Pakistan, officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a country in South Asia and the fifth-most populous country with over 241.5 million people. Its capital is Islamabad, while Karachi is the largest city and financial centre. Pakistan has a rich history, home to ancient cultures such as Indus Valley Civilisation and multiple empires like the Mughals. Established in 1947 following the partition of British India, Pakistan is a middle power with the world’s seventh-largest armed forces and a declared nuclear-weapons state. It faces challenges like poverty and terrorism, and is a member of organizations including the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation and the Commonwealth of Nations.
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Oct 27 2010Etymology
The name Pakistan was coined by Choudhry Rahmat Ali, a Pakistan Movement activist, who in January 1933 first published it (originally as "Pakstan") in a pamphlet Now or Never, using it as an acronym.171819 Rahmat Ali explained: "It is composed of letters taken from the names of all our homelands, Indian and Asian, Panjab, Afghania, Kashmir, Sindh, and Baluchistan." He added, "Pakistan is both a Persian and Urdu word... It means the land of the Paks, the spiritually pure and clean."20 Etymologists note that پاک pāk, is 'pure' in Persian and Pashto and the Persian suffix ـستان -stan means 'land' or 'place of'.21
Rahmat Ali's concept of Pakistan only related to the northwestern area of the Indian subcontinent. He also proposed the name "Banglastan" for the Muslim areas of Bengal and "Osmanistan" for Hyderabad State, as well as a political federation between the three.22
History
Main article: History of Pakistan
See also: Timeline of Pakistani history
Prehistory and antiquity
Some of the earliest ancient human civilisations in South Asia originated from areas encompassing present-day Pakistan.23 The earliest known inhabitants in the region were Soanian during the Lower Paleolithic, of whom artefacts have been found in the Soan Valley of Punjab.24 The Indus region, which covers most of the present-day Pakistan, was the site of several successive ancient cultures including the Neolithic (7000–4300 BCE) site of Mehrgarh,252627 and the 5,000-year history of urban life in South Asia to the various sites of the Indus Valley Civilisation, including Mohenjo-daro and Harappa.2829
Following the decline of the Indus valley civilization, Indo-Aryan tribes moved into the Punjab from Central Asia in several waves of migration in the Vedic period (1500–500 BCE),30 bringing with them their distinctive religious traditions and practices which fused with local culture.31 The Indo-Aryans religious beliefs and practices from the Bactria–Margiana culture and the native Harappan Indus beliefs of the former Indus Valley civilization eventually gave rise to Vedic culture and tribes.32 Most notable among them was Gandhara civilization, which flourished at the crossroads of India, Central Asia, and the Middle East, connecting trade routes and absorbing cultural influences from diverse civilizations.33 The initial early Vedic culture was a tribal, pastoral society centered in the Indus Valley, of what is today Pakistan.34 During this period, the Vedas, the oldest scriptures of Hinduism, were composed.3536
Classical period
The western regions of Pakistan became part of Achaemenid Empire around 517 BCE.37 In 326 BCE, Alexander the Great conquered the region by defeating various local rulers, most notably, the King Porus, at Jhelum.38 It was followed by the Maurya Empire, founded by Chandragupta Maurya and extended by Ashoka the Great, until 185 BCE.394041 The Indo-Greek Kingdom founded by Demetrius of Bactria (180–165 BCE) included Gandhara and Punjab and reached its greatest extent under Menander (165–150 BCE), prospering the Greco-Buddhist culture in the region.424344 Taxila had one of the earliest universities and centres of higher education in the world, which was established during the late Vedic period in the 6th century BCE.45 The ancient university was documented by the invading forces of Alexander the Great and was also recorded by Chinese pilgrims in the 4th or 5th century CE.464748 At its zenith, the Rai dynasty (489–632 CE) ruled Sindh and the surrounding territories.49
Medieval period
The Arab conqueror Muhammad ibn Qasim conquered Sindh and some regions of Punjab in 711 CE.5051 The Pakistan government's official chronology claims this as the time when the foundation of Pakistan was laid.52 The early medieval period (642–1219 CE) witnessed the spread of Islam in the region.53 Before the arrival of Islam beginning in the 8th century, the region of Pakistan was home to a diverse plethora of faiths, including Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Zoroastrianism.5455 During this period, Sufi missionaries played a pivotal role in converting a majority of the regional population to Islam.56 Upon the defeat of the Turk and Hindu Shahi dynasties which governed the Kabul Valley, Gandhara, and western Punjab in the 7th to 11th centuries CE, several successive Muslim empires ruled over the region, including the Ghaznavid Empire (975–1187 CE), the Ghorid Kingdom, and the Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526 CE).57 The Lodi dynasty, the last of the Delhi Sultanate, was replaced by the Mughal Empire (1526–1857 CE).58
The Mughals introduced Persian literature and high culture, establishing the roots of Indo-Persian culture in the region.59 In the region of modern-day Pakistan, key cities during the Mughal period were Multan, Lahore, Peshawar and Thatta,60 which were chosen as the site of impressive Mughal buildings.61 In the early 16th century, the region remained under the Mughal Empire.62 In the 18th century, the slow disintegration of the Mughal Empire was hastened by the emergence of the rival powers like the Maratha Empire and later the Sikh Empire, as well as invasions by Nader Shah from Iran in 1739 and the Durrani Empire of Afghanistan in 1759.6364 The growing political power of the British in Bengal had not yet reached the territories of modern Pakistan.65
Colonial rule
Main articles: British India, British Raj, Aligarh Movement, and Two-nation theory
None of modern Pakistan was under British rule until 1839 when Karachi, a small fishing village governed by Talpurs of Sindh with a mud fort guarding the harbour, was taken,6667 and used as an enclave with a port and military base for the First Afghan War that ensued.68 The remainder of Sindh was acquired in 1843,69 and subsequently, through a series of wars and treaties, the East India Company, and later, after the post-Sepoy Mutiny (1857–1858), direct rule by Queen Victoria of the British Empire, acquired most of the region.70 Key conflicts included those against the Baloch Talpur dynasty, resolved by the Battle of Miani (1843) in Sindh,71 the Anglo-Sikh Wars (1845–1849),72 and the Anglo–Afghan Wars (1839–1919).73 By 1893, all modern Pakistan was part of the British Indian Empire, and remained so until independence in 1947.74
Under British rule, modern Pakistan was primarily divided into the Sind Division, Punjab Province, and the Baluchistan Agency. The region also included various princely states, with the largest being Bahawalpur.7576
The major armed struggle against the British in the region was the rebellion known as the Sepoy Mutiny in 1857.77 Divergence in the relationship between Hinduism and Islam resulted in significant tension in British India, leading to religious violence. The language controversy further exacerbated tensions between Hindus and Muslims.7879 A Muslim intellectual movement, led by Sir Syed Ahmed Khan to counter the Hindu renaissance, advocated for the two-nation theory and led to the establishment of the All-India Muslim League in 1906.808182
In March 1929, in response to the Nehru Report, Muhammad Ali Jinnah, the founder of Pakistan, issued his fourteen points, which included proposals to safeguard the interests of the Muslim minority in a united India. These proposals were rejected.838485 In his 29 December 1930 address, Allama Iqbal advocated the amalgamation of Muslim-majority states in North-West India, including Punjab, North-West Frontier Province, Sind, and Baluchistan.8687 The perception that Congress-led British provincial governments neglected the Muslim League from 1937 to 1939 motivated Jinnah and other Muslim League leaders to embrace the two-nation theory.8889 This led to the adoption of the Lahore Resolution of 1940, presented by Sher-e-Bangla A.K. Fazlul Haque, also known as the Pakistan Resolution.90
By 1942, Britain faced considerable strain during World War II, with India directly threatened by Japanese forces. Britain had pledged voluntary independence for India in exchange for support during the war. However, this pledge included a clause stating that no part of British India would be compelled to join the resulting dominion, which could be interpreted as support for an independent Muslim nation. Congress under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi launched the Quit India Movement, demanding an immediate end to British rule. In contrast, the Muslim League chose to support the UK's war efforts, thereby nurturing the possibility of establishing a Muslim nation.9192
Independence
Main article: Pakistan Movement
Further information: Indian independence movement and Partition of India
