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Ficus religiosa
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<h2 id="description">Description</h2> <p><i>Ficus religiosa</i> is a large <a href="/facts/Dry_season/jjdnthUQ">dry season</a>-<a href="/facts/Deciduous/7jQHVtdd">deciduous</a> or <a href="/facts/Semi-evergreen/AJ5HXnYR">semi-evergreen</a> tree up to 30 metres (98 ft) tall and with a <a href="/facts/Tree_trunk/13Nq8CEC">trunk</a> diameter of up to 3 metres (9.8 ft). The <a href="/facts/Leaf/1m6wCNTg">leaves</a> are cordate in shape with a distinctive extended <a href="/facts/Glossary_of_botanical_terms/RjjcIGWp">drip tip</a>; they are 10–17 centimetres (3.9–6.7 in) long and 8–12 centimetres (3.1–4.7 in) broad, with a 6–10 centimetres (2.4–3.9 in) <a href="/facts/Petiole_(botany)/pext65Wr">petiole</a>. The <a href="/facts/Fruit/PBpuzk60">fruits</a> are small figs 1–1.5 centimetres (0.39–0.59 in) in diameter, green ripening to purple. </p><p>The <a href="/facts/Jaya_Sri_Maha_Bodhi/dIK685b3">Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi</a> tree in the city of <a href="/facts/Anuradhapura/knduBob0">Anuradhapura</a> in <a href="/facts/Sri_Lanka/VtTBmysE">Sri Lanka</a> is estimated to be more than 2,250 years old.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7"><sup>7</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="distribution">Distribution</h2> <p><i>Ficus religiosa</i> is native to most of the <a href="/facts/Indian_subcontinent/0XUWGXpx">Indian subcontinent</a> – <a href="/facts/Bangladesh/NXk4f78Y">Bangladesh</a>, <a href="/facts/Bhutan/fSRsLss9">Bhutan</a>, <a href="/facts/Nepal/yWCzTBR2">Nepal</a>, <a href="/facts/Pakistan/cbIsvJy1">Pakistan</a> and India including the <a href="/facts/Assam_Province/MN8QFzWP">Assam region</a>, <a href="/facts/Eastern_Himalaya/zkr63TIg">Eastern Himalaya</a> and the <a href="/facts/Nicobar_Islands/rzKffjsI">Nicobar Islands</a>, as well as part of <a href="/facts/Mainland_Southeast_Asia/5pknI7yy">Indochina</a> – the <a href="/facts/Andaman_Islands/w2CR0mhH">Andaman Islands</a>, <a href="/facts/Thailand/GCUnN4JK">Thailand</a>, <a href="/facts/Myanmar/zcqQH2oE">Myanmar</a> and <a href="/facts/Peninsular_Malaysia/88WtYx31">Peninsular Malaysia</a>. It has been widely introduced elsewhere, particularly in the rest of tropical Asia, but also in <a href="/facts/Iran/24yukge8">Iran</a> (Balochistan), <a href="/facts/Florida/cF245A3Q">Florida</a> and <a href="/facts/Venezuela/eX1qnkln">Venezuela</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8"><sup>8</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="ecology">Ecology</h2> <p><i>Ficus religiosa</i> suitably grows at <a href="/facts/Altitude/B5eNVurK">altitudes</a> ranging from 10 metres (33 ft) up to 1,520 metres (4,990 ft). Due to the <a href="/facts/Climate/f57XrNFU">climatic conditions</a> which are prevalent throughout different heat zones, it can grow at <a href="/facts/Latitude/IBYqkjhU">latitudes</a> ranging from 30°N to 5°S. It can tolerate <a href="/facts/Temperature/QyGe4gmj">air temperatures</a> ranging between 0 to 35 °C (32 to 95 °F), beyond this upper limit its growth diminishes. It grows on a wide <a href="/facts/Soil_type/j1xVUYDl">variety of soils</a> but preferably needs deep, <a href="/facts/Alluvium/Bo78QRlp">alluvial</a> <a href="/facts/Sand/MdTIt0M8">sandy</a> <a href="/facts/Loam/nH85XD2B">loam</a> with good <a href="/facts/Drainage/thEd3nfB">drainage</a>. It is also found on shallow soils including rock crevices. </p> <h3>Association</h3> <p><i>Ficus religiosa</i> is associated with <a href="/facts/Fig_wasp/k5p38HlL">Blastophaga quadriceps</a>, an <a href="/facts/Agaonidae/MIhYvuFc">agaonid wasp</a> which acts as its <a href="/facts/Pollinator/DBJNeDtv">pollinator</a> as this wasp lays its <a href="/facts/Egg/2a1McdtR">eggs</a> only on trees of this species. </p> <h3>Environment</h3> <p><i>Ficus religiosa</i> is tolerant to various climate zones (<a href="/facts/K%25C3%25B6ppen_climate_classification/VDcr86hF">Köppen climate classification</a> categories of <a href="/facts/Tropical_rainforest_climate/vI2p5JFK">Af</a>, <a href="/facts/Tropical_monsoon_climate/x0HmIH4C">Am</a>, <a href="/facts/Tropical_savanna_climate/Fv73uSRF">Aw/As</a>, <a href="/facts/Humid_subtropical_climate/vr1kMhwS">Cfa</a>, <a