Menu
Home
People
Places
Arts
History
Plants & Animals
Science
Life & Culture
Technology
Reference.org
1878 in science
open-in-new
<h2 id="astronomy">Astronomy</h2> <ul><li>English astronomer <a href="/facts/Richard_A._Proctor/3sbBMgLa">Richard A. Proctor</a> describes the <a href="/facts/Zone_of_Avoidance/xcrH3whk">Zone of Avoidance</a>, the area of the night sky that is obscured by our own galaxy, for the first time.</li></ul> <h2 id="biology">Biology</h2> <ul><li>Death of last confirmed <a href="/facts/Cape_Lion/st1C20QR">Cape Lion</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:1" href="#fn:1"><sup>1</sup></a></li></ul> <h2 id="chemistry">Chemistry</h2> <ul><li>The <a href="/facts/Rare_earth_element/PQSUQumk">rare earth element</a> <a href="/facts/Holmium/C73kJVtp">holmium</a> is identified in <a href="/facts/Erbium/XEJlgJcx">erbium</a> by <a href="/facts/Marc_Delafontaine/ffzDsuEV">Marc Delafontaine</a> and <a href="/facts/Jacques-Louis_Soret/uYAGlgaQ">Jacques-Louis Soret</a> in Geneva<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:2" href="#fn:2"><sup>2</sup></a> and by <a href="/facts/Per_Teodor_Cleve/0KGIUxKW">Per Teodor Cleve</a> in Sweden.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:3" href="#fn:3"><sup>3</sup></a></li></ul> <h2 id="conservation">Conservation</h2> <ul><li>An <a href="/facts/Acts_of_Parliament_in_the_United_Kingdom/apqk8I13">Act of Parliament in the United Kingdom</a> places <a href="/facts/Epping_Forest/RBCohSWK">Epping Forest</a> in the care of the <a href="/facts/City_of_London_Corporation/Dweba7MW">City of London Corporation</a> to remain unenclosed.</li></ul> <h2 id="exploration">Exploration</h2> <ul><li>June 22 – <a href="/facts/Adolf_Erik_Nordenski%25C3%25B6ld/9kYDFXdB">Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld</a> sets out on the year-long first navigation of the <a href="/facts/Northern_Sea_Route/0WbNXBAK">Northern Sea Route</a>, the shipping lane from the <a href="/facts/Atlantic_Ocean/EI4uChIb">Atlantic Ocean</a> to the <a href="/facts/Pacific_Ocean/bdxgXRVM">Pacific Ocean</a> along the <a href="/facts/Siberian/oaCoPEjF">Siberian</a> coast.</li></ul> <h2 id="geology">Geology</h2> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Clarence_King/RtDImDCq">Clarence King</a> publishes <i>Systematic Geology</i>.</li> <li><a href="/facts/Charles_Lapworth/7JCtkwy7">Charles Lapworth</a> publishes his analysis of the change in <a href="/facts/Graptolite/0kekGhPo">graptolite</a> fossils through sequences of exposed <a href="/facts/Shale/bsIhqY5F">shales</a> in southern <a href="/facts/Scotland/VGwbbxB2">Scotland</a>, establishing the importance of using graptolites to understand stratigraphic sequences.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:4" href="#fn:4"><sup>4</sup></a></li></ul> <h2 id="mathematics">Mathematics</h2> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Belgians/xSmHFHch">Belgian</a> mathematician <a href="/facts/Victor_D%2527Hondt/QesUI10N">Victor D'Hondt</a> describes the <a href="/facts/D%2527Hondt_method/ThTfmXqv">D'Hondt method</a> of voting.</li> <li><a href="/facts/English_people/IeI9c7BK">English</a> mathematician Rev. <a href="/facts/William_Allen_Whitworth/B6VIJhYX">William Allen Whitworth</a> is the first to publish <a href="/facts/Bertrand%2527s_ballot_theorem/75b6bnTt">Bertrand's ballot theorem</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5"><sup>5</sup></a></li></ul> <h2 id="medicine">Medicine</h2> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Cesare_Lombroso/FgTx2LWC">Cesare Lombroso</a> publishes <i>L'uomo delinquente</i>, setting out his theory of criminal atavism.</li> <li><a href="/facts/%25C3%2581d%25C3%25A1m_Politzer/HstAApAl">Ádám Politzer</a> publishes <i>Lehrbuch der Ohrenheilkunde</i>, a major <a href="/facts/Otology/JQUWMCzy">otology</a> textbook.