The 1946 elections saw the Muslim League secure 90 percent of the Muslim seats, supported by the landowners of Sindh and Punjab. This forced the Indian National Congress, initially skeptical of the League's representation of Indian Muslims, to acknowledge its significance.93 Jinnah's emergence as the voice of the Indian Muslims,94 compelled the British to consider their stance, despite their reluctance to partition India. In a final attempt to prevent partition, they proposed the Cabinet Mission Plan.95
As the Cabinet Mission failed, the British announced their intention to end rule by June 1948.9697 Following rigorous discussions involving Viceroy of India, Lord Mountbatten of Burma, Muhammad Ali Jinnah of the All-India Muslim League, and Jawaharlal Nehru of Congress, the formal declaration to partition British India into two independent dominions—namely Pakistan and India—was issued by Mountbatten on the evening of 3 June 1947. In Mountbatten's oval office, the prime ministers of around a dozen major princely states gathered to receive their copies of the plan before its worldwide broadcast. At 7:00 P.M., All India Radio transmitted the public announcement, starting with the viceroy's address, followed by individual speeches from Nehru, and Jinnah. The founder of Pakistan Muhammad Ali Jinnah concluded his address with the slogan Pakistan Zindabad (Long Live Pakistan).98
As the United Kingdom agreed to the partitioning of India,99 the modern state of Pakistan was established on 14 August 1947 (27th of Ramadan in 1366 of the Islamic Calendar, considered to be the most blessed date from an Islamic perspective).100101 This new nation amalgamated the Muslim-majority eastern and northwestern regions of British India, comprising the provinces of Balochistan, East Bengal, the North-West Frontier Province, West Punjab, and Sindh.102
In the riots that accompanied the partition in Punjab Province, between 200,000 and 2,000,000 people were killed in what some have described as a retributive genocide between the religions.103 Around 50,000 Muslim women were abducted and raped by Hindu and Sikh men, while 33,000 Hindu and Sikh women experienced the same fate at the hands of Muslims.104 Around 6.5 million Muslims moved from India to West Pakistan and 4.7 million Hindus and Sikhs moved from West Pakistan to India.105 It was the largest mass migration in human history.106 A subsequent dispute over the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir eventually sparked the Indo-Pakistani War of 1947–1948.107
Post independence
Main articles: History of Pakistan (1947–present) and Dominion of Pakistan
After independence in 1947, Jinnah, the President of the Muslim League, became Pakistan's first Governor-General and the first President-Speaker of the Parliament, but he succumbed to tuberculosis on 11 September 1948.108109 Meanwhile, Pakistan's founding fathers agreed to appoint Liaquat Ali Khan, the secretary-general of the party, the nation's first Prime Minister.110111 From 1947 to 1956, Pakistan was a monarchy within the Commonwealth of Nations, and had two monarchs before it became a republic.112
The creation of Pakistan was never fully accepted by many British leaders including Lord Mountbatten.113 Mountbatten expressed his lack of support and faith in the Muslim League's idea of Pakistan.114 Jinnah refused Mountbatten's offer to serve as Governor-General of Pakistan.115 When Mountbatten was asked by Collins and Lapierre if he would have sabotaged Pakistan had he known that Jinnah was dying of tuberculosis, he replied 'most probably'.116
Maulana Shabbir Ahmad Usmani, a respected Deobandi alim (scholar) who held the position of Shaykh al-Islam in Pakistan in 1949, and Maulana Mawdudi of Jamaat-i-Islami played key roles in advocating for an Islamic constitution. Mawdudi insisted that the Constituent Assembly declare the "supreme sovereignty of God" and the supremacy of the shariah in Pakistan.117
The efforts of Jamaat-i-Islami and the ulama led to the passage of the Objectives Resolution in March 1949. This resolution, described by Liaquat Ali Khan as the second most significant step in Pakistan's history, affirmed that "sovereignty over the entire universe belongs to God Almighty alone and the authority which He has delegated to the State of Pakistan through its people for being exercised within the limits prescribed by Him is a sacred trust". It was later included as a preamble to the constitutions of 1956, 1962, and 1973.118
Democracy faced setbacks due to the martial law imposed by President Iskander Mirza, who was succeeded by General Ayub Khan. After adopting a presidential system in 1962, Pakistan witnessed significant growth until the second war with India in 1965, resulting in an economic downturn and widespread public discontent in 1967.119120 In 1969, President Yahya Khan consolidated control, but faced a devastating cyclone in East Pakistan resulting in 500,000 deaths.121
In 1970, Pakistan conducted its first democratic elections since independence, intending to transition from military rule to democracy. However, after the East Pakistani Awami League emerged victorious over the Pakistan Peoples Party (PPP), Yahya Khan and the military refused to transfer power.122 This led to Operation Searchlight, a military crackdown, and eventually sparked the war of liberation by Bengali Mukti Bahini forces in East Pakistan,123 described in West Pakistan as a civil war rather than a liberation struggle.124
Independent researchers estimate that between 300,000 and 500,000 civilians died during this period while the Bangladesh government puts the number of dead at three million,125 a figure that is now nearly universally regarded as excessively inflated.126 Some academics such as Rudolph Rummel and Rounaq Jahan say both sides committed genocide;127 others such as Richard Sisson and Leo E. Rose believe there was no genocide.128 In response to India's support for the insurgency in East Pakistan, preemptive strikes on India by Pakistan's air force, navy, and marines sparked a conventional war in 1971 that resulted in an Indian victory and East Pakistan gaining independence as Bangladesh.129
With Pakistan surrendering in the war,130 Yahya Khan was replaced by Zulfikar Ali Bhutto as president; the country worked towards promulgating its constitution and putting the country on the road to democracy.131132 In 1972 Pakistan embarked on an ambitious plan to develop its nuclear deterrence capability with the goal of preventing any foreign invasion; the country's first nuclear power plant was inaugurated in that same year.133134 India's first nuclear test in 1974 gave Pakistan additional justification to accelerate its nuclear program.135
Democracy ended with a military coup in 1977 against the leftist PPP, which saw General Zia-ul-Haq become the president in 1978.136 From 1977 to 1988, President Zia's corporatisation and economic Islamisation initiatives led to Pakistan becoming one of the fastest-growing economies in South Asia.137 While building up the country's nuclear program, increasing Islamisation, and the rise of a homegrown conservative philosophy, Pakistan helped subsidise and distribute US resources to factions of the mujahideen against the USSR's intervention in communist Afghanistan.138139140 Pakistan's North-West Frontier Province became a base for the anti-Soviet Afghan fighters, with the province's influential Deobandi ulama playing a significant role in encouraging and organising the 'jihad'.141
President Zia died in a plane crash in 1988, and Benazir Bhutto, daughter of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, was elected as the country's first female Prime Minister. The PPP was followed by conservative Pakistan Muslim League (N) (PML (N)), and over the next decade the leaders of the two parties fought for power, alternating in office.142 This period is marked by prolonged stagflation, political instability, corruption, misgovernment, geopolitical rivalry with India, and the clash of left wing-right wing ideologies.143144 As PML (N) secured a supermajority in elections in 1997,145 Nawaz Sharif authorised nuclear testings, as a retaliation to the second nuclear tests conducted by India in May 1998.146
Military tension between the two countries in the Kargil district led to the Kargil War of 1999,147148 and turmoil in civil-military relations allowed General Pervez Musharraf to take over through a bloodless coup d'état.149 Musharraf governed Pakistan as chief executive from 1999 to 2002 and as president from 2001 to 2008150—a period of enlightenment,151152 social liberalism,153 extensive economic reforms,154 and direct involvement in the US-led war on terrorism.155 By its own financial calculations, Pakistan's involvement in the war on terrorism has cost up to $118 billion, over eighty one thousand casualties,156 and more than 1.8 million displaced civilians.157
The National Assembly historically completed its first full five-year term on 15 November 2007.158 After the assassination of Benazir Bhutto in 2007, the PPP secured the most votes in the elections of 2008, appointing party member Yusuf Raza Gilani as Prime Minister.159 Threatened with impeachment, President Musharraf resigned on 18 August 2008, and was succeeded by Asif Ali Zardari.160 Clashes with the judicature prompted Gilani's disqualification from the Parliament and as the Prime Minister in June 2012.161 The general election held in 2013 saw the PML (N) achieve victory,162 following which Nawaz Sharif was elected as Prime Minister for the third time.163 In 2018, PTI won the general election and Imran Khan became the 22nd Prime Minister.164 In April 2022, Shehbaz Sharif was elected as prime minister, after Imran Khan lost a no-confidence vote.165 During 2024 general election, PTI-backed independents became the largest bloc,166 but Shehbaz Sharif was elected prime minister for a second term, as a result of a coalition between PML (N) and PPPP.167