href="/facts/Humid_subtropical_climate/vr1kMhwS">Cwa</a> and <a href="/facts/Hot-summer_Mediterranean_climate/gGsJAKE5">Csa</a>) and various types of soils. In Paraguay the tree species occurs in forests at lower elevations, and in China the species has been reported growing at altitudes ranging from 400 to 700 metres (1,300 to 2,300 ft). In India, being a <a href="/facts/Indigenous_(ecology)/03kpM3rf">native species</a>, it occurs both naturally in wild as well as cultivated up to altitudes of 1,520 metres (4,990 ft). </p> <h3>Climate</h3> <p><i>Ficus religiosa</i> is tolerant to widely varying climatic conditions such as <a href="/facts/Tropical_rainforest_climate/vI2p5JFK">Tropical rainforest climate</a> where the region receives more than 60 millimetres (6.0 cm) of <a href="/facts/Precipitation/uq3nGQc8">precipitation</a> per month, <a href="/facts/Tropical_monsoon_climate/x0HmIH4C">Tropical monsoon climate</a> where average precipitation ranges from 60 millimetres (6.0 cm) in the driest month to 100 millimetres (10 cm), <a href="/facts/Tropical_savanna_climate/Fv73uSRF">Tropical savanna climate with dry summer</a> where average precipitation ranges from 60 millimetres (6.0 cm) per month in <a href="/facts/Summer/v3DY22Uq">summers</a> to 100 millimetres (10 cm) per month in <a href="/facts/Winter/kSp26z8R">winters</a>, <a href="/facts/Tropical_savanna_climate/Fv73uSRF">Tropical savanna climate with dry winter</a> where average precipitation ranges from to 60 millimetres (6.0 cm) per month in <a href="/facts/Winter/kSp26z8R">winters</a> to 100 millimetres (10 cm) per month in <a href="/facts/Summer/v3DY22Uq">summers</a>, <a href="/facts/Temperate_climate/6WPypCzC">Warm temperate climate with dry winter</a> where average temperature ranges from 0 to 10 °C (32 to 50 °F) and winters are dry, as well as <a href="/facts/Temperate_climate/6WPypCzC">Warm temperate climate with dry summer</a> where average temperature ranges from 0 to 10 °C (32 to 50 °F) and summers are dry. </p> <h3>Invasiveness</h3> <p>Unlike most epiphytic jungle figs, which encircle the stems of dicotyledonous support trees from the outside, the epiphytic bushes of <i>F. religiosa</i> are not true stranglers. Instead, their roots penetrate the stem of the support tree, eventually splitting it from within. <i>Ficus religiosa</i> has been listed as an "<a href="/facts/Weed/Dog4Ifol">environmental weed</a>" or "naturalised weed" by the Global Compendium of Weeds (Randall, 2012). It has been assigned an invasiveness high risk score of 7 in a risk assessment prepared for the species' invasiveness in <a href="/facts/Hawaii/ImxFefeK">Hawaii</a> by PIER. Such a high score predicts it will become a major pest in suitable climate zones. The major reasons for its invasive behaviour are its fast-growing nature, tolerance to various climate zones and soil types, reported <a href="/facts/Maximum_life_span/oWjyvNvG">lifespan</a> of over 3,000 years, and its suffocating growth habit as it often begins life as an <a href="/facts/Epiphyte/n0oUN0Yd">epiphyte</a>. </p> <h2 id="in-culture-and-heritage">In culture and heritage</h2> <p>The earliest known record of <i>Ficus religiosa</i> in human culture is the use of peepal leaf motifs in the pottery of the <a href="/facts/Helmand_culture/9zqQfcw3">Helmand culture</a>, found at <a href="/facts/Mundigak/G70UQBDv">Mundigak</a> site, in <a href="/facts/Kandahar/5SWQAh9I">Kandahar</a>, Afghanistan, dating back to third millennium BCE.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9"><sup>9</sup></a> </p><p>The <a href="/facts/Indus_Valley_Civilisation/6xM4aK23">Indus Valley Civilisation</a> venerated this tree and its leaf and drew religious art of it.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10"><sup>10</sup></a> </p><p>The peepal tree is considered sacred by the followers of <a href="/facts/Hinduism/oxV9YvQh">Hinduism</a>, <a href="/facts/Jainism/h0glxhjH">Jainism</a>, <a href="/facts/Sikhism/obh7aQIr">Sikhism</a> and <a href="/facts/Buddhism/G0wsjrSl">Buddhism</a>. In the <a href="/facts/Bhagavad_Gita/hMnHVqcD">Bhagavad Gita</a>, Krishna says, "I am the Peepal tree among the trees, Narada among the Deva Rishi (Divine sages), Bhrigu among the Sapta-Maharishis, Chitraratha among the <a href="/facts/Gandharvas/C3vgfhvC">Gandharvas</a>, And sage <a href="/facts/Kapila/GtFMGcXz">Kapila</a> among the Siddhas."