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6"><sup>6</sup></a></li> <li>Dentists Act in the <a href="/facts/United_Kingdom/kuPAILt2">United Kingdom</a> limits the title of "dentist" and "dental surgeon" to qualified and registered practitioners.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7"><sup>7</sup></a></li></ul> <h2 id="meteorology">Meteorology</h2> <ul><li>February 11 – The first weekly weather report is published in the <a href="/facts/United_Kingdom/kuPAILt2">United Kingdom</a>.</li></ul> <h2 id="paleontology">Paleontology</h2> <ul><li>31 <i><a href="/facts/Iguanodon/f4WBtpbX">Iguanodon</a></i> skeletons are discovered in a <a href="/facts/Coal_mine/hJPK7wBl">coal mine</a> at <a href="/facts/Bernissart/s9RAVgDW">Bernissart</a>, <a href="/facts/Belgium/YKuMXP5j">Belgium</a>.</li> <li>The sauropod genus <i><a href="/facts/Diplodocus/qnkupk9E">Diplodocus</a></i> is first named by <a href="/facts/Othniel_Charles_Marsh/TBr5FRvk">Othniel Charles Marsh</a> as well as the Theropod genus <a href="/facts/Allosaurus/tV8XJreT">Allosaurus</a>. These are both from the Jurassic aged Morrison formation.</li></ul> <h2 id="physics">Physics</h2> <ul><li>January 18 – Romanian mathematician <a href="/facts/Spiru_Haret/AhbbsDWz">Spiru Haret</a> defends his doctoral thesis,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8"><sup>8</sup></a> which proves a result fundamental to the <a href="/facts/N-body_problem/5goGsW5x"><i>n</i>-body problem</a> in <a href="/facts/Celestial_mechanics/FA3uR78J">celestial mechanics</a>.</li></ul> <h2 id="technology">Technology</h2> <ul><li>February 19 – The <a href="/facts/Phonograph/VcNQRYVT">phonograph</a> is patented by <a href="/facts/Thomas_Edison/IeDbdyP4">Thomas Edison</a>. The oldest known audio recording is recovered from this device in 2012.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9"><sup>9</sup></a></li> <li>March – The 'basic' process, enabling the use of <a href="/facts/Phosphorus/27xCeIqs">phosphoric</a> <a href="/facts/Iron_ore/rQMEvgMh">iron ore</a> in <a href="/facts/Steelmaking/95arHmry">steelmaking</a>, developed at <a href="/facts/Blaenavon_Ironworks/qSnUL9xA">Blaenavon Ironworks</a> by <a href="/facts/Percy_Gilchrist/qegjUKcn">Percy Gilchrist</a> and <a href="/facts/Sidney_Gilchrist_Thomas/NhpTMoWI">Sidney Gilchrist Thomas</a>, is first made public.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10"><sup>10</sup></a></li> <li>May 22 – <a href="/facts/John_Philip_Holland/196bExYy">John Philip Holland</a>'s experimental powered <a href="/facts/Submarine/6fhcAKHV">submarine</a> <i><a href="/facts/Holland_I/zH5Q7thY">Holland I</a></i> is launched in <a href="/facts/Paterson%2c_New_Jersey/FDnvPfyk">Paterson, New Jersey</a>.</li> <li>June 15 – <a href="/facts/Eadweard_Muybridge/Udd4DXBI">Eadweard Muybridge</a> produces the sequence of stop-motion still photographs <i><a href="/facts/Sallie_Gardner_at_a_Gallop/WCuKgLtg">Sallie Gardner at a Gallop</a></i> in <a href="/facts/California/zLW2vdQJ">California</a>, a predecessor of <a href="/facts/Silent_film/32MP8dLb">silent film</a> (capable of being viewed as an animation on a <a href="/facts/Zoopraxiscope/yhYyvFrn">zoopraxiscope</a>) demonstrating that all four feet of a <a href="/facts/Horse_gait/cBsgtm6t">galloping horse</a> are off the ground at the same time.</li> <li>August – <a href="/facts/Cleopatra%2527s_Needle_(London)/Xma603CY">Cleopatra's Needle</a> is raised onto its base in <a href="/facts/London/KozCCsy9">London</a>.</li> <li>October 14 – The world's first recorded floodlit football fixture is played at <a href="/facts/Bramall_Lane/qYLP7txS">Bramall Lane</a> in <a href="/facts/Sheffield/rp05rhlH">Sheffield</a>.