Geography
Main articles: Geography of Pakistan, Environment of Pakistan, Climate of Pakistan, Extreme weather records in Pakistan, List of tropical cyclones in Pakistan, and List of beaches in Pakistan
Pakistan's diverse geography and climate host a wide array of wildlife.168 Covering 881,913 km2 (340,509 sq mi),169 Pakistan's size is comparable to France and the UK combined.170 It ranks as the 33rd-largest nation by total area,171 but this varies based on Kashmir's disputed status. Pakistan boasts a 1,046 km (650 mi) coastline along the Arabian Sea and the Gulf of Oman,172173 and shares land borders totaling 6,774 km (4,209 mi), including 2,430 km (1,510 mi) with Afghanistan, 523 km (325 mi) with China, 2,912 km (1,809 mi) with India, and 909 km (565 mi) with Iran.174 It has a maritime border with Oman,175 and shares a border with Tajikistan via the Wakhan Corridor.176 Situated at the crossroads of South Asia, the Middle East, and Central Asia,177 Pakistan's location is geopolitically significant.178 Geologically, Pakistan straddles the Indus–Tsangpo Suture Zone and the Indian tectonic plate in Sindh and Punjab, while Balochistan and most of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa sit on the Eurasian Plate, primarily on the Iranian plateau. Gilgit-Baltistan and Azad Kashmir, along the Indian plate's edge, are susceptible to powerful earthquakes.179
Pakistan's landscapes vary from coastal plains to glaciated mountains, offering deserts, forests, hills, and plateaus.180 Pakistan is divided into three major geographic areas: the northern highlands, the Indus River plain, and the Balochistan Plateau.181 The northern highlands feature the Karakoram, Hindu Kush, and Pamir mountain ranges, hosting some of the world's highest peaks, including five of the fourteen eight-thousanders (mountain peaks over 8,000 metres or 26,250 feet), notably K2 (8,611 m or 28,251 ft) and Nanga Parbat (8,126 m or 26,660 ft).182183 The Balochistan Plateau lies in the west and the Thar Desert in the east.184185186 The 1,609 km (1,000 mi) Indus River and its tributaries traverse the nation from Kashmir to the Arabian Sea, sustaining alluvial plains along the Punjab and Sindh regions.187
The climate varies from tropical to temperate, with arid conditions in the coastal south. There is a monsoon season with frequent flooding due to heavy rainfall, and a dry season with significantly less rainfall or none at all.188 Pakistan experiences four distinct seasons: a cool, dry winter from December through February; a hot, dry spring from March through May; the summer rainy season, or southwest monsoon period, from June through September; and the retreating monsoon period of October and November.189 Rainfall varies greatly from year to year, with patterns of alternate flooding and drought common.190
Flora and fauna
Main articles: Wildlife of Pakistan, Flora of Pakistan, and Fauna of Pakistan
The diverse landscape and climate in Pakistan support a wide range of trees and plants.191 From coniferous alpine and subalpine trees like spruce, pine, and deodar cedar in the northern mountains to deciduous trees like shisham in the Sulaiman Mountains,192 and palms such as coconut and date in the southern regions.193194 The western hills boast juniper, tamarisk, coarse grasses, and scrub plants.195 Mangrove forests dominate the coastal wetlands in the south.196 Coniferous forests span altitudes from 1,000 to 4,000 metres (3,300 to 13,100 feet) in most northern and northwestern highlands.197 In Balochistan's xeric regions, date palms and Ephedra are prevalent.198199 In Punjab and Sindh's Indus plains, tropical and subtropical dry and moist broadleaf forests as well as tropical and xeric shrublands thrive.200 Approximately 4.8% or 36,845.6 square kilometres (3,684,560 ha) of Pakistan was forested in 2021.201202
Pakistan's fauna mirrors its diverse climate. The country boasts around 668 bird species,203 including crows, sparrows, mynas, hawks, falcons, and eagles. Palas, Kohistan, is home to the western tragopan, with many migratory birds visiting from Europe, Central Asia, and India.204 The southern plains harbor mongooses,205 small Indian civet,206 hares,207 the Asiatic jackal,208 the Indian pangolin,209 the jungle cat,210 and the sand cat.211 Indus is home to mugger crocodiles,212 while surrounding areas host wild boars,213 deer,214 and porcupines.215 Central Pakistan's sandy scrublands shelter Asiatic jackals,216 striped hyenas,217 wildcats, and leopards. The mountainous north hosts a variety of animals like the Marco Polo sheep,218 urial, markhor goat, ibex goat, Asian black bear, and Himalayan brown bear.219
The lack of vegetative cover, severe climate, and grazing impact on deserts have endangered wild animals.220 The chinkara is the only animal found in significant numbers in Cholistan,221 with a few nilgai along the Pakistan–India border and in some parts of Cholistan.222 Rare animals include the snow leopard and the blind Indus river dolphin,223 of which there are believed to be about 1,816 remaining, protected at the Indus Dolphin Reserve in Sindh.224 In total, 174 species of mammals, 177 species of reptiles, 22 species of amphibians, 198 species of freshwater fish, 668 species of birds, over 5,000 species of insects, and over 5,700 species of plants have been recorded in Pakistan.225 Pakistan faces deforestation, hunting, and pollution, with a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 7.42/10, ranking 41st globally out of 172 countries.226
Government and politics
Main articles: Government of Pakistan, Politics of Pakistan, and Elections in Pakistan
Pakistan operates as a democratic parliamentary federal republic, with Islam designated as the state religion.227228 Initially adopting a constitution in 1956, Pakistan saw it suspended by Ayub Khan in 1958, replaced by a second constitution in 1962.229 A comprehensive constitution emerged in 1973, suspended by Zia-ul-Haq in 1977 but reinstated in 1985, shaping the country's governance.230 The military's influence in mainstream politics has been significant throughout Pakistan's history.231 The eras of 1958–1971, 1977–1988, and 1999–2008 witnessed military coups, leading to martial law and military leaders governing de facto as presidents.232 Presently, Pakistan operates a multi-party parliamentary system,233 with distinct checks and balances among government branches.234 The first successful democratic transition occurred in May 2013.235 Pakistani politics revolves around a blend of socialism, conservatism, and the third way,236 with the three main political parties being the conservative PML (N), socialist PPP, and centrist PTI.237 Constitutional amendments in 2010 curtailed presidential powers, enhancing the role of the prime minister.238
- Head of State: The ceremonial head of the state and civilian commander-in-chief of the Pakistan Armed Forces is the President, elected by an Electoral College.239 The Prime Minister advises the President on key appointments, including military and judicial positions, and the President is constitutionally bound to act on this advice.240241 The President also holds powers to pardon and grant clemency.242
- Legislative: The bicameral legislature includes a 96-member Senate (upper house) and a 336-member National Assembly (lower house). National Assembly members are elected via first-past-the-post under universal adult suffrage, representing National Assembly constituencies. The constitution reserves 70 seats for women and religious minorities, allocated to political parties based on proportional representation. Senate members are elected by provincial legislators, ensuring equal representation across all provinces.243
- Executive: The Prime Minister, typically the leader of the majority rule party or coalition in the National Assembly (the lower house),244 serves as the country's chief executive and head of government. Responsibilities include forming a cabinet,245 making executive decisions,246 and appointing senior civil servants, subject to executive confirmation.247
- Provincial governments: Each of the four provinces follows a similar governance system, with a directly elected Provincial Assembly choosing the Chief Minister, usually from the largest party or coalition. Chief Ministers lead the provincial cabinet and oversee provincial governance.248249 The Chief Secretary, appointed by the Prime Minister, heads the provincial bureaucracy.250 Provincial assemblies legislate and approve the provincial budget, typically presented by the provincial finance minister annually.251252 Ceremonial heads of provinces, the Provincial Governors, are appointed by the President based on the binding advice of the Prime Minister.253254
- Judicature: The judiciary in Pakistan has two classes: the superior and subordinate judiciary. The superior judiciary includes the Supreme Court of Pakistan,255 Federal Shariat Court, and five high courts,256 with the Supreme Court at the top. It's responsible for safeguarding the constitution.257 Azad Kashmir and Gilgit-Baltistan have their own court systems.258259