<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11"><sup>11</sup></a> In India, the medal for the highest civilian award, <a href="/facts/Bharat_Ratna/YX7HcwS5">Bharat Ratna</a>, is modelled on the leaf of a Peepal tree.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12"><sup>12</sup></a> </p> <h3>Buddhism</h3> <p class="note">Main article: <a href="/facts/Bodhi_tree/M3KdTS8D">Bodhi tree</a></p> <p><a href="/facts/Gautama_Buddha/8UchTM1s">Gautama Buddha</a> attained <a href="/facts/Bodhi/AGFXqGgz">enlightenment</a> (<i>bodhi</i>) while meditating underneath a <i>Ficus religiosa</i>. The site is in present-day <a href="/facts/Bodh_Gaya/940DyT3t">Bodh Gaya</a> in Bihar, <a href="/facts/India/QW4TV4sy">India</a>. The original tree was destroyed, and has been replaced several times. A branch of the original tree was rooted in <a href="/facts/Anuradhapura/knduBob0">Anuradhapura</a>, <a href="/facts/Sri_Lanka/VtTBmysE">Sri Lanka</a> in 288 BCE and is known as <a href="/facts/Jaya_Sri_Maha_Bodhi/dIK685b3">Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi</a>; it is the oldest living human-planted <a href="/facts/Flowering_plant/E5eGYIvY">flowering plant</a> (angiosperm) in the world.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13"><sup>13</sup></a> </p> <p>In <a href="/facts/Theravada_Buddhist/nMhXBXBo">Theravada Buddhist</a> <a href="/facts/Southeast_Asia/VafwT517">Southeast Asia</a>, the tree's massive trunk is often the site of Buddhist or <a href="/facts/Animist/jsPnJBuD">animist</a> shrines. Not all <i>Ficus religiosa</i> are ordinarily called a <i>Bodhi Tree</i>. A true Bodhi Tree is traditionally considered a tree that has as its parent another Bodhi Tree, and so on, until the first Bodhi Tree, which is the tree under which Gautama is said to have gained enlightenment.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14"><sup>14</sup></a> </p> <h3>Hinduism</h3> <p><i>Ashwattha</i> is the Sanskrit term for <i>Ficus religiosa</i>. According to <a href="/facts/Hindu_scriptures/ItJyVEyn">Hindu scriptures</a>, it is a sacred tree for the <a href="/facts/Hindu/D7TFhcg1">Hindus</a> and has been extensively mentioned in texts pertaining to <a href="/facts/Hinduism/oxV9YvQh">Hinduism</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15"><sup>15</sup></a> for example as <i>peepul</i> in <a href="/facts/Rig_Veda/7dyqIlsJ">Rig Veda</a> mantra I.164.20. However, according to Padma Puran peepal tree is the form of Lord Vishnu along with banyan and plaksha as the form of Lord Shiva and the lord Brahma. As- </p><p>"There is no doubt that lord Viṣṇu is of the form of Aśvattha, Vaṭa is Rudra’s form, and Palāśa has taken up Brahmā’s form. Seeing, worshipping and serving them is said to remove sins. These certainly destroy grief, diseases and the wicked." </p><p>~Padma Puran Uttar Khand ch-115 22/23 </p> <p><a href="/facts/Sadhu/luqngcxb">Sadhus</a> (<a href="/facts/Hindu/D7TFhcg1">Hindu</a> ascetics) meditate beneath sacred fig trees, and Hindus do <a href="/facts/Pradakshina/Vy8dK1gP">pradakshina</a> (circumambulation, or meditative pacing) around the sacred fig tree as a mark of worship. Usually seven pradakshinas are done around the tree in the morning time chanting "<i>vriksha rajye namah</i>" (वृक्षराज्ञे नमः), meaning "salutation to the king of trees". It is claimed that the 27 stars (constellations) constituting 12 houses (<i>rasis</i>) and 9 planets are specifically represented precisely by 27 trees—one for each star. The Bodhi Tree is said to represent <a href="/facts/Pushya/p4S0t5kV">Pushya</a> (Western star name γ, δ and θ Cancri in the Cancer constellation).</p> <p><a href="/facts/Adi_Shankara/QU5pCWV6">Adi Shankara</a> derives it from shva (tomorrow) and stha (that which remains).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16"><sup>16</sup></a> Ashva (horse) and stha (situated), meaning where horses are tied, is another derivation.