Menu
Home
People
Places
Arts
History
Plants & Animals
Science
Life & Culture
Technology
Reference.org
Chumashan languages
open-in-new
<h2 id="family-division">Family division</h2> <h3>Languages</h3> <p>Six Chumashan languages are <a href="/facts/Attested_language/Q8w1JHNl">attested</a>, all now extinct. However, most of them are in the process of revitalization, with language programs and classes. Contemporary Chumash people now prefer to refer to their languages by native names rather than the older names based on the local missions. </p> <ul><li>Chumashan <ul><li>Northern Chumash <ul><li><a href="/facts/Obispe%25C3%25B1o_language/hLSf4NWe">Obispeño</a> (also known as Northern Chumash) †Also known as Tilhini by students of the language, after the name of the major village near which the mission was founded.</li></ul></li> <li>Southern Chumash <ul><li>Island Chumash (mixed with non-Chumash) <ul><li><a href="/facts/Cruze%25C3%25B1o_language/Dlg4cJTm">Island Chumash</a> (also known as Ysleño, Isleño, Cruzeño) †Was spoken on the three inhabited islands in the Santa Barbara <a href="/facts/Channel_Islands_of_California/UtyqHNJy">Channel Islands</a>: <a href="/facts/Santa_Rosa_Island%2c_California/n8Ej1TEt">Santa Rosa</a>, <a href="/facts/San_Miguel_Island/AUCMCnvx">San Miguel</a>, and <a href="/facts/Santa_Cruz_Island/zBcFGxUv">Santa Cruz</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:3" href="#fn:3"><sup>3</sup></a></li></ul></li> <li>Central Chumash <ul><li><a href="/facts/Purisime%25C3%25B1o_language/6V8CrhdH">Purisimeño</a> †</li> <li><a href="/facts/Inese%25C3%25B1o_language/ncWWVy4g">Sʰamala</a> (<i>Ineseño</i>) †Also spelled <i>Samala</i>, spoken by the Santa Ynez Band. Currently being revived.</li> <li><a href="/facts/Barbare%25C3%25B1o_language/ncWWVy4g">Šmuwič</a> (<i>Barbareño</i>) †Also spelled <i>Shmuwich</i> by students of the language and community members. This is the name for the language and the people; it means "coastal." Currently being revived.</li> <li><a href="/facts/Venture%25C3%25B1o_language/kWAfRRMs">Mitsqanaqa'n</a> (<i>Ventureño</i>) †Students of the language and community members renamed the language after the name of a major village near which the mission was founded.</li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> <p>Obispeño was the most divergent Chumashan language. The Central Chumash languages include Purisimeño, Ineseño, Barbareño and Ventureño. There was a dialect continuum across this area, but the form of the language spoken in the vicinity of each mission was distinct enough to qualify as a different language. </p><p>There is very little documentation of Purisimeño. Ineseño, Barbareño and Ventureño each had several dialects, although documentation usually focused on just one. Island Chumash had different dialects on <a href="/facts/Santa_Cruz_Island/zBcFGxUv">Santa Cruz Island</a> and <a href="/facts/Santa_Rosa_Island%2c_California/n8Ej1TEt">Santa Rosa Island</a>, but all speakers were relocated to the mainland in the early 19th century. <a href="/facts/John_Peabody_Harrington/0MvqpcHz">John Peabody Harrington</a> conducted fieldwork on all the above Chumashan languages, but obtained the least data on Island Chumash, Purisimeño, and Obispeño. There is no linguistic data on Cuyama, though ethnographic data suggests that it was likely Chumash (Interior Chumash). </p> <h4>Post-contact</h4> <p>The languages are named after the local <a href="/facts/Franciscan/gwohhd4C">Franciscan</a> <a href="/facts/Spanish_missions_in_California/aesTYa6w">Spanish missions in California</a> where Chumashan speakers were relocated and aggregated between the 1770s and 1830s: </p> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Obispe%25C3%25B1o/hLSf4NWe">Obispeño</a>—<a href="/facts/Mission_San_Luis_Obispo_de_Tolosa/mmNLYDNC">Mission San Luis Obispo de Tolosa</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Purisime%25C3%25B1o/6V8CrhdH">Purisimeño</a>—<a href="/facts/Mission_La_Pur%25C3%25ADsima_Concepci%25C3%25B3n/QCdjQCFX">Mission La Purísima Concepción</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Inese%25C3%25B1o/ztSBg27U">Ineseño</a>—<a href="/facts/Mission_Santa_In%25C3%25A9s/omeekVTA">Mission Santa Inés</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Barbare%25C3%25B1o/ncWWVy4g">Barbareño</a>—<a href="/facts/Mission_Santa_Barbara/ADb9TQ13">Mission Santa Barbara</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Venture%25C3%25B1o/kWAfRRMs">Ventureño</a>—<a href="/facts/Mission_San_Buenaventura/hIhcabzU">Mission San Buenaventura</a></li></ul> <h4>Genetic relations</h4> <p><a href="/facts/Roland_Dixon/uLmL8Cyo">Roland Dixon</a> and <a href="/facts/Alfred_L._Kroeber/MMJJNegq">Alfred L. Kroeber</a> suggested that the Chumashan languages might be related to the neighboring <a href="/facts/Salinan_language/8HQP8UYl">Salinan</a> in a <i>Iskoman</i> grouping.