Role of Islam
See also: Islam in Pakistan
Pakistan, the only country established in the name of Islam,260 had overwhelming support among Muslims, especially in provinces like the United Provinces, where Muslims were a minority.261 This idea, articulated by the Muslim League, the Islamic clergy, and Jinnah, envisioned an Islamic state.262 Jinnah, closely associated with the ulama, was described upon his death by Maulana Shabbir Ahmad Usmani as the greatest Muslim after Aurangzeb, aspiring to unite Muslims worldwide under Islam.263
The Objectives Resolution of March 1949 marked the initial step towards this goal, affirming God as the sole sovereign.264265 Muslim League leader Chaudhry Khaliquzzaman asserted that Pakistan could only truly become an Islamic state after bringing all believers of Islam into a single political unit.266 Keith Callard observed that Pakistanis believed in the essential unity of purpose and outlook in the Muslim world, expecting similar views on religion and nationality from Muslims worldwide.267
Pakistan's desire for a united Islamic bloc, called Islamistan, wasn't supported by other Muslim governments,268 though figures like the Grand Mufti of Palestine, Al-Haj Amin al-Husseini, and leaders of the Muslim Brotherhood were drawn to the country. Pakistan's desire for an international organization of Muslim countries was fulfilled in the 1970s when the Organization of Islamic Conference (OIC) was formed.269 East Pakistan's Bengali Muslims, opposed to an Islamist state, clashed with West Pakistanis who leaned towards Islamic identity.270271 The Islamist party Jamaat-e-Islami backed an Islamic state and opposed Bengali nationalism.272
After the 1970 general elections, the Parliament crafted the 1973 Constitution.273 It declared Pakistan an Islamic Republic, with Islam as the state religion, and mandated laws to comply with Islamic teachings laid down in the Quran and Sunnah and that no law repugnant to such injunctions could be enacted.274 Additionally, it established institutions like the Shariat Court and the Council of Islamic Ideology to interpret and apply Islam.275
Zulfikar Ali Bhutto faced opposition under the banner of Nizam-e-Mustafa ("Rule of the Prophet"),276 advocating an Islamic state. Bhutto conceded to some Islamist demands before being ousted in a coup.277
General Zia-ul-Haq, after seizing power, committed to establishing an Islamic state and enforcing sharia law.278 He instituted Shariat judicial courts,279 and court benches,280281 to adjudicate using Islamic doctrine.282 Zia aligned with Deobandi institutions,283 exacerbating sectarian tensions with anti-Shia policies.284
Most Pakistanis, according to a Pew Research Center (PEW) poll, favor Sharia law as the official law,285 and 94 percent of them identify more with religion than nationality compared to Muslims in other nations.286
Administrative units
Main article: Administrative units of Pakistan
| Administrative unit287 | Capital288289290 | Population291292293 |
|---|---|---|
| Balochistan | Quetta | 14,894,402 |
| Punjab | Lahore | 127,688,922 |
| Sindh | Karachi | 55,696,147 |
| Khyber Pakhtunkhwa | Peshawar | 40,856,097 |
| Gilgit-Baltistan | Gilgit | 1,492,924 |
| Azad Kashmir | Muzaffarabad | 4,179,428 |
| Islamabad Capital Territory | Islamabad | 2,363,863 |
Pakistan, a federal parliamentary republic, consists of four provinces: Punjab, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Sindh, and Balochistan, along with three territories: Islamabad Capital Territory, Gilgit-Baltistan, and Azad Kashmir.294 The Government of Pakistan governs the western parts of the Kashmir Region, organized into separate political entities, Azad Kashmir and Gilgit-Baltistan.295 In 2009, the constitutional assignment (the Gilgit–Baltistan Empowerment and Self-Governance Order) granted Gilgit-Baltistan semi-provincial status, providing it with self-government.296
The local government system consists of districts, tehsils, and union councils, with an elected body at each tier.297
Clickable map of the four provinces and three federal territories of Pakistan.Foreign relations
Main article: Foreign relations of Pakistan
Since independence, Pakistan has aimed to maintain an independent foreign policy.298 Pakistan's foreign policy and geostrategy focus on the economy, security, national identity, and territorial integrity, as well as building close ties with other Muslim nations.299 According to Hasan Askari Rizvi, a foreign policy expert, "Pakistan highlights sovereign equality of states, bilateralism, mutuality of interests, and non-interference in each other's domestic affairs as the cardinal features of its foreign policy."300
The Kashmir conflict remains a major issue between Pakistan and India, with three of their four wars fought over it.301 Due partly to strained relations with India, Pakistan has close ties with Turkey and Iran, both focal points in its foreign policy.302 Saudi Arabia also holds importance in Pakistan's foreign relations.303
As a non-signatory of the Treaty on Nuclear Non-Proliferation, Pakistan holds influence in the IAEA.304 For years, Pakistan has blocked an international treaty to limit fissile material, arguing that its stockpile does not meet its long-term needs.305 Pakistan's nuclear program in the 20th century aimed to counter India's nuclear ambitions in the region, and reciprocal nuclear tests ensued after India's nuclear tests, solidifying Pakistan as a nuclear power.306 Pakistan maintains a policy of Full spectrum deterrence, considering its nuclear program vital for deterring foreign aggression.307
Located strategically in the world's major maritime oil supply lines and communication fiber optic corridors, Pakistan also enjoys proximity to the natural resources of Central Asian countries.308 Pakistan actively participates in the United Nations with a Permanent Representative representing its positions in international politics.309 It has advocated for the concept of "enlightened moderation" in the Muslim world.310 Pakistan is a member of the Commonwealth of Nations, SAARC, ECO,311312 and the G20 developing nations.313
Pakistan is designated as an "Iron Brother" by China, emphasizing the significance of their close and supportive relationship.314 In the 1950s, Pakistan opposed the Soviet Union for geopolitical reasons. During the Soviet–Afghan War in the 1980s, it was a close ally of the United States.315 Relations with Russia have improved since the end of the Cold War,316 but Pakistan's relationship with the United States has been "on-and-off."317 Initially a close ally during the Cold War,318 Pakistan's relations with the US soured in the 1990s due to sanctions over its secretive nuclear program.319 Since 9/11, Pakistan has been a US ally on counterterrorism, but their relationship has been strained due to diverging interests and mistrust during the 20-year war and terrorism issues. Although Pakistan was granted major non-NATO ally status by the U.S. in 2004,320 it faced accusations of supporting the Taliban insurgents in Afghanistan.321
Pakistan does not have formal diplomatic relations with Israel; nonetheless, an exchange occurred between the two countries in 2005, with Turkey acting as an intermediary.322
Relations with China
Main article: China–Pakistan relations
Pakistan was among the first nations to establish formal diplomatic ties with the China,323 forging a strong relationship since China's 1962 conflict with India, culminating in a special bond.324 During the 1970s, Pakistan acted as an intermediary in U.S.-China rapprochement,325 facilitating US President Richard Nixon's historic visit to China.326327 Despite changes in Pakistani governance and regional/global dynamics, China's influence in Pakistan remains paramount.328 In reciprocation, China stands as Pakistan's largest trading partner, with substantial investment in Pakistani infrastructure, notably the Gwadar port.329 In 2015 alone, they inked 51 agreements and Memorandums of Understanding (MoUs) for cooperative efforts.330 Both nations signed a Free Trade Agreement in 2006,331 with China making its largest investment in Pakistan's history through CPEC.332 Pakistan acts as China's liaison to the Muslim world,333 and both nations support each other on sensitive issues like Kashmir, Taiwan, Xinjiang, and more.334
Relations with the Muslim world
After Independence, Pakistan vigorously pursued bilateral relations with other Muslim countries.335 The Ali brothers sought to project Pakistan as the natural leader of the Islamic world, partly due to its significant manpower and military strength.336 Khaliquzzaman, a prominent Muslim League leader, declared Pakistan's ambition to unite all Muslim countries into Islamistan, a pan-Islamic entity.337
These developments, alongside Pakistan's creation, didn't receive approval from the United States, with British Prime Minister Clement Attlee expressing a hope for India and Pakistan to reunite.338 However, due to a nationalist awakening in the Arab world at that time, there was little interest in Pakistan's Pan-Islamic aspirations.339 Some Arab countries perceived the 'Islamistan' project as Pakistan's bid to dominate other Muslim states.340