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17"><sup>17</sup></a> </p><p><a href="/facts/Yama/CgClJmer">Yama</a>, while instructing <a href="/facts/Naciketa/hLlxJ2cC">Naciketa</a> describes the eternal Asvattha tree with its root upwards, and branches downwards, which is the pure immortal <a href="/facts/Brahman/GM0QaQ9U">Brahman</a>, in which all these worlds are situated, and beyond which there is nothing else (<a href="/facts/Katha_Upanishad/ypJpt1RS">Katha Upanishad</a> Verse II.iii.1). Meanwhile, <a href="/facts/Krishna/oQVtX5MI">Krishna</a> tells us that the Asvattha tree having neither end nor beginning nor stationariness whatsoever has its roots upwards and branches downwards whose branches are nourished by the <a href="/facts/Gunas/VA7IvCXz">Gunas</a> and whose infinite roots spread in the form of action in the human world which though strong are to be cut off by the forceful weapon of detachment to seek the celestial abode from which there is no return (<a href="/facts/Bhagavad_Gita/hMnHVqcD">Bhagavad Gita</a> XV.1-4).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18"><sup>18</sup></a> The former teaches that the Asvattha tree is real being identical with Brahman and therefore impossible to cut-off; the latter insists that the Asvattha tree must be regarded as unreal being identical with existence which needs to be cut-off.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19"><sup>19</sup></a> </p><p>The fire sticks used in Hindu sacrificial fire like <a href="/facts/Agnihotra/2h8yHNy8">agnihotra</a> also contain dried wood of ashvatha tree. </p> <h2 id="cultivation">Cultivation</h2> <p><i>Ficus religiosa</i> is grown by specialty tree <a href="/facts/Plant_nursery/xQbBgGSp">plant nurseries</a> for use as an <a href="/facts/Ornamental_tree/ImyCDwMW">ornamental tree</a>, in <a href="/facts/Garden/HMvxMDLB">gardens</a> and <a href="/facts/Park/J1I4aCHg">parks</a> in tropical and <a href="/facts/Subtropical_climate/gK0KyFUD">subtropical climates</a>. Peepul trees are native to Indian subcontinent and thrive in hot, <a href="/facts/Humidity/Nwb28VlT">humid</a> weather. They prefer full <a href="/facts/Sunlight/WPkJRC7s">sunlight</a> and can grow in all <a href="/facts/Soil_type/j1xVUYDl">soil types</a>, though <a href="/facts/Loam/nH85XD2B">loam</a> is the best. When planting, use soil with a <a href="/facts/PH/RnSv8D7y">pH</a> of 7 or below. While it is possible for the plant to grow indoors in a pot, it grows best outside. Young peepul needs <a href="/facts/Plant_nutrition/hXWLy7Sc">proper nourishment</a>. It requires full sunlight and proper watering. Sacred fig occurs naturally in <a href="/facts/Montane_ecosystems/gXbt5Gqn">submontane forest regions</a>. As with many Ficus trees, these are well suited for <a href="/facts/Bonsai/g4wLe7ak">Bonsai</a> training. </p><p>In the <a href="/facts/Middle_East/8CD6pLWv">Middle East</a>, it is preferably planted as an <a href="/facts/Avenue_(landscape)/jIlymys5">avenue</a> or <a href="/facts/Road_verge/xHdmvMY2">road verge</a> tree. In the <a href="/facts/Philippines/ARpmxXQV">Philippines</a> and in <a href="/facts/Nicaragua/PsyPGXxm">Nicaragua</a> the species is cultivated in <a href="/facts/Park/J1I4aCHg">parks</a> and along roadsides and <a href="/facts/Sidewalk/hHLtEJol">pavements</a>, while in <a href="/facts/Paraguay/sbzfv4Rl">Paraguay</a> it occurs in <a href="/facts/Forest/RnMtb31v">forests</a> at lower <a href="/facts/Elevation/h2d0u9nd">elevations</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20"><sup>20</sup></a> </p><p>In <a href="/facts/Thailand/GCUnN4JK">Thailand</a> โพ or "Pho" trees grow everywhere, but in the wats (temples) they are revered, and usually are several hundred years old, with trunks up to 20 feet (6.1 meters) wide. As with all sacred trees in Thailand, they have a saffron cloth wrapped around the base. A yearly ritual involving the bo trees at wats is the purchasing of "mai kam sii" ไม้คำ้ศริ, which are "supports" that look like crutches and are placed under the spreading branches as if holding them up. The purchase money helps fund the wat, a central part of Thai life. </p> <h2 id="uses">Uses</h2> <p><i>Ficus religiosa</i> is used in <a href="/facts/Traditional_medicine/WLUmXCHz">traditional medicine</a> for about fifty types of disorders including asthma, diabetes, diarrhea, epilepsy, gastric problems, inflammatory disorders, infectious and sexual disorders.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21"><sup>21</sup></a> </p><p>The trunk of this tree is used by farmers as a soil leveller. After seed harvesting, the rectangular trunk is connected to tractors and levels the soil.