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:4" href="#fn:4"><sup>4</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Edward_Sapir/5mfu75XY">Edward Sapir</a> accepted this speculation and included Iskoman in his classification of <a href="/facts/Hokan_languages/HPlwS7H9">Hokan</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5"><sup>5</sup></a> More recently it has been noted that Salinan and Chumashan shared only one word, which the Chumashan languages probably borrowed from Salinan (the word for 'white clam shell', which was used as currency).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6"><sup>6</sup></a> As a result, the inclusion of Chumashan into Hokan is now disfavored by most specialists, and the consensus is that Chumashan has no identified linguistic relatives.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7"><sup>7</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="characteristics">Characteristics</h2> <p>The Chumashan languages are well known for their <a href="/facts/Consonant_harmony/3GkFHUcb">consonant harmony</a> (regressive sibilant harmony). Mithun presents a scholarly synopsis of Chumashan linguistic structures.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8"><sup>8</sup></a> </p> <h3>Vowels</h3> <p>The Central Chumash languages all have a symmetrical six-vowel system. The distinctive high central vowel is written various ways, including <ɨ> "barred I," <ə> "schwa" and <ï> "I umlaut." Contemporary users of the languages favor /ɨ/ or /ə/. </p> Vowels of Central Chumash<table><tbody><tr><th></th><th><a href="/facts/Front_vowel/htKQs3AT">Front</a></th><th><a href="/facts/Central_vowel/IFSaKUe9">Central</a></th><th><a href="/facts/Back_vowel/gyHoGCH0">Back</a></th></tr><tr><th><a href="/facts/High_vowel/Ne6tHQHR">High</a></th><td><a href="/facts/Close_front_unrounded_vowel/rSUdlCPU">i</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Close_central_unrounded_vowel/YdtMNGWw">ɨ</a>/<a href="/facts/Mid_central_vowel/CCx0wYy3">ə</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Close_back_rounded_vowel/gqlQLfse">u</a></td></tr><tr><th><a href="/facts/Low_vowel/roS0Y7lA">Low</a></th><td><a href="/facts/Close-mid_front_unrounded_vowel/e9YNLF97">e</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Open_front_unrounded_vowel/s80pvmYh">a</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Close-mid_back_rounded_vowel/VwS9cKWJ">o</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Striking features of this system include </p> <ul><li> Low-vowel harmony within morphemes: Within a single morpheme, adjacent low vowels match: they are both or all front /e/, central /a/ or back /o/. Pan-Central examples:</li></ul> expeč "to sing" — I/B/V ʼosos "heel" — I/B/V ʼasas "chin" — I/B/V <ul><li> Low-vowel harmony as a process: Many prefixes include a low vowel which shows up as /a/ when the vowel of the following syllable is high. When the vowel of the following syllable is low, the vowel of the prefix assimilates to (or "harmonizes" with) the front-central-back quality of the following vowel. The verb prefix kal- "of cutting" illustrates this process in the following Barbareño examples, where the /l/ may drop out:</li></ul> kamasix "to cut into three pieces" — kal- + masix "three" keseqen "to cut out" — kal- + seqen "to remove" qoloq " to make or bore a hole, cut a hole in — kal- + loq "to be perforated" katun "to cut into two pieces" — kal- + =tun "of two, being two" <h3>Consonants</h3> <p>The Central Chumash languages have a complex inventory of consonants. All of the consonants except /h/ can be glottalized; all of the consonants except /h/, /x/ and the liquids can be aspirated. </p> <h2 id="proto-language">Proto-language</h2> <p>Proto-Chumash reconstructions by Klar (1977):<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9"><sup>9</sup></a> </p> <table><tbody><tr><th>no.