</li> <li>December 18 – <a href="/facts/Joseph_Swan/31u13aFB">Joseph Swan</a> of <a href="/facts/Newcastle_upon_Tyne/vfHwdn5F">Newcastle upon Tyne</a> in <a href="/facts/England/U9mE5bGL">England</a> announces his invention of an <a href="/facts/Incandescent_light_bulb/31frjg0A">incandescent light bulb</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11"><sup>11</sup></a></li> <li>December 31 – <a href="/facts/Karl_Benz/fJM2Gl63">Karl Benz</a> produces a two-stroke <a href="/facts/Gas_engine/gNBvJFGg">gas engine</a>.</li> <li><a href="/facts/William_Crookes/q8U8VVwR">William Crookes</a> invents the <a href="/facts/Crookes_tube/YDchDJ1s">Crookes tube</a> which produces <a href="/facts/Cathode_ray/9jRXSquS">cathode rays</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12"><sup>12</sup></a></li> <li>Osbourn Dorsey obtains a <a href="/facts/Patent/LjT2bG3A">patent</a> in the <a href="/facts/United_States/P0sCdLe5">United States</a> for a "door-holding device".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13"><sup>13</sup></a></li> <li>Gustav Kessel obtains a <a href="/facts/Patent/LjT2bG3A">patent</a> in <a href="/facts/Germany/paluuWBX">Germany</a> for an <a href="/facts/Espresso_machine/s2tMUPdX">espresso machine</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14"><sup>14</sup></a></li> <li>Czech painter <a href="/facts/Karel_Kl%25C3%25AD%25C4%258D/XnIrImSp">Karel Klíč</a> perfects the <a href="/facts/Photogravure/YWFqkBw0">photogravure</a> process.</li> <li><a href="/facts/Lester_Allan_Pelton/Ug3cutcD">Lester Allan Pelton</a> produces the first operational <a href="/facts/Pelton_wheel/ClSMsdFq">Pelton wheel</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15"><sup>15</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/E._Remington_and_Sons/FRATQAEN">Remington</a>, in the United States, introduce their No. 2 <a href="/facts/Typewriter/CHE43FWP">typewriter</a>, the first with a <a href="/facts/Shift_key/d0gXS7Jd">shift key</a> enabling production of <a href="/facts/Letter_case/KQcwaUUD">lower</a> as well as upper case characters.</li></ul> <h2 id="institutions">Institutions</h2> <ul><li>October 1 – <a href="/facts/Virginia_Polytechnic_Institute_and_State_University/5nNYd0ur">Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University</a> opens as Virginia Agricultural and Mechanical College in the <a href="/facts/United_States/P0sCdLe5">United States</a>.</li></ul> <h2 id="awards">Awards</h2> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Copley_Medal/bBwd6QzN">Copley Medal</a>: <a href="/facts/Jean_Baptiste_Boussingault/UppLh3Lz">Jean Baptiste Boussingault</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16"><sup>16</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Wollaston_Medal/uVkuXBYJ">Wollaston Medal</a> for Geology: <a href="/facts/Thomas_Wright_(geologist)/r5uAoVpU">Thomas Wright</a></li></ul> <h2 id="births">Births</h2> <ul><li>January 1 – <a href="/facts/Agner_Krarup_Erlang/WswurAKU">A. K. Erlang</a>, <a href="/facts/Danes/bUt1hyMQ">Danish</a> <a href="/facts/Mathematician/eaFSR8Fx">mathematician</a> (died <a href="/facts/1929_in_science/7e1fvv7I">1929</a>)</li> <li>January 7 – <a href="/facts/Samuel_James_Cameron/LuTQDy56">Samuel James Cameron</a>, <a href="/facts/Scottish_people/0rp2bd12">Scottish</a> <a href="/facts/Obstetrician/JbYHxtCd">obstetrician</a> (died <a href="/facts/1959_in_science/DyvFC0TJ">1959</a>)</li> <li>January 25 – <a href="/facts/Ernst_Alexanderson/FVo9RL1u">Ernst Alexanderson</a>, <a href="/facts/Sweden/u3qC7lyj">Swedish</a>-born television pioneer (died <a href="/facts/1975_in_science/TlkImvmu">1975</a>)</li> <li>February 5 – <a href="/facts/Andr%25C3%25A9_Citro%25C3%25ABn/l0nUEut4">André Citroën</a>, <a href="/facts/French_people/984axQ8y">French</a> automobile manufacturer (died <a href="/facts/1935_in_science/Bv2tQnCb">1935</a>)</li> <li>February 8 – <a href="/facts/Martin_Buber/CcSrYoa9">Martin Buber</a>, <a href="/facts/Austria/4qWIMIyc">Austrian</a> philosopher (died <a href="/facts/1965_in_science/U6JHRIPu">1965</a>)</li> <li>February 10 – <a href="/facts/Jennie_Smillie/DaG2jCsf">Jennie Smillie</a>, <a href="/facts/Canadians/9y5ceYgk">Canadian</a> <a href="/facts/Gynecological/KKAAAcnb">gynecological</a> <a href="/facts/Surgeon/Hm0R9t6n">surgeon</a> (died <a href="/facts/1981_in_science/R1f9DvMr">1981</a>)</li> <li>February 28 – <a href="/facts/Pierre_Fatou/mXA5yhVW">Pierre Fatou</a>, French mathematician (died <a href="/facts/1929_in_science/7e1fvv7I">1929</a>)</li> <li>March 4 – <a href="/facts/Peter_D._Ouspensky/cgpgfL0o">Peter D. Ouspensky</a>, <a href="/facts/Russia/jfkCwyxn">Russian</a> philosopher (died <a href="/facts/1947_in_science/BITl1Rt7">1947</a>)</li> <li>April 11 – <a href="/facts/Percy_Lane_Oliver/SVjdYPDz">Percy Lane Oliver</a>, <a href="/facts/British_people/xn7cqlzV">British</a> pioneer of voluntary <a href="/facts/Blood_donation/PIvGgUSW">blood donation</a> (died <a href="/facts/1944_in_science/YpWh560e">1944</a>)</li> <li>April 16 – <a href="/facts/Owen_Thomas_Jones/Kw280Fn3">Owen Thomas Jones</a>, <a href="/facts/Welsh_people/gWY430zy">Welsh</a> <a href="/facts/Geologist/vGc0tBHB">geologist</a> (died <a href="/facts/1967_in_science/bxp7AArL">1967</a>)</li> <li>June 3 – <a href="/facts/Barney_Oldfield/okHEodnG">Barney Oldfield</a>, <a href="/facts/United_States/P0sCdLe5">American</a> automobile racer and pioneer (died <a href="/facts/1946_in_science/zGLDDTAv">1946</a>)</li> <li>June 12 – <a href="/facts/James_Oliver_Curwood/FX8msoc7">James Oliver Curwood</a>, American novelist and <a href="/facts/Conservation_movement/Vnqkdddv">conservationist</a> (died <a href="/facts/1927_in_science/zk9YrBCk">1927</a>)</li> <li>July 12 – <a href="/facts/Peeter_P%25C3%25B5ld/vowk3cNN">Peeter Põld</a>, <a href="/facts/Estonia/PVjB16TI">Estonian</a> politician and pedagogical scientist (died <a href="/facts/1930_in_science/5KHEm9z9">1930</a>)</li> <li>August 28 – <a href="/facts/George_Whipple/oHjXtgn3">George Whipple</a>, American winner of the <a href="/facts/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine/rlnpJX84">Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine</a> (died <a href="/facts/1976_in_science/pSkWqAro">1976</a>)</li> <li>September 5 – <a href="/facts/Robert_von_Lieben/h8IKcvbL">Robert von Lieben</a>, Austrian <a href="/facts/Physicist/cQcgvSIm">physicist</a> (died <a href="/facts/1913_in_science/6nl9Anqy">1913</a>)</li> <li>September 13 – <a href="/facts/Matilde_Moisant/xT2ws2JM">Matilde Moisant</a>, American pilot (died <a href="/facts/1964_in_science/JLX857w7">1964</a>)</li> <li>October 1 – <a href="/facts/Helen_Mayo/YvDVx2ql">Helen Mayo</a>, Australian pediatrician (died <a href="/facts/1967_in_science/bxp7AArL">1967</a>)</li> <li>November 7 – <a href="/facts/Lise_Meitner/BH51ypJ2">Lise Meitner</a>, Austrian-Swedish physicist (died <a href="/facts/1968_in_science/M8FtD5wF">1968</a>)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17"><sup>17</sup></a></li> <li>November 8 – <a href="/facts/Dorothea_Bate/EyfNJU8o">Dorothea Bate</a>, Welsh-born <a href="/facts/Paleozoologist/8RJzYMWp">paleozoologist</a> (died <a href="/facts/1951_in_science/2H50d4c5">1951</a>)</li> <li>December 25 – <a href="/facts/Louis_Chevrolet/zdrp0Nb4">Louis Chevrolet</a>, <a href="/facts/Switzerland/LcGuxeTe">Swiss</a>-born race driver and automobile builder (died <a href="/facts/1941_in_science/JC6AnWC8">1941</a>)</li> <li>December 25 – <a href="/facts/Joseph_Schenck/UplE0mhy">Joseph Schenck</a>, Russian-born film executive (died <a href="/facts/1961_in_science/3eARNbLs">1962</a>)</li></ul> <h2 id="deaths">Deaths</h2> <ul><li>January 18 – <a href="/facts/William_Stokes_(physician)/De6qbVl7">William Stokes</a>, <a href="/facts/Irish_people/6Ykz2Dxl">Irish</a> <a href="/facts/Physician/qJ3woFvG">physician</a> (born <a