Pakistan's founder, Muhammad Ali Jinnah, consistently advocated for the Palestinian cause, shaping Pakistan's foreign policy to support Palestinian rights within the broader framework of Muslim solidarity.341 During the 1967 Arab-Israel war, Pakistan supported the Arab states and played a key role in securing Iran's backing for the Arab cause both within the U.N. and beyond.342
Pakistan's relations with Iran have been strained by sectarian tensions,343 with both Iran and Saudi Arabia using Pakistan as a battleground for their proxy sectarian war.344 Since the early days of the Iran–Iraq war, President Zia-ul-Haq played an important mediatory role, with Pakistan actively engaging in efforts to end the conflict.345346 Pakistan provided support to Saudi Arabia during the Gulf War.347 Pakistan chose to remain neutral during Operation Decisive Storm, refraining from sending military support to Saudi Arabia in its offensive against Yemen. Instead, Pakistan aimed to play a proactive diplomatic role in resolving the crisis,348 which led to tensions between the two countries.349 In 2016, Pakistan mediated between Saudi Arabia and Iran following the execution of Shia cleric Nimr al-Nimr, with visits to both countries by then Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif and the Chief of Army Staff, Raheel Sharif.350
Pakistan provided refuge to millions of displaced Afghans after the Soviet invasion and supported the Afghan mujahideen in their efforts to expel Soviet forces from Afghanistan.351 After the Soviets withdrew, infighting erupted among Mujahideen factions over control of Afghanistan. Pakistan facilitated peace talks to help end the conflict.352 After four years of unresolved conflict between rival Mujahideen groups, Pakistan helped establish the Taliban as a stabilizing force.353 Pakistan's support for the Sunni Taliban in Afghanistan challenged Shia-led Iran, which opposed a Taliban-controlled Afghanistan.354
Pakistan vigorously advocated for self-determination among Muslims globally. Its efforts in supporting independence movements in countries like Indonesia, Algeria, Tunisia, Morocco, and Eritrea fostered strong ties.355 Due to its support for Azerbaijan in the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict, Pakistan has not established diplomatic relations with Armenia.356357
Pakistan and Bangladesh have experienced strained relations, particularly under the Awami League governments led by Sheikh Hasina, driven by her pro-India stance and historical grievances.358
Pakistan, a prominent member of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC), prioritizes maintaining cultural, political, social, and economic relations with Arab and other Muslim-majority nations in its foreign policy.359
Kashmir conflict
Main article: Kashmir conflict
Kashmir, a Himalayan region at the northern tip of the Indian subcontinent, was governed as the autonomous princely state of Jammu and Kashmir during the British Raj before the Partition of India in August 1947. This sparked a major territorial dispute between India and Pakistan, resulting in several conflicts over the region. India controls about 45.1% of Kashmir, including Jammu and Kashmir and Ladakh, while Pakistan controls roughly 38.2%, comprising Azad Jammu and Kashmir and Gilgit−Baltistan. Additionally, about 20% of the region, known as Aksai Chin and the Shaksgam Valley, is under Chinese control.360 India claims the entire Kashmir region based on the Instrument of Accession signed by the princely state's ruler, Maharaja Hari Singh,361 while Pakistan argues for its Muslim-majority population,362 and geographical proximity to Pakistan.363 The United Nations was involved in resolving the conflict, leading to a ceasefire in 1949 and the establishment of the Line of Control (LoC) as a de facto border.364 India, fearing Kashmir's secession, did not hold the promised plebiscite, as it believed Kashmiris would vote to join Pakistan.365
Pakistan claims that its position is for the right of the Kashmiri people to determine their future through impartial elections as mandated by the United Nations, while India has stated that Kashmir is an "integral part" of India, referring to the 1972 Simla Agreement and to the fact that regional elections take place regularly.366 Certain Kashmiri independence groups believe that Kashmir should be independent of both India and Pakistan.367
Military
Main article: Pakistan Armed Forces
Pakistan is considered a middle power nation,368369 with the world's seventh-largest standing armed forces in terms of personnel size, comprising approximately 660,000 active-duty troops and 291,000 paramilitary personnel as of 2024.370 Established in 1947, the armed forces of Pakistan wielded significant influence over national politics.371 The main branches include the Army, Navy, and Air Force, supported by numerous paramilitaries.372
The Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee (CJCSC) is the highest-ranking military officer, advising the civilian government. However, they lack direct command over the branches and serve as intermediaries, ensuring communication between the military and civilian leadership. Overseeing the Joint Staff Headquarters, they coordinate inter-service cooperation and joint military missions.373
Command and control over Pakistan's strategic arsenal development and employment is vested in the National Command Authority, overseeing work on nuclear doctrine to maintain Full spectrum deterrence.374
The United States, Turkey, and China maintain close military relations with Pakistan Armed Forces, regularly exporting military equipment and technology transfer.375 Pakistan was the 5th-largest recipient and importer of arms between 2019 and 2023.376
Military history
Main article: Military history of Pakistan
Since 1947, Pakistan has been involved in four conventional wars with India.377 The first conflict took place in Kashmir and ended in a United Nations-mediated ceasefire, with Pakistan gaining control of one-third of the region.378 Territorial disputes led to another war in 1965. In 1971, India and Pakistan fought another war over East Pakistan, with Indian forces aiding its independence, leading to the creation of Bangladesh.379 Tensions in Kargil brought the two countries to the brink of war.380
Pakistan's primary intelligence agency, the Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI), was established within a year of Pakistan's independence in 1947.381 During the Soviet–Afghan War, Pakistan's intelligence community, mostly the ISI, coordinated US resources to support Afghan mujahideen and foreign fighters against Soviet presence.382 The PAF engaged with Soviet and Afghan Air Forces during the conflict.383 Pakistan has been an active participant in UN peacekeeping missions,384 playing a major role in operations like the rescue mission in Mogadishu, Somalia, in 1993.385 According to a 2023 UN report, the Pakistani military was the fifth largest troop contributor to UN peacekeeping missions.386
Pakistan has deployed its military in some Arab countries, providing defense, training, and advisory roles.387388 The PAF's fighter pilots participated in missions against Israel during the Six-Day War and the Yom Kippur War.389 Pakistani special forces assisted Saudi forces in Mecca during the Grand Mosque Seizure.390 Pakistan also sent 5,000 troops as part of a US-led coalition for the defense of Saudi Arabia during the Gulf War.391
Despite the UN arms embargo on Bosnia, the ISI under General Javed Nasir airlifted anti-tank weapons and missiles to Bosnian mujahideen, shifting the tide in favor of Bosnian Muslims. ISI, under Nasir's leadership, supported Chinese Muslims in Xinjiang, rebel groups in the Philippines, and religious groups in Central Asia.392393
Since 2001, the Pakistan military has been engaged in counterinsurgency and internal security operations in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, primarily targeting Tehrik-e-Taliban Pakistan and associated militant groups. Major military operations conducted during this period include Operation Enduring Freedom, Operation al-Mizan, Operation Zalzala, Operation Sherdil, Operation Rah-e-Haq, Operation Rah-e-Rast, and Operation Rah-e-Nijat.394
Law enforcement
Main articles: Law enforcement in Pakistan and Pakistani Intelligence Community
Law enforcement in Pakistan consists of federal and provincial police agencies. Each of the four provinces (Punjab, Sindh, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, and Balochistan) has its own police force, while the Islamabad Capital Territory (ICT) has the Islamabad Police.395 Provincial police forces are led by an Inspector-General of Police (IGP), who is appointed from the federally recruited and trained Police Service of Pakistan (PSP) through a consultative process between the federal and provincial governments. All positions above the Assistant Superintendent level are filled from the PSP, ensuring national standards across provincial forces.396
Specialized Units:
- National Highways & Motorway Police (NHMP): Enforces traffic laws and ensures safety on Pakistan's inter-provincial motorway network.397
- Specialized Rapid Response Units: Specialized counter-terrorism units, such as the Punjab Elite Police Force, have been trained by army commandos and exist in every province to respond to hostage situations and neutralize armed groups.398
The Civil Armed Forces (CAF) assist local law enforcement agencies and participate in border security and internal security operations, particularly in conflict-affected regions.399