</th><th>gloss</th><th>Proto-Chumash</th><th>Proto-Southern Chumash</th><th>notes</th></tr><tr><td>1</td><td>advise, to</td><td>*si/umun</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>2</td><td>all</td><td></td><td>*yimlaʔ</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>3</td><td>alone</td><td>*l-ho</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>4</td><td>already</td><td>*kVla-</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>5</td><td>ant</td><td>*tkaya’</td><td></td><td>plus sound symbolism</td></tr><tr><td>6</td><td>armpit</td><td>*ti/uq’olo(lo)</td><td></td><td>stem: *q'olo(lo)</td></tr><tr><td>7</td><td>arrive</td><td>*ki/um</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>8</td><td>arrow</td><td></td><td>*ya'</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>9</td><td><a href="/facts/Arroyo_(watercourse)/KPf0PKCT">arroyo</a></td><td>*l’VmV</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>10</td><td>ascend</td><td>*-nVpa</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>11</td><td>ashamed, to be</td><td>*-nos-</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>12</td><td>ashes</td><td>*qSa</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>13</td><td>ask, to</td><td>*-VsqVnV</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>14</td><td>back (body part)</td><td>*mVtV’</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>15</td><td>ball</td><td>*-apapa</td><td></td><td>reduplicated stem</td></tr><tr><td>16</td><td><a href="/facts/Bat/CJudzNt1">bat</a> (animal)</td><td>*mVkala</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>17</td><td>bathe, to</td><td>*k-ep’</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>18</td><td>bear (animal)</td><td>*qus</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>19</td><td>bee</td><td>*olo</td><td></td><td>plus sound symbolism</td></tr><tr><td>20</td><td>begin, to</td><td>*-nVna’</td><td></td><td>reduplicated stem?</td></tr><tr><td>21</td><td>blow, to</td><td>*aq-(tV)-p-; *-kVt</td><td>*-wu-</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>22</td><td>boil, to</td><td>*-wi-</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>23</td><td>bone</td><td>*Se</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>24</td><td>bow (noun)</td><td>*aqa</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>25</td><td>break, to</td><td>*k’oto; *eqe</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>26</td><td>breast</td><td>*kVtet</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>27</td><td>breathe; breath</td><td>*kal-haS; *-haS</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>28</td><td>bring, to</td><td>*kVlhi</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>29</td><td>burn, to</td><td>*qi/ut</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>30</td><td>cost, to</td><td>*piw’</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>31</td><td>carry, to</td><td>*kum</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>32</td><td>carry on back, to</td><td>*sVpV</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>33</td><td>cheek</td><td></td><td>*po'</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>34</td><td>chest (body part)</td><td>*kVwV</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>35</td><td>chia</td><td>*’epV-</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>36</td><td>canoe</td><td></td><td>*tomolo</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>37</td><td>clitoris</td><td>*Cele ~ *C’ele</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>38</td><td>cold, to feel</td><td>*toqom ~ *qotom</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>39</td><td>comb, to</td><td>*ti/ukikS</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>40</td><td>come, to</td><td>*yit-i; *VlhVw</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>41</td><td>concerned with, to be</td><td>*tak</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>42</td><td>cooked</td><td>*pSel</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>43</td><td>cough, to</td><td>*oqoqo-</td><td></td><td>reduplicated stem; onomatopoetic</td></tr><tr><td>44</td><td>cover, to</td><td>*Vqmay</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>45</td><td>crack, split, to</td><td>*-eqe</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>46</td><td>cut, to</td><td>*’iwa</td><td></td><td>plus reduplication</td></tr><tr><td>47</td><td>dark-colored, to be</td><td>*Soy</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>48</td><td>day</td><td>*qSi; *-iSa-</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>49</td><td>deaf</td><td>*tu’</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>50</td><td>deep</td><td>*l-hiy</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>51</td><td>die, to</td><td>*qSa</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>52</td><td>dirt</td><td>*uyu</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>53</td><td>drink; thirsty, to