href="/facts/1804_in_science/KzxP1fXC">1804</a>)</li> <li>January 18 – <a href="/facts/Antoine_C%25C3%25A9sar_Becquerel/WpV6hQRL">Antoine César Becquerel</a>, French scientist (born <a href="/facts/1788_in_science/TLfdbmlP">1788</a>)</li> <li>January 19 – <a href="/facts/Henri_Victor_Regnault/24Mz0XDX">Henri Victor Regnault</a>, French <a href="/facts/Physical_chemist/WqwnJjRM">physical chemist</a> (born <a href="/facts/1810_in_science/11VgsmCn">1810</a>)</li> <li>February 8 – <a href="/facts/Elias_Magnus_Fries/IspFbsTk">Elias Magnus Fries</a>, <a href="/facts/Swedes/gAeGfw2N">Swedish</a> <a href="/facts/Botanist/PaIRoxnb">botanist</a> (born <a href="/facts/1794_in_science/rbU8QBMq">1794</a>)</li> <li>February 10 – <a href="/facts/Claude_Bernard/eAhbMVwS">Claude Bernard</a>, French <a href="/facts/Physiologist/fh25y2pQ">physiologist</a> (born <a href="/facts/1813_in_science/z2PuMIQM">1813</a>)</li> <li>February 26 – <a href="/facts/Angelo_Secchi/3GaFJ6gd">Angelo Secchi</a>, <a href="/facts/Italian_people/dsdUeJ1n">Italian</a> astronomer (born <a href="/facts/1818_in_science/jJg1ghJ4">1818</a>)</li> <li>March 16 – <a href="/facts/William_Banting/xKCAaLyf">William Banting</a>, <a href="/facts/English_people/IeI9c7BK">English</a> <a href="/facts/Undertaker/UDhSEn9Y">undertaker</a> and <a href="/facts/Dietician/QykVpr91">dietician</a> (b. c.<a href="/facts/1796_in_science/Crrn5owT">1796</a>)</li> <li>May 13 – <a href="/facts/Joseph_Henry/Hr7CTgct">Joseph Henry</a>, American physicist (born <a href="/facts/1797_in_science/DTbxw61U">1797</a>)</li> <li>June 6 – <a href="/facts/Robert_Stirling/sa44YAWD">Robert Stirling</a>, <a href="/facts/Scottish_people/0rp2bd12">Scottish</a> clergyman and inventor (born <a href="/facts/1790_in_science/X4evzcDN">1790</a>)</li> <li>July 23 – <a href="/facts/Baron_Carl_von_Rokitansky/4At4PKRP">Baron Carl von Rokitansky</a>, <a href="/facts/Bohemia/Wbr8gt6l">Bohemian</a> <a href="/facts/Pathologist/U9b18LJG">pathologist</a> (born 1804)</li> <li>September 25 – <a href="/facts/August_Heinrich_Petermann/ssjb5kWt">August Heinrich Petermann</a>, <a href="/facts/Germans/F7mBCrJ4">German</a> <a href="/facts/Cartographer/8YdDAAeX">cartographer</a> (born <a href="/facts/1822_in_science/dG1sLUrM">1822</a>)</li> <li>Friedrich Freese, German botanist (born 1794)</li></ul> Wikimedia Commons has media related to 1878 in science. <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>"V muzeu Emila Holuba se ukrýval kapský lev". Novinky.cz (in Czech). 2009-05-22. Retrieved 2011-08-26. <a href="http://www.novinky.cz/domaci/169450-v-muzeu-emila-holuba-se-ukryval-kapsky-lev.html" target="_blank">http://www.novinky.cz/domaci/169450-v-muzeu-emila-holuba-se-ukryval-kapsky-lev.html</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>Soret, Jacques-Louis (1878). "Sur les spectres d'absorption ultra-violets des terres de la gadolinite". Comptes rendus de l'Académie des sciences. 87: 1062. <a href="https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k3043m/f1124.table" target="_blank">https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k3043m/f1124.table</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>Cleve, Per Teodor (1879). "Sur deux nouveaux éléments dans l'erbine". Comptes Rendus de l'Académie des Sciences. 89: 478. <a href="https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k3046j/f499.table" target="_blank">https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k3046j/f499.table</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:4"><p>"Dob's Linn". Scottish Geology. Archived from the original on 2011-05-18. Retrieved 2011-04-07. <a href="https://archive.today/20110518035418/http://www.scottishgeology.com/outandabout/classic_sites/locations/dobs_linn.html" target="_blank">https://archive.today/20110518035418/http://www.scottishgeology.com/outandabout/classic_sites/locations/dobs_linn.html</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:5"><p>Feller, William (1968), An Introduction to Probability Theory and its Applications, vol. 1 (3rd ed.), Wiley, p. 69 <a href="/wiki/William_Feller" target="_blank">/wiki/William_Feller</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:6"><p>Mudry, A. (2000). "The Role of Adam Politzer in the History of Otology". American Journal of Otology. 