In 2021, the National Intelligence Coordination Committee was established to improve coordination among Pakistan's intelligence agencies. The inaugural meeting was attended by the heads of the ISI, IB, and FIA.400
Human rights
Main articles: Human rights in Pakistan and LGBT rights in Pakistan
In 2025, Pakistan ranked 158 out of 180 countries in the Press Freedom Index by Reporters Without Borders, highlighting restrictions on freedom of the press.401 According to the journalist Raza Rumi, in 2023, TV channels in Pakistan faced suspensions and legal threats for airing content critical of the government or military, while online platforms also experienced temporary takedowns.402 According to a 2025 report, some newspapers have faced financial pressure—such as withdrawal of government advertisements—for publishing content critical of government policies. Both military and civilian governments have historically used such tactics.403
In Pakistan, all sexual activity outside of marriage is illegal.404 The punishment for sex outside marriage (zina) ranges from up to five years' imprisonment for minors to 100 lashes for unmarried adults and stoning to death for married adults, depending on marital status, age, sanity, and whether strict evidentiary requirements for a hadd punishment—such as four adult male Muslim witnesses or a confession—are met; however, no one has been stoned to death under the law to date.405 Male homosexuality is illegal in Pakistan, punishable with up to life in prison.406
Economy
Main articles: Economy of Pakistan and Economic history of Pakistan
See also: Pakistan and the International Monetary Fund
| Economic indicators | ||
|---|---|---|
| GDP (PPP) | $1.254 trillion (2019) | 407 |
| GDP (nominal) | $284.2 billion (2019) | 408 |
| Real GDP growth | 3.29% (2019) | 409 |
| CPI inflation | 10.3% (2019) | 410 |
| Unemployment | 5.7% (2018) | 411 |
| Labor force participation rate | 48.9% (2018) | 412 |
| Total public debt | $106 billion (2019) | |
| National wealth | $465 billion (2019) | 413 |
Pakistan's economy ranks 24th globally by purchasing power parity (PPP) and 43rd by nominal GDP. Historically, Pakistan was part of the wealthiest region in the first millennium CE, but lost ground to regions like China and Western Europe by the 18th century.414 Pakistan is a developing country,415 and part of the Next Eleven, poised to become one of the world's largest economies in the 21st century, alongside the BRIC countries.416
In recent years, Pakistan has faced social instability and macroeconomic imbalances, with deficiencies in services like rail transportation and electrical energy generation.417 The semi-industrialized economy has growth centers along the Indus River.418419420 The diversified economies of Karachi and Punjab's urban centers coexist with less-developed areas in other parts of the country, particularly in Balochistan.421 Pakistan ranks as the 67th-largest export economy and the 106th-most complex economy globally, with a negative trade balance of US$23.96 billion in fiscal year 2015–16.422423
As of 2022, Pakistan's estimated nominal GDP is US$376.493 billion.424 The GDP by PPP is US$1.512 trillion. The estimated nominal per capita GDP is US$1,658, the GDP (PPP)/capita is US$6,662 (international dollars),425 According to the World Bank, Pakistan has important strategic endowments and development potential. The increasing proportion of Pakistan's youth provides the country with both a potential demographic dividend and a challenge to provide adequate services and employment.426 21.04% of the population live below the international poverty line of US$1.25 a day. The unemployment rate among the aged 15 and over population is 5.5%.427 Pakistan has an estimated 40 million middle class citizens, projected to increase to 100 million by 2050.428 A 2015 report published by the World Bank ranked Pakistan's economy at 24th-largest429 in the world by purchasing power and 41st-largest430 in absolute terms. It is South Asia's second-largest economy, representing about 15.0% of regional GDP.431
Pakistan's economic growth varied over time, with slow progress during democratic transitions but robust expansion under martial law, lacking sustainable foundations.432 Rapid reforms in the early to mid-2000s, including increased development spending, reduced poverty by 10% and boosted GDP by 3%.433434 The economy cooled post-2007,435 with inflation peaking at 25.0% in 2008,436 necessitating IMF intervention to prevent bankruptcy.437 The Asian Development Bank later noted easing economic strain in Pakistan.438 Inflation for fiscal year 2010–11 stood at 14.1%.439 Since 2013, Pakistan's economy has seen growth under an IMF program. Goldman Sachs predicted Pakistan's economy could grow 15 times by 2050,440 and Ruchir Sharma in his 2016 book anticipated a transformation to a middle-income country by 2020.441
Pakistan's vast natural commodity production and 10th-largest labour market, along with a US$19.9 billion contribution from its 7-million-strong diaspora in 2015–16,442443444 position it significantly. However, Pakistan's global export share is declining, accounting for just 0.13% in 2007 according to the World Trade Organization.445
Agriculture and mining sector
Main articles: Agriculture in Pakistan, Fuel extraction in Pakistan, and Mining in Pakistan
The Pakistani economy has shifted from agriculture to services, with agriculture contributing only 20.9% of the GDP as of 2015.446 Despite this, Pakistan's wheat production in 2005 surpassed Africa's and nearly matched South America's, highlighting its agricultural significance.447 The sector employs 43.5% of the labor force and is a major source of foreign exchange.448449
Manufactured exports, heavily reliant on agricultural raw materials like cotton and hides, face inflationary pressures due to supply shortages and market disruptions. Pakistan ranks fifth in cotton production, self-sufficient in sugarcane, and the fourth-largest milk producer globally. Though land and water resources haven't increased proportionately, productivity gains, especially from the Green Revolution in the late 1960s and 1970s, significantly boosted wheat and rice yields. Private tube wells and High Yielding Varieties (HYVs) further augmented crop yields.450 Meat industry accounts for 1.4 percent of overall GDP.451
Industry
Main article: Industry of Pakistan
See also: Textile industry in Pakistan
Industry, constituting 19.74% of GDP and 24% of total employment, is the second-largest sector. Large-scale manufacturing (LSM) dominates, representing 12.2% of GDP, with cement production thriving due to demand from Afghanistan and the domestic real estate sector.452 In 2013, Pakistan exported 7,708,557 metric tons of cement, with an installed capacity of 44,768,250 metric tons.453 The textile industry, a key player in Pakistan's manufacturing, contributes 9.5% to GDP and employs around 15 million people. As of 2022, Pakistan ranks seventh globally in cotton production,454 with substantial spinning capacity, making it a major exporter of textile products in Asia.455 China has been a significant buyer of Pakistani textiles, importing US$1.527 billion worth of textiles in 2012.456
Services
Main articles: Real estate in Pakistan, Information technology in Pakistan, and Banking in Pakistan
As of 2014–15, the services sector contributes 58.8% to GDP,457 serving as the main driver of economic growth in Pakistan,458 with a consumption-oriented society. The sector's growth rate surpasses that of agriculture and industry, accounting for 54% of GDP and over one-third of total employment. It has strong linkages with other sectors, providing essential inputs to agriculture and manufacturing.459 Pakistan's IT sector is one of the fastest-growing, ranked 110th for ICT development by the World Economic Forum.460 With around 82 million internet users as of May 2020, Pakistan ranks among top ten globally,461 and its ICT industry is projected to exceed $10 billion by 2020.462 With 12,000 employees, Pakistan is among the top five freelancing nations,463 and its export performance in telecom, computer, and information services has notably improved.464
Tourism
Main article: Tourism in Pakistan
With its diverse cultures, landscapes, and attractions, Pakistan drew around 6.6 million foreign tourists in 2018.465 However, this was a decline from the peak of tourism in the 1970s driven by the popular Hippie trail.466 Pakistan boasts attractions from mangroves in the south to Himalayan hill stations in the northeast, including ancient Buddhist ruins of Takht-i-Bahi and Taxila, the 5,000-year-old Indus Valley civilization sites such as Mohenjo-daro and Harappa,467 and numerous mountain peaks over 7,000 metres (23,000 feet).468 The northern part of Pakistan boasts numerous old fortresses, showcasing ancient architecture. It encompasses the Hunza and Chitral valleys, where the small pre-Islamic Kalasha community resides, claiming descent from Alexander the Great.469 Lahore, Pakistan's cultural capital, showcases numerous examples of Mughal architecture, including the Badshahi Masjid, the Shalimar Gardens, the Tomb of Jahangir, and the Lahore Fort. Following the 2005 Kashmir earthquake, The Guardian highlighted "The top five tourist sites in Pakistan" to boost tourism, featuring destinations like Taxila, Lahore, the Karakoram Highway, Karimabad, and Lake Saiful Muluk.470 Festivals and government initiatives aim to promote Pakistan's cultural heritage.471 In 2015, the World Economic Forum ranked Pakistan 125th out of 141 countries in its Travel & Tourism Competitiveness Report.472