be</td><td>*aq-mihi-l-ha; *o-</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>54</td><td>ear</td><td>*tu’</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>55</td><td>earth</td><td></td><td>*šup</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>56</td><td>eat, to</td><td>*uw</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>57</td><td>eye, face</td><td>*tVq</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>58</td><td>eyes, face, having to do with</td><td>*weqe</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>59</td><td>far, to be</td><td>*mVkV</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>60</td><td>fat</td><td>*qilhi</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>61</td><td>fight, to</td><td>*aqi/u</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>62</td><td>fire</td><td>*ne</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>63</td><td>flower</td><td>*pey’</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>64</td><td>flea</td><td>*-tep (Proto-Central Chumash)</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>65</td><td>fly (insect)</td><td>*axulpes</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>66</td><td>follow, to</td><td>*pey</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>67</td><td>food (cf. eat)</td><td>*uw-</td><td></td><td>*uw- 'eat' plus *-mu (nominalizing suffix)</td></tr><tr><td>68</td><td>foot</td><td>*teme’</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>69</td><td>forget, to</td><td>*may</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>70</td><td>full from eating, to be</td><td>*qti’</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>71</td><td>get up, to</td><td>*kVta’</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>72</td><td><a href="/facts/Gopher_snake/9mHJnzPx">gopher snake</a></td><td>*pSoSo</td><td></td><td>reduplicated stem</td></tr><tr><td>73</td><td>grasshopper</td><td>*ti/uqu</td><td></td><td>root: *-qu</td></tr><tr><td>74</td><td>gull sp.</td><td>*miyV</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>75</td><td>hair, fur</td><td>*SuSV</td><td></td><td>reduplicated stem?</td></tr><tr><td>76</td><td>hand</td><td>*pu</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>77</td><td>hang, to</td><td>*wayan ~ *waya</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>78</td><td>hear, to</td><td>*taq</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>79</td><td>heel</td><td>*’ososo</td><td></td><td>reduplicated stem</td></tr><tr><td>80</td><td>hello (greeting)</td><td>*haku</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>81</td><td>hole</td><td>*loq</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>82</td><td>hole, cave, den</td><td>*Si ~ *SiSV</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>83</td><td>homosexual, to be</td><td>*’aqi’</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>84</td><td><a href="/facts/Jimson_weed/N0RtGKrF">jimson weed</a></td><td>*mom’oy</td><td></td><td>from *moy</td></tr><tr><td>85</td><td>knee</td><td>*pVm’V</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>86</td><td>knife</td><td>*’iw</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>87</td><td>lie down, to</td><td>*toy’ ~ *ton’</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>88</td><td>liver</td><td>*c-al’a</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>89</td><td>look, to</td><td>*kuti ~ *kuti’</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>90</td><td>louse</td><td>*Seke</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>91</td><td>low tide</td><td>*qVw</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>92</td><td>many, much</td><td>*equ</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>93</td><td>meat, body</td><td>*’Vmin’</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>94</td><td>moist, to be</td><td>*so’</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>95</td><td>money; clam sp.