21: 753–763. <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:7"><p>Gelbier, Stanley (2005). "125 Years of Developments in Dentistry". British Dental Journal. 199 (7): 470. doi:10.1038/sj.bdj.4812875. PMID 16215593. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fsj.bdj.4812875" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fsj.bdj.4812875</a> <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:8"><p>Sur l’invariabilité des grandes axes des orbites planétaires ("On the invariability of the major axis of planetary orbits"), University of Paris. <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:9"><p>Rosen, Rebecca J. (2012-10-26). "Scientists Recover the Sounds of 19th-Century Music and Laughter From the Oldest Playable American Recording". The Atlantic. Retrieved 2013-06-15. <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2012/10/scientists-recover-the-sounds-of-19th-century-music-and-laughter-from-the-oldest-playable-american-recording/264147/#.UJFzCnboreA.facebook" target="_blank">https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2012/10/scientists-recover-the-sounds-of-19th-century-music-and-laughter-from-the-oldest-playable-american-recording/264147/#.UJFzCnboreA.facebook</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:10"><p>Davies, William Llewelyn (2009). "Thomas, Sidney Gilchrist". Welsh Biography Online. Retrieved 2012-11-09. <a href="https://biography.wales/article/s-THOM-GIL-1850" target="_blank">https://biography.wales/article/s-THOM-GIL-1850</a> <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:11"><p>van Dulken, Stephen (2001). Inventing the 19th Century: the great age of Victorian inventions. London: British Library. p. 80. ISBN 978-0-7123-0881-6. <a href="978-0-7123-0881-6" target="_blank">978-0-7123-0881-6</a> <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:12"><p>The Hutchinson Factfinder. Helicon. 1999. ISBN 978-1-85986-000-7. <a href="978-1-85986-000-7" target="_blank">978-1-85986-000-7</a> <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:13"><p>210,762. <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:14"><p>"Invention of the Espresso Machine". Barista's Roasting Co. Archived from the original on 2012-04-28. Retrieved 2012-06-20. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120428183530/http://baristasroasting.com/page87.html" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20120428183530/http://baristasroasting.com/page87.html</a> <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:15"><p>"Miners Foundry – Allans Machine Shop Founded 1856". Historical Marker Database. Retrieved 2011-09-03. <a href="http://www.hmdb.org/Marker.asp?Marker=12863" target="_blank">http://www.hmdb.org/Marker.asp?Marker=12863</a> <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:16"><p>"Copley Medal | British scientific award". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 23 July 2020. <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/Copley-Medal" target="_blank">https://www.britannica.com/science/Copley-Medal</a> <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:17"><p>Bailey Ogilvie, Marilyn; Harvey, Joy (2000). The Biographical Dictionary of Women in Science: L-Z. London: Routledge. p. 877. ISBN 978-0-41592-040-7. <a href="978-0-41592-040-7" target="_blank">978-0-41592-040-7</a> <a href="#fnref:17" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> </ol>