Infrastructure
See also: Water supply and sanitation in Pakistan
Pakistan was lauded as the top nation for infrastructure development in South Asia during the 2016 annual meetings of the IMF and World Bank.473
Power and energy
Main articles: Nuclear power in Pakistan, Energy in Pakistan, and Electricity sector in Pakistan
As of May 2021, Pakistan operates six licensed commercial nuclear power plants.474 The Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission (PAEC) oversees these plants, while the Pakistan Nuclear Regulatory Authority ensures their safe operation.475 These plants contribute approximately 5.8% to Pakistan's electricity supply, while fossil fuels (crude oil and natural gas) provide 64.2%, hydroelectric power provides 29.9%, and coal contributes 0.1%.476477 The KANUPP-I, Pakistan's first commercial nuclear power plant, was supplied by Canada in 1971. Sino-Pakistani nuclear cooperation began in the 1980s, leading to the establishment of CHASNUPP-I. In 2005, both countries proposed a joint energy security plan, aiming for a generation capacity exceeding 160,000 MWe by 2030. Pakistan's Nuclear Energy Vision 2050 targets a capacity of 40,000 MWe,478 with 8,900 MWe expected by 2030.479
In June 2008, the nuclear complex at Chashma in Punjab Province expanded with the installation of Chashma-III and Chashma–IV reactors, each with 325–340 MWe, costing ₨129 billion, with ₨80 billion from international sources, mainly China. Another agreement for China's assistance was signed in October 2008, seen as a response to the US–India agreement. The project's cost was then US$1.7 billion, with a foreign loan of US$1.07 billion. In 2013, Pakistan established a second nuclear complex in Karachi with plans for additional reactors, similar to Chashma.480 Electrical energy in Pakistan is generated by various corporations and distributed evenly among the four provinces by the National Electric Power Regulatory Authority (NEPRA). However, Karachi-based K-Electric and Water and Power Development Authority (WAPDA) generate much of the electricity used in Pakistan and collect revenue nationwide.481 In 2023, Pakistan's installed electricity generation capacity was ~45,885 MWt.482 Pakistan produced 1,135 megawatts of renewable energy for the month of October 2016. Pakistan expects to produce 10,000 megawatts of renewable energy by 2025.483
Transport
Main article: Transport in Pakistan
Pakistan boasts 2567 km of motorways and approximately 263,942 km of highways, which handle 92% of passengers and 96% of freight traffic. Despite constituting only 4.6% of the total road length, these north–south links manage 85% of the nation's traffic. They connect southern seaports such as Karachi port and Port Qasim in Sindh, along with Gwadar Port and Port of Pasni in Balochistan, to populous provinces like Punjab and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa domestically, and neighboring countries like Afghanistan, Central Asia, and China through the China Pakistan Economic Corridor.484485486487 According to the WEF's Global Competitiveness Report, Pakistan's port infrastructure quality ratings rose from 3.7 to 4.1 between 2007 and 2016.488 The railway's share of inland traffic is reduced to below 8% for passengers and 4% for freight.489 This shift led to a decrease in total rail track from 8,775 kilometres (5,453 miles) in 1990–91 to 7,791 kilometres (4,841 miles) in 2011.490491
The transport landscape of Pakistan features various modern transit systems. The Orange Line Metro Train in Lahore, inaugurated in 2020,492 spans 27.1 km (16.8 mi),493 and includes both elevated and underground sections, accommodating over 250,000 passengers daily.494 Lahore also boasts the Lahore Metrobus, the first of its kind in Pakistan, operational since February 2013.495 The Rawalpindi-Islamabad Metrobus, stretching 48.1 km, commenced its first phase in June 2015, with subsequent extensions, and employs e-ticketing and an Intelligent Transportation System.496497 Multan Metrobus, inaugurated in January 2017, serves Multan with its rapid transit services.498499 Peshawar's Bus Rapid Transit, inaugurated in August 2020, marks the fourth BRT system in Pakistan. Karachi's Green Line Metrobus, operational since December 2021, is part of a larger metrobus project financed by the Government of Pakistan and initiated in February 2016.500501502 Meanwhile, Faisalabad awaits its proposed rapid transit project, the Faisalabad Metrobus.503 Karachi Circular Railway, partially revived in November 2020, offers public transit services in the Karachi metropolitan area.504505 Additionally, plans are underway to resurrect Karachi's tramway service, which ceased operations in 1975, in collaboration with Austrian experts.506507
As of 2013, Pakistan boasts approximately 151 airports and airfields, encompassing both military and civilian installations.508 Despite Jinnah International Airport serving as the primary international gateway, significant international traffic also flows through Lahore, Islamabad, Peshawar, Quetta, Faisalabad, Sialkot, and Multan airports. The civil aviation industry, deregulated in 1993, operates with a blend of public and private entities while state-owned Pakistan International Airlines (PIA) dominates, carrying 73% of domestic passengers and all domestic freight.
Science and technology
Main articles: Science and technology in Pakistan and List of Pakistani inventions and discoveries
Developments in science and technology have played a significant role in Pakistan's infrastructure, linking the nation to the global community.509 Each year, the Pakistan Academy of Sciences and the government invite scientists worldwide to the International Nathiagali Summer College on Physics.510 In 2005, Pakistan hosted an international seminar on "Physics in Developing Countries" for the International Year of Physics.511 Pakistani theoretical physicist Abdus Salam won a Nobel Prize in Physics for his work on the electroweak interaction.512 Pakistani scientists have made notable contributions in mathematics, biology, economics, computer science, and genetics.513
In chemistry, Salimuzzaman Siddiqui identified the medicinal properties of the neem tree's components.514515 Ayub K. Ommaya developed the Ommaya reservoir for treating brain conditions.516 Scientific research is integral to Pakistani universities, national laboratories, science parks, and the industry.517 Abdul Qadeer Khan spearheaded Pakistan's HEU-based gas-centrifuge uranium enrichment program for its atomic bomb project.518 He established the Kahuta Research Laboratories (KRL) in 1976, serving as both its senior scientist and the Director-General until his retirement in 2001. Besides atomic bomb project, he made significant contributions in molecular morphology, physical martensite, and their applications in condensed and material physics.519
In 2023, Pakistan ranked 26th globally in published scientific papers.520 The influential Pakistan Academy of Sciences guides the government on science policies.521 Pakistan was ranked 91st in the Global Innovation Index by 2024.522
The 1960s marked the rise of Pakistan's space program, led by SUPARCO, yielding advancements in rocketry, electronics, and aeronomy. Notably, Pakistan launched its first rocket into space, pioneering South Asia's space exploration.523 In 1990, it successfully launched its first satellite, becoming the first Muslim nation and second in South Asia to achieve this milestone.524
Following the 1971 war with India, Pakistan hastily developed atomic weapons to deter foreign intervention and entered the atomic age.525 Tensions with India led to Pakistan's 1998 underground nuclear tests, making it the seventh country to possess such weapons.526
Pakistan is the sole Muslim nation active in Antarctica research, maintaining its Jinnah Antarctic Research Station since 1992.527 The government invests heavily in information technology projects, focusing on e-government and infrastructure.528
Demographics
Main article: Demographics of Pakistan
Further information: Overseas Pakistani
This section is an excerpt from Demographics of Pakistan.[edit]
Pakistan had a population of 241,499,431 according to the final results of the 2023 census.529 This figure includes the country's four provinces e.g. Punjab, Sindh, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Balochistan and the Islamabad Capital Territory. Azad Kashmir and Gilgit-Baltistan's census data is yet to be approved by CCI Council of Pakistan. Pakistan is the world's fifth–most populous country.530
Between 1951 and 2023, Pakistan's population expanded over sevenfold, going from 33.7 million to 241.5 million. The country has a relatively high, although declining, growth rate supported by high birth rates and low death rates. Between 1998 and 2017, the average annual population growth rate stood at +2.40%.531
Dramatic social changes have led to urbanization and the emergence of two megacities: Karachi and Lahore. The country's urban population more than tripled between 1981 and 2017 (from 23.8 million to 75.7 million), as Pakistan's urbanisation rate rose from 28.2% to 36.4%. Even with this, the nation's urbanisation rate remains one of the lowest in the world, and in 2017, over 130 million Pakistanis (making up nearly 65% of the population) lived in rural areas.