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22"><sup>22</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="see-also">See also</h2> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Bodhi_Tree/M3KdTS8D">Bodhi Tree</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Shitala_Devi/QVEHBGFS">Shitala Devi</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Ficus_Ruminalis/qPxtBYb1">Ficus Ruminalis</a></li></ul> <h2 id="notes">Notes</h2> <ul><li>Keith and Macdonell. 1912. Vedic Index of Names and Subjects.</li> <li><a href="http://iu.ff.cuni.cz/pandanus/database/details.php?plantno=400094&enc=utf&sort=ka&display=50&reswind=this&lat=&skt=on&pkt=&tam=&start=0">Plaksa description</a></li></ul> <h2 id="external-links">External links</h2> <a href="/facts/Wikimedia_Commons/lzkBFxTg">Wikimedia Commons</a> has media related to: Ficus religiosa (category) <a href="/facts/Wikispecies/b2GhA7Le">Wikispecies</a> has information related to <i>Ficus religiosa</i>. <a href="/facts/Wikisource/TrMdylNf">Wikisource</a> has the text of the <a href="/facts/Encyclop%25C3%25A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition/mPElbCRY">1911 <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i></a> article "Bo-Tree". <ul><li></li> <li><a href="http://www.palikanon.com/english/pali_names/b/bodhirukka.htm">Entry on Bodhi Tree in the Buddhist Dictionary of Pali Proper Names</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Encyclopedia_Americana_(1920)/Peepul">"Peepul" </a>. <i><a href="/facts/Encyclopedia_Americana/rsmEnQT5">Encyclopedia Americana</a></i>. 1920.</li> <li><a href="https://wmghz.blogspot.com/2017/09/blog-post_11.html">The Bodhi tree revealed by old picture</a></li></ul> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Peepul" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 21 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 45. <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm" target="_blank">/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>"Ficus religiosa". Germplasm Resources Information Network. Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture. Retrieved 29 January 2017. <a href="https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxonomydetail.aspx?id=16962" target="_blank">https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxonomydetail.aspx?id=16962</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>Oxford English Dictionary, Oxford University Press, 1971, p. 1014 <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:4"><p>Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Peepul" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 21 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 45. <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm" target="_blank">/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:5"><p>"Ficus religiosa — Peepal". Flowers of India. Archived from the original on 14 February 2012. Retrieved 3 November 2011. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120214150730/http://www.flowersofindia.in/catalog/slides/Peepal.html" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20120214150730/http://www.flowersofindia.in/catalog/slides/Peepal.html</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:6"><p>State symbols <a href="http://www.mapsofindia.com/orissa/state-symbols.html" target="_blank">http://www.mapsofindia.com/orissa/state-symbols.html</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:7"><p>"RMTRR OLDLIST". www.rmtrr.org. Retrieved 11 May 2024. <a href="http://www.rmtrr.org/oldlist.htm" target="_blank">http://www.rmtrr.org/oldlist.htm</a> <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:8"><p>"Ficus religiosa L." Plants of the World Online. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Retrieved 19 March 2021. <a href="https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:853563-1" target="_blank">https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:853563-1</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:9"><p>Sher, S. and Hameed, A., Comparative Analysis of the Gandharan Floral Motifs from Butkara (I and III) and Takht-i-Bahi. 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