. doi:10.1644/750. ISSN 1545-1410. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1644%2F750" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1644%2F750</a> <a href="#fnref:83" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:84"><p>Inoshima 2010, p. 701. - Inoshima, Yasuo (2010). "Spatial and Temporal Genetic Homogeneity of Orf Viruses Infecting Japanese Serows (Capricornis crispus)". Journal of Veterinary Medical Science. 72 (6): 701–707. doi:10.1292/jvms.09-0467. hdl:20.500.12099/39514. PMID 20124763. Archived from the original on 2022-11-26. Retrieved 2014-06-30. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221126051635/http://repository.lib.gifu-u.ac.jp/handle/123456789/39514" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20221126051635/http://repository.lib.gifu-u.ac.jp/handle/123456789/39514</a> <a href="#fnref:84" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:85"><p>Jass & Mead 2004, p. 4. - Jass, Christopher N.; Mead, Jim I. (15 December 2004). "Capricornis crispus". Mammalian Species. 750: 1–10. doi:10.1644/750. ISSN 1545-1410. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1644%2F750" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1644%2F750</a> <a href="#fnref:85" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:86"><p>Sakae & Ishida 2012, p. 224; Jass & Mead 2004, p. 4. - Sakae, C.; Ishida, T. (February 2012). "Direct Evidence for Toxoplasma gondii Infection in a Wild Serow (Capricornis crispus) from Mainland Japan". Journal of Parasitology. 98 (1): 224–225. doi:10.1645/GE-2881.1. ISSN 1937-2345. PMID 21882974. S2CID 7779970. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1645%2FGE-2881.1" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1645%2FGE-2881.1</a> <a href="#fnref:86" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:87"><p>Jass & Mead 2004, p. 4. - Jass, Christopher N.; Mead, Jim I. (15 December 2004). "Capricornis crispus". Mammalian Species. 750: 1–10. doi:10.1644/750. ISSN 1545-1410. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1644%2F750" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1644%2F750</a> <a href="#fnref:87" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:88"><p>Although the Japanese serow is generally monogamous, a 1996 study showed that 20% of males to be polygynous with two females.[7] <a href="#fnref:88" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:89"><p>Kishimoto 2003, p. 147. - Kishimoto, Ryosuke (2003). "Social monogamy and social polygyny in a solitary ungulate, the Japanese Serow (Capricornis crispus)". In Reichard, Ulrich H.; Boesch, Christophe (eds.). Monogamy: Mating Strategies and Partnerships in Birds, Humans and Other Mammals. Cambridge University Press. pp. 147–158. ISBN 978-0-521-52577-0. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zIu2K6KFsXEC&pg=PA147" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=zIu2K6KFsXEC&pg=PA147</a> <a href="#fnref:89" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:90"><p>Tokida 2020. - Tokida, K. (2020). "Capricornis crispus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2020: e.T3811A22151909. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-2.RLTS.T3811A22151909.en. Retrieved 11 November 2021. <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/3811/22151909" target="_blank">https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/3811/22151909</a> <a href="#fnref:90" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:91"><p>Burton & Burton 2002, p. 2324. - Burton, Maurice; Burton, Robert, eds. (2002). International Wildlife Encyclopedia. Marshall Cavendish. pp. 2323–2324. ISBN 978-0-7614-7266-7. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_YicMQmIA7wC&pg=PA2323" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=_YicMQmIA7wC&pg=PA2323</a> <a href="#fnref:91" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:92"><p>Togashi et al. 2009, p. 415. - Togashi, Mikiko; Tsujimoto, Tsunenori; Yamauchi, Kiyoshi; Deguchi, Yoshitaka; Hashizume, Kazuyoshi; Kizaki, Keiichiro; Honjou, Sachika; Izaike, Yoshiaki; Osawa, Takeshi (2009). "Plasma and Fecal Sex Steroid Hormone Profiles During the Estrous Cycle in a Japanese Serow (Capricornis crispus)". Journal of Reproduction and Development. 55 (4): 412–417. doi:10.1262/jrd.20165. PMID 19404003. <a href="https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/jrd/55/4/55_20165/_pdf" target="_blank">https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/jrd/55/4/55_20165/_pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:92" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:93"><p>Burton & Burton 2002, p. 2323. - Burton, Maurice; Burton, Robert, eds. (2002). International Wildlife Encyclopedia. Marshall Cavendish. pp. 2323–2324. ISBN 978-0-7614-7266-7. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_YicMQmIA7wC&pg=PA2323" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=_YicMQmIA7wC&pg=PA2323</a> <a href="#fnref:93" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:94"><p>Jass & Mead 2004, p. 5. - Jass, Christopher N.; Mead, Jim I. (15 December 2004). "Capricornis crispus". Mammalian Species. 750: 1–10. doi:10.1644/750. ISSN 1545-1410. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1644%2F750" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1644%2F750</a> <a href="#fnref:94" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:95"><p>Burton & Burton 2002, p. 2323. - Burton, Maurice; Burton, Robert, eds. (2002). International Wildlife Encyclopedia. Marshall Cavendish. pp. 2323–2324. ISBN 978-0-7614-7266-7. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_YicMQmIA7wC&pg=PA2323" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=_YicMQmIA7wC&pg=PA2323</a> <a href="#fnref:95" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:96"><p>Jass & Mead 2004, p. 3. - Jass, Christopher N.; Mead, Jim I. (15 December 2004). "Capricornis crispus". Mammalian Species. 750: 1–10. doi:10.1644/750. ISSN 1545-1410. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1644%2F750" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1644%2F750</a> <a href="#fnref:96" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:97"><p>Burton & Burton 2002, p. 2324. - Burton, Maurice; Burton, Robert, eds. (2002). International Wildlife Encyclopedia. Marshall Cavendish. pp. 2323–2324. ISBN 978-0-7614-7266-7. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_YicMQmIA7wC&pg=PA2323" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=_YicMQmIA7wC&pg=PA2323</a> <a href="#fnref:97" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:98"><p>Knight 2003, p. 126. - Knight, John (2003). Waiting for Wolves in Japan: An Anthropological Study of People-Wildlife Relations: An Anthropological Study of People-Wildlife Relations. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-158864-8. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iDqxEtYjD4YC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=iDqxEtYjD4YC</a> <a href="#fnref:98" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:99"><p>Jass & Mead 2004, p. 5. - Jass, Christopher N.; Mead, Jim I. (15 December 2004). "Capricornis crispus". Mammalian Species. 750: 1–10. doi:10.1644/750. ISSN 1545-1410. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1644%2F750" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1644%2F750</a> <a href="#fnref:99" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:100"><p>Nawa 2009, p. 166. - Nawa, Akira (2009). 森の賢者カモシカ: 鈴鹿山地の定点観察記 (Mori no Kenja Kamoshika: Suzuka Sanchi no Teiten Kansatsu-ki) [Serow, Sage of the Forest: Record of Observation in the Suzuka Mountains] (in Japanese). Sunrise Publishing. ISBN 978-4-88325-389-0. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5iBNQwAACAAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=5iBNQwAACAAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:100" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:101"><p>Nawa 2009, pp. 166–167. - Nawa, Akira (2009). 森の賢者カモシカ: 鈴鹿山地の定点観察記 (Mori no Kenja Kamoshika: Suzuka Sanchi no Teiten Kansatsu-ki) [Serow, Sage of the Forest: Record of Observation in the Suzuka Mountains] (in Japanese). Sunrise Publishing. ISBN 978-4-88325-389-0. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5iBNQwAACAAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=5iBNQwAACAAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:101" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:102"><p>Nawa 2009, p. 167. - Nawa, Akira (2009). 森の賢者カモシカ: 鈴鹿山地の定点観察記 (Mori no Kenja Kamoshika: Suzuka Sanchi no Teiten Kansatsu-ki) [Serow, Sage of the Forest: Record of Observation in the Suzuka Mountains] (in Japanese). Sunrise Publishing. ISBN 978-4-88325-389-0. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5iBNQwAACAAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=5iBNQwAACAAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:102" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:103"><p>Nawa 2009, p. 168. - Nawa, Akira (2009). 森の賢者カモシカ: 鈴鹿山地の定点観察記 (Mori no Kenja Kamoshika: Suzuka Sanchi no Teiten Kansatsu-ki) [Serow, Sage of the Forest: Record of Observation in the Suzuka Mountains] (in Japanese). Sunrise Publishing. ISBN 978-4-88325-389-0. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5iBNQwAACAAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=5iBNQwAACAAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:103" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:104"><p>Nawa 2009, p. 168. - Nawa, Akira (2009). 森の賢者カモシカ: 鈴鹿山地の定点観察記 (Mori no Kenja Kamoshika: Suzuka Sanchi no Teiten Kansatsu-ki) [Serow, Sage of the Forest: Record of Observation in the Suzuka Mountains] (in Japanese). Sunrise Publishing. ISBN 978-4-88325-389-0. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5iBNQwAACAAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=5iBNQwAACAAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:104" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:105"><p>Nawa 2009, p. 168. - Nawa, Akira (2009). 森の賢者カモシカ: 鈴鹿山地の定点観察記 (Mori no Kenja Kamoshika: Suzuka Sanchi no Teiten Kansatsu-ki) [Serow, Sage of the Forest: Record of Observation in the Suzuka Mountains] (in Japanese). Sunrise Publishing. ISBN 978-4-88325-389-0. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5iBNQwAACAAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=5iBNQwAACAAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:105" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:106"><p>"Meat" (Japanese: 肉, Hepburn: niku)[49] <a href="/wiki/Japanese_language" target="_blank">/wiki/Japanese_language</a> <a href="#fnref:106" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:107"><p>Knight 2003, p. 145. - Knight, John (2003). Waiting for Wolves in Japan: An Anthropological Study of People-Wildlife Relations: An Anthropological Study of People-Wildlife Relations. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-158864-8. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iDqxEtYjD4YC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=iDqxEtYjD4YC</a> <a href="#fnref:107" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:108"><p>Knight 2003, p. 150. - Knight, John (2003). Waiting for Wolves in Japan: An Anthropological Study of People-Wildlife Relations: An Anthropological Study of People-Wildlife Relations. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-158864-8. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iDqxEtYjD4YC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=iDqxEtYjD4YC</a> <a href="#fnref:108" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:109"><p>Tokida 2020. - Tokida, K. (2020). "Capricornis crispus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2020: e.T3811A22151909. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-2.RLTS.T3811A22151909.en. Retrieved 11 November 2021. <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/3811/22151909" target="_blank">https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/3811/22151909</a> <a href="#fnref:109" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:110"><p>"Natural Monument" (Japanese: 天然記念物, Hepburn: ten'nen kinenbutsu) <a href="/wiki/Japanese_language" target="_blank">/wiki/Japanese_language</a> <a href="#fnref:110" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:111"><p>Tokida 2020. - Tokida, K. (2020). "Capricornis crispus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2020: e.T3811A22151909. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-2.RLTS.T3811A22151909.en. Retrieved 11 November 2021. <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/3811/22151909" target="_blank">https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/3811/22151909</a> <a href="#fnref:111" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:112"><p>"Special Natural Monument" (Japanese: 特別天然記念物, Hepburn: tokubetsu ten'nen kinenbutsu) <a href="/wiki/Japanese_language" target="_blank">/wiki/Japanese_language</a> <a href="#fnref:112" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:113"><p>Maruyama, Ikeda & Tokida 1997, p. 271. - Maruyama, N.; Ikeda, H.; Tokida, K. (1997). "9.4 Japan". In Shackleton, David M. (ed.). Wild Sheep and Goats and Their Relatives: Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan for Caprinae. IUCN. pp. 271–274. ISBN 978-2-8317-0353-4. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hJBodAXB9eoC&pg=PA271" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=hJBodAXB9eoC&pg=PA271</a> <a href="#fnref:113" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:114"><p>Burton & Burton 2002, p. 2323. - Burton, Maurice; Burton, Robert, eds. (2002). International Wildlife Encyclopedia. Marshall Cavendish. pp. 2323–2324. ISBN 978-0-7614-7266-7. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_YicMQmIA7wC&pg=PA2323" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=_YicMQmIA7wC&pg=PA2323</a> <a href="#fnref:114" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:115"><p>Maruyama, Ikeda & Tokida 1997, p. 271. - Maruyama, N.; Ikeda, H.; Tokida, K. (1997). "9.4 Japan". In Shackleton, David M. (ed.). Wild Sheep and Goats and Their Relatives: Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan for Caprinae. IUCN. pp. 271–274. ISBN 978-2-8317-0353-4. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hJBodAXB9eoC&pg=PA271" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=hJBodAXB9eoC&pg=PA271</a> <a href="#fnref:115" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:116"><p>Tokida 2020. - Tokida, K. (2020). "Capricornis crispus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2020: e.T3811A22151909. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-2.RLTS.T3811A22151909.en. Retrieved 11 November 2021. <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/3811/22151909" target="_blank">https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/3811/22151909</a> <a href="#fnref:116" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:117"><p>15 such areas were originally proposed. Disputes with landowners have prevented their establishment in Kyushu and Shikoku.[1] <a href="#fnref:117" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:118"><p>Maruyama, Ikeda & Tokida 1997, p. 273. - Maruyama, N.; Ikeda, H.; Tokida, K. (1997). "9.4 Japan". In Shackleton, David M. (ed.). Wild Sheep and Goats and Their Relatives: Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan for Caprinae. IUCN. pp. 271–274. ISBN 978-2-8317-0353-4. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hJBodAXB9eoC&pg=PA271" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=hJBodAXB9eoC&pg=PA271</a> <a href="#fnref:118" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:119"><p>Tokida 2020. - Tokida, K. (2020). "Capricornis crispus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2020: e.T3811A22151909. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-2.RLTS.T3811A22151909.en. Retrieved 11 November 2021. <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/3811/22151909" target="_blank">https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/3811/22151909</a> <a href="#fnref:119" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:120"><p>Tokida 2020. - Tokida, K. (2020). "Capricornis crispus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2020: e.T3811A22151909. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-2.RLTS.T3811A22151909.en. Retrieved 11 November 2021. <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/3811/22151909" target="_blank">https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/3811/22151909</a> <a href="#fnref:120" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:121"><p>Law for Protection of Cultural Properties (Japanese: 文化財保護法, Hepburn: bunkazai hogo-hō) <a href="/wiki/Japanese_language" target="_blank">/wiki/Japanese_language</a> <a href="#fnref:121" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:122"><p>Wildlife Protection and Hunting Law (Japanese: 鳥獣の保護及び狩猟の適正化に関する法律, Hepburn: chōjū no hogo oyobi shuryō no tekiseika ni kansuru hōritsu) <a href="/wiki/Japanese_language" target="_blank">/wiki/Japanese_language</a> <a href="#fnref:122" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:123"><p>Tokida 2020. - Tokida, K. (2020). "Capricornis crispus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2020: e.T3811A22151909. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-2.RLTS.T3811A22151909.en. Retrieved 11 November 2021. <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/3811/22151909" target="_blank">https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/3811/22151909</a> <a href="#fnref:123" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:124"><p>Knight 2003, pp. 157–158. - Knight, John (2003). Waiting for Wolves in Japan: An Anthropological Study of People-Wildlife Relations: An Anthropological Study of People-Wildlife Relations. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-158864-8. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iDqxEtYjD4YC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=iDqxEtYjD4YC</a> <a href="#fnref:124" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:125"><p>Maruyama, Ikeda & Tokida 1997, p. 271. - Maruyama, N.; Ikeda, H.; Tokida, K. (1997). "9.4 Japan". In Shackleton, David M. (ed.). Wild Sheep and Goats and Their Relatives: Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan for Caprinae. IUCN. pp. 271–274. ISBN 978-2-8317-0353-4. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hJBodAXB9eoC&pg=PA271" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=hJBodAXB9eoC&pg=PA271</a> <a href="#fnref:125" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:126"><p>Knight 2003, p. 137. - Knight, John (2003). Waiting for Wolves in Japan: An Anthropological Study of People-Wildlife Relations: An Anthropological Study of People-Wildlife Relations. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-158864-8. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iDqxEtYjD4YC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=iDqxEtYjD4YC</a> <a href="#fnref:126" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:127"><p>Knight 2003, p. 147. - Knight, John (2003). Waiting for Wolves in Japan: An Anthropological Study of People-Wildlife Relations: An Anthropological Study of People-Wildlife Relations. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-158864-8. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iDqxEtYjD4YC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=iDqxEtYjD4YC</a> <a href="#fnref:127" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:128"><p>Knight 2003, pp. 148–150. - Knight, John (2003). Waiting for Wolves in Japan: An Anthropological Study of People-Wildlife Relations: An Anthropological Study of People-Wildlife Relations. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-158864-8. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iDqxEtYjD4YC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=iDqxEtYjD4YC</a> <a href="#fnref:128" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:129"><p>Knight 2003, p. 147. - Knight, John (2003). Waiting for Wolves in Japan: An Anthropological Study of People-Wildlife Relations: An Anthropological Study of People-Wildlife Relations. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-158864-8. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iDqxEtYjD4YC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=iDqxEtYjD4YC</a> <a href="#fnref:129" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:130"><p>Knight 2003, p. 151. - Knight, John (2003). Waiting for Wolves in Japan: An Anthropological Study of People-Wildlife Relations: An Anthropological Study of People-Wildlife Relations. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-158864-8. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iDqxEtYjD4YC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=iDqxEtYjD4YC</a> <a href="#fnref:130" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:131"><p>Knight 2003, p. 157. - Knight, John (2003). Waiting for Wolves in Japan: An Anthropological Study of People-Wildlife Relations: An Anthropological Study of People-Wildlife Relations. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-158864-8. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iDqxEtYjD4YC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=iDqxEtYjD4YC</a> <a href="#fnref:131" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:132"><p>Knight 2003, p. 151. - Knight, John (2003). Waiting for Wolves in Japan: An Anthropological Study of People-Wildlife Relations: An Anthropological Study of People-Wildlife Relations. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-158864-8. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iDqxEtYjD4YC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=iDqxEtYjD4YC</a> <a href="#fnref:132" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:133"><p>Knight 2003, p. 151. - Knight, John (2003). Waiting for Wolves in Japan: An Anthropological Study of People-Wildlife Relations: An Anthropological Study of People-Wildlife Relations. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-158864-8. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iDqxEtYjD4YC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=iDqxEtYjD4YC</a> <a href="#fnref:133" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:134"><p>Knight 2003, p. 152. - Knight, John (2003). Waiting for Wolves in Japan: An Anthropological Study of People-Wildlife Relations: An Anthropological Study of People-Wildlife Relations. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-158864-8. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iDqxEtYjD4YC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=iDqxEtYjD4YC</a> <a href="#fnref:134" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:135"><p>Knight 2003, p. 152. - Knight, John (2003). Waiting for Wolves in Japan: An Anthropological Study of People-Wildlife Relations: An Anthropological Study of People-Wildlife Relations. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-158864-8. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iDqxEtYjD4YC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=iDqxEtYjD4YC</a> <a href="#fnref:135" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:136"><p>Tokida 2020. - Tokida, K. (2020). "Capricornis crispus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2020: e.T3811A22151909. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-2.RLTS.T3811A22151909.en. Retrieved 11 November 2021. <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/3811/22151909" target="_blank">https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/3811/22151909</a> <a href="#fnref:136" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:137"><p>Ono 2000, p. 145. - Ono, Yūichi (2000). ニホンカモシカのたどった道: 野生動物との共生を探る (Nihonkamoshika no tadotta michi: Yasei doubutsu to no kyōsei wo saguru) [The Path Taken by the Japanese Serow: Exploring Symbiosis with Wildlife] (in Japanese). Chuokoron-Shinsha. ISBN 978-4-12-101539-6. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YkqKPQAACAAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=YkqKPQAACAAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:137" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:138"><p>"living national treasure of the forest" (Japanese: 森の生きている国宝, Hepburn: mori no ikiteiru kokuhō)[60] <a href="/wiki/Japanese_language" target="_blank">/wiki/Japanese_language</a> <a href="#fnref:138" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:139"><p>Knight 2003, p. 148. - Knight, John (2003). Waiting for Wolves in Japan: An Anthropological Study of People-Wildlife Relations: An Anthropological Study of People-Wildlife Relations. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-158864-8. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iDqxEtYjD4YC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=iDqxEtYjD4YC</a> <a href="#fnref:139" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:140"><p>Knight 2003, pp. 129–130. - Knight, John (2003). Waiting for Wolves in Japan: An Anthropological Study of People-Wildlife Relations: An Anthropological Study of People-Wildlife Relations. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-158864-8. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iDqxEtYjD4YC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=iDqxEtYjD4YC</a> <a href="#fnref:140" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:141"><p>Knight 2003, p. 130. - Knight, John (2003). Waiting for Wolves in Japan: An Anthropological Study of People-Wildlife Relations: An Anthropological Study of People-Wildlife Relations. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-158864-8. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iDqxEtYjD4YC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=iDqxEtYjD4YC</a> <a href="#fnref:141" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> </ol>