</td><td>*’ala-qu-Cum ~ *’ana-qu-Cum</td><td></td><td>*Cum is the root</td></tr><tr><td>96</td><td>mosquito</td><td>*pewe(we)’</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>97</td><td>mother-in-law</td><td>*mVSV</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>98</td><td><a href="/facts/Mountain_lion/bIzW7fPk">mountain lion</a></td><td>*tVkem’</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>99</td><td>mouse</td><td>*qlo</td><td></td><td>plus reduplication</td></tr><tr><td>100</td><td>mouth</td><td>*’Vk</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>101</td><td>name</td><td>*ti</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>102</td><td>neck</td><td>*ni’</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>103</td><td>necklace</td><td>*el’</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>104</td><td>nerve</td><td>*pilhil</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>105</td><td>nest</td><td>*patV ~ *patV’</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>106</td><td>new, to be</td><td>*VmVn</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>107</td><td>now</td><td>*kipV(’)</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>108</td><td>oak spp.</td><td>*kuwu(’)</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>109</td><td>one-eyed, to be</td><td>*ta’</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>110</td><td>open, to</td><td>*kal</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>111</td><td>overcast, to be</td><td>*iqVmay</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>112</td><td><a href="/facts/Pelican/5XgCoL0C">pelican</a></td><td>*sew</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>113</td><td>person</td><td>*ku</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>114</td><td>pet</td><td>*qo’</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>115</td><td>pick up, lift, raise</td><td>*lay</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>116</td><td><a href="/facts/Opuntia/UgTBE9tr">prickly pear</a></td><td>*qV’</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>117</td><td><a href="/facts/Quail/kxdoloVK">quail</a></td><td>*takaka</td><td></td><td>onomatopoetic</td></tr><tr><td>118</td><td>rabbit/<a href="/facts/Jackrabbit/a3Pg06T3">jackrabbit</a></td><td>*ma’; *kuni’</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>119</td><td>rain, to</td><td>*tuhuy ~ *tuy</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>120</td><td>red</td><td>*qupe</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>121</td><td><a href="/facts/Roadrunner/S4xE4mnq">roadrunner</a></td><td>*pu’</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>122</td><td>rub, to</td><td>*muy</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>123</td><td>salt</td><td>*tepu(’) ~ *tipu(’)</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>124</td><td>save (rescue), to</td><td>*apay</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>125</td><td>seed</td><td>*’VmVn’</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>126</td><td>skunk</td><td>*tVqema</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>127</td><td>smoke</td><td>*tuwo’</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>128</td><td>snail, sea</td><td>*q’VmV’</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>129</td><td>speak, say, to</td><td>*’ipi(’)</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>130</td><td>split-stick rattle</td><td>*wanS-aq’a ~ *wacs-aq’a</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>131</td><td>spread open</td><td>*kek-an</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>132</td><td><a href="/facts/Ground_squirrel/6pTY4qRP">squirrel, ground</a></td><td>*emet’ ~ *em’et’</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>133</td><td>steps</td><td>*tVyV-</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>134</td><td>stick to, to</td><td>*pey ~ *pey’</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>135</td><td>sticky, to be</td><td>*pilhiy</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>136</td><td>stone, rock</td><td>*qVpV</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>137</td><td>straight</td><td>*tyiyeme ?</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>138</td><td><a href="/facts/Swordfish/yjNzRNBE">swordfish</a></td><td>*’eleyewun’</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>139</td><td>tadpole</td><td>*qlo ~ *qyo</td><td></td><td>root: 'small creature' (cf. mouse)</td></tr><tr><td>140</td><td>tail</td><td>*telheq’</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>141</td><td>take off, to</td><td>*qe</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>142</td><td>tears</td><td>*tinik’</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>143</td><td>tongue</td><td>*’elhew’</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>144</td><td>tooth</td><td>*Sa</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>145</td><td>urinate, to</td><td>*Sol’</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>146</td><td>vomit</td><td>*paS(V)</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>147</td><td>walk, to</td><td>-</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>148</td><td>warm self, to</td><td>*mol</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>149</td><td>water</td><td>*’o’</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>150</td><td>whale</td><td>*paqat(V)</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>151</td><td>wood, tree, stick</td><td>*pono’</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>152</td><td><a href="/facts/Woodpecker/dFdEHRHw">woodpecker</a></td><td>*pVlak’a(k’)</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>153</td><td>wrinkled</td><td>*Sok’</td><td></td><td>plus reduplication</td></tr><tr><td>154</td><td>yawn</td><td>*San</td><td></td><td>plus reduplication</td></tr><tr><td>155</td><td><a href="/facts/Yellow_jacket/BjSU3oYp">yellow jacket</a></td><td>*ɨyɨ ~ *ɨyɨ’</td><td></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table> <h2 id="see-also">See also</h2> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Rock_art_of_the_Chumash_people/M1TGrIBz">Rock art of the Chumash people</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Burro_Flats_Painted_Cave/kvyWEs5t">Burro Flats Painted Cave</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Population_of_Native_California/bsA88uSl">Population of Native California</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States/lr8Qmd6N">Native Americans in the United States</a></li></ul> <h2 id="notes">Notes</h2> <h2 id="bibliography">Bibliography</h2> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Lyle_Campbell/qL3Qlvhe">Campbell, Lyle</a>. (1997). <i>American Indian languages: The historical linguistics of Native America</i>. New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 0-19-509427-1.</li> <li>Dixon, Roland R.; & <a href="/facts/Alfred_L._Kroeber/MMJJNegq">Kroeber, Alfred L.</a> (1913). New Linguistic Families in California. <i>American Anthropologist</i> 15:647-655.</li> <li><a href="/facts/Ives_Goddard/42scoTrl">Goddard, Ives</a> (Ed.). (1996). <i>Languages</i>. Handbook of North American Indians (W. C. Sturtevant, General Ed.) (Vol. 17). Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian Institution. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 0-16-048774-9.</li> <li>Klar, Kathryn. (1977). Topics in historical Chumash grammar. (Doctoral dissertation, University of California, Berkeley).</li> <li><a href="/facts/Alfred_L._Kroeber/MMJJNegq">Kroeber, Alfred Louis</a> (1910). <a href="https://archive.org/details/chumashcostanoan00kroerich"><i>The Chumash and Costanoan languages</i></a>. Berkeley, The University Press. Retrieved 2012-08-26.</li> <li><a href="/facts/Marianne_Mithun/8tYQUJTP">Mithun, Marianne</a>. (1999). <i>The languages of Native North America</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 0-521-23228-7 (hbk); <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 0-521-29875-X.</li> <li>Grant, Campbell. (1978). Chumash:Introduction. In <i>California</i> Handbook of North American Indians (William C. Sturtevant, General Ed.) Vol. 8 (Robert F. Heizer, Volume Ed.). Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian Institution.</li> <li><a href="/facts/Edward_Sapir/5mfu75XY">Sapir, Edward</a>. (1917). The Position of Yana in the Hokan Stock. <i>University of California Publications in American Archaeology and ethnology</i> 13:1–34. Berkeley: University of California.</li></ul> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>Grant 1978 <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>Golla, Victor. (2011). California Indian Languages. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-5202-6667-4 <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>Golla, Victor. (2011). California Indian Languages. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-5202-6667-4 <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:4"><p>Dixon and Kroeber 1913 <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:5"><p>Sapir 1917 <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:6"><p>Klar 1977 <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:7"><p>Mithun 1999:390 <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:8"><p>Mithun 1999:390-392 <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:9"><p>Klar, Kathryn A. 1977. Topics in Historical Chumash Grammar. Doctoral dissertation, University of California at Berkeley. <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> </ol>