Due to a high fertility rate, which was estimated at 3.5 in 2022, Pakistan has one of the world's youngest populations. The 2017 census recorded that 40.3% of the country's population was under the age of 15, while only 3.7% of Pakistanis were aged 65 or more.532 The median age of the country was 19,533 while its sex ratio was recorded to be 105 males per 100 females.534
The demographic history of Pakistan from the ancient Indus Valley civilization to the modern era includes the arrival and settlement of many cultures and ethnic groups in the modern region of Pakistan from Eurasia and the nearby Middle East. Because of this, Pakistan has a multicultural, multilinguistic, and multiethnic society. Pakistan is also thought to have the world's fourth-largest refugee population, estimated at 1.4 million in mid-2021 by the UNHCR.535Urbanisation
Main article: Urbanisation in Pakistan
Since independence due to the partition of India, urbanisation has surged for various reasons. In the south, Karachi stands as the most populous commercial hub along the Indus River.536 In the east, west, and north, a dense population arc spans cities like Lahore, Faisalabad, Rawalpindi, Islamabad, Sargodha, Gujranwala, Sialkot, Gujrat, Jhelum, Sheikhupura, Nowshera, Mardan, and Peshawar. By 1990–2008, city dwellers constituted 36% of Pakistan's population, making it South Asia's most urbanized nation, with over 50% living in towns of 5,000+ inhabitants.537 Immigration, both domestic and international, significantly fuels urban growth. Migration from India, especially to Karachi, the largest metropolis, and from nearby countries, accelerates urbanization, posing new political and socio-economic challenges. Economic shifts like the green revolution and political developments also play crucial roles.538
| |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Rank | Name | Province | Pop. | Rank | Name | Province | Pop. | ||
| 1 | Karachi | Sindh | 18,868,021 | 11 | Sargodha | Punjab | 975,886 | ||
| 2 | Lahore | Punjab | 13,004,135 | 12 | Sialkot | Punjab | 911,817 | ||
| 3 | Faisalabad | Punjab | 3,691,999 | 13 | Bahawalpur | Punjab | 903,795 | ||
| 4 | Rawalpindi | Punjab | 3,357,612 | 14 | Jhang | Punjab | 606,533 | ||
| 5 | Gujranwala | Punjab | 2,668,047 | 15 | Sheikhupura | Punjab | 591,424 | ||
| 6 | Multan | Punjab | 2,215,381 | 16 | Gujrat | Punjab | 574,240 | ||
| 7 | Hyderabad | Sindh | 1,921,275 | 17 | Sukkur | Sindh | 563,851 | ||
| 8 | Peshawar | Khyber Pakhtunkhwa | 1,905,975 | 18 | Larkana | Sindh | 551,716 | ||
| 9 | Quetta | Balochistan | 1,565,546 | 19 | Sahiwal | Punjab | 538,344 | ||
| 10 | Islamabad | Capital Territory | 1,108,872 | 20 | Okara | Punjab | 533,693 | ||
Ethnicity and languages
Main articles: Languages of Pakistan and Ethnic groups of Pakistan
See also: Pakistanis
Pakistan is a diverse society with estimates suggesting it has between 75 and 85 languages.540541 Urdu and English serve as the official languages, with Urdu being the country's lingua franca and a unifying force among over 75% of Pakistanis.542543 According to the 2023 national census, the largest ethnolinguistic groups include the Punjabis (36.98%), Pashtuns (18.15%), Sindhis (14.31%), Saraikis (12%), Urdu speaking people (9.25%), Balochs (3.38%), Hindkowans/Hazarewals (2.32%), and Brahuis (1.16%).544545 The remaining population consists of various ethnic minorities such as Kashmiris, Paharis, Chitralis, various peoples of Gilgit-Baltistan, Kohistanis, Torwalis, Meos, Hazaras, Kalash and Siddis.546547 The Pakistani diaspora, numbering over seven million, is the sixth largest in the world.548
Immigration
Main article: Immigration to Pakistan
Even post-1947 partition, the Muslims from India kept migrating to Pakistan, especially Karachi and Sindh province.549 Wars in neighboring Afghanistan in the 1980s and 1990s pushed millions of Afghan refugees into Pakistan, mainly in Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa and tribal areas, with some in Karachi and Quetta. Pakistan hosts one of the world's largest refugee populations.550 Additionally, around 2 million Bangladeshis and half a million undocumented individuals, purportedly from Myanmar, reside in Pakistan.551 In October 2023, Pakistan ordered the deportation of thousands undocumented refugees, citing security concerns.552
Migration of Bengalis and Rohingya to Pakistan started in the 1980s and continued till 1998. Karachi hosts a significant number of Bengali settlements, and large Rohingya migration made it one of their largest populations outside Myanmar.553 Karachi's Burmese community resides in various slums across the city.554
According to BBC, thousands of Uyghur Muslims live in Gilgit-Baltistan, some left Xinjiang, China and the thriving trading town of Kashgar in 1949, while others are later arrivals, claiming to escape political oppression.555 Since 1989, thousands of Kashmiri Muslim refugees fled to Pakistan, alleging rape and forced displacement by Indian soldiers.556
Diaspora
Main article: Overseas Pakistani
According to the UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Pakistan has the sixth-largest diaspora globally.557 Approximately 7 million Pakistanis reside abroad, mainly in the Middle East, Europe, and North America.558 Pakistan ranks 10th globally for remittances sent home.559560 Saudi Arabia is the largest source of remittances, contributing $5.9 billion as of 2016.561 The term Overseas Pakistani is officially recognized by the Government of Pakistan, with the Ministry of Overseas Pakistanis and Human Resource Development addressing their needs, welfare, and issues. Overseas Pakistanis constitute the second-largest source of foreign exchange remittances to Pakistan, with remittances increasing by over 100% from US$8.9 billion in 2009–10 to US$19.9 billion in 2015–16.562563
Religion
Main article: Religion in Pakistan
Islam is the state religion,564 with freedom of religion guaranteed by the constitution.565566 The majority are Muslims (96.35%), followed by Hindus (2.17%) and Christians (1.37%). Minorities include Sikhs, Buddhists, Jains, Zoroastrians (Parsi), and the unique Kalash people who practice animism.567 In 2012, 2% of the population identified as atheist in a Gallup survey.568
Islam
Main article: Islam in Pakistan
Islam dominates in Pakistan, with about 96.35% of the population being Muslim.569 Pakistan ranks second globally in Muslim population,570 and is home to 10.5% of the world's Muslims.571 Karachi is the largest Muslim city in the world.572
The majority follow Sunni Islam, with a significant presence of Sufism, while Shia Muslims constitute a minority.573574 Shias represent between 5–25%.575576577 The Shia population in Pakistan was estimated at 42 million in 2019.578 As of 2012, 12% of Pakistani Muslims self-identify as non-denominational Muslims.579
The Ahmadis are a minority, officially considered non-Muslims.580581 Ahmadis face persecution, banned from calling themselves Muslims since 1974.582
Hinduism
Main article: Hinduism in Pakistan
Hinduism is the second-largest religion, followed by 2.17% of the population according to the census in 2023.583 Pakistan had the fifth-largest Hindu population globally in 2010.584 In 2023, Hindus numbered 5,217,216.585586 They reside across Pakistan but are concentrated in Sindh, where they make up 8.81% of the population.587 Umerkot district of the province is the only Hindu majority area. Tharparkar district hosts the largest Hindu population. Four districts – Umerkot, Tharparkar, Mirpurkhas, and Sanghar – have over half of Pakistan's Hindus.588
At Pakistan's inception, the 'hostage theory' suggested fair treatment of Hindus to safeguard Muslims in India.589590 However, some Pakistani Hindus felt marginalized, leading to emigration to India.591 They faced violence post the Babri Masjid demolition.592
Christianity and other religions
Main article: Christianity in Pakistan
Christians are the next largest religious minority after Hindus, constituting 1.37% of the population.593 They are concentrated in Lahore District (5%) and Islamabad Capital Territory (over 4%). Karachi hosts a historic Roman Catholic community established by Goan and Tamil migrants during British colonial rule.594
Following Christianity, the Bahá'í Faith had 30,000 followers in 2008, followed by Sikhism, Buddhism, and Zoroastrianism, each with around 20,000 adherents in 2008,595 alongside a small Jain community.
Education
Main article: Education in Pakistan
See also: Higher Education Commission (Pakistan) and Rankings of universities in Pakistan
Pakistan's constitution mandates free primary and secondary education,596 with public universities established in each province, including Punjab University, Sindh University, Peshawar University, Karachi University, and Balochistan University. The country's educational landscape encompasses both public and private universities, fostering collaboration to enhance research and higher education opportunities, albeit with concerns regarding teaching quality in newer institutions.597 Technical and vocational institutions in Pakistan number approximately 3,193,598 complemented by madrassahs providing free Islamic education to students,599 with government efforts to regulate and monitor their quality amidst concerns over extremists recruitment.600 Education is divided into six main levels, including nursery, primary, middle, matriculation, intermediate, and university programs.601 Additionally, private schools offer a parallel secondary education system based on the curriculum set by the Cambridge International Examinations,602 with 439 international schools reported in Pakistan.603
Initiatives since 2007 made English medium education mandatory nationwide. Following a 2012 attack on activist Malala Yousafzai by the Taliban, she became the youngest Nobel laureate for her education advocacy.604 Reforms in 2013 mandated Chinese language courses in Sindh, reflecting China's growing influence. As of 2018, Pakistan's literacy rate stands at 62.3%, with significant regional and gender disparities.605 Government initiatives, including computer literacy since 1995, aim to eradicate illiteracy, targeting 100% enrollment among primary school-age children and an ~86% literacy rate by 2015.606 Pakistan allocates 2.3% of its GDP to education,607 among the lowest in South Asia.608
Culture
Main articles: Culture of Pakistan, British heritage of Pakistan, and Public holidays in Pakistan
Civil society in Pakistan is hierarchical, emphasizing local cultural etiquette and traditional Islamic values. The primary family unit is the extended family, but there's a rising trend towards nuclear families due to socio-economic factors.609610 Both men and women typically wear Shalwar Kameez; men also favor trousers, jeans, and shirts.611 The middle class has grown to about 35 million, with another 17 million in the upper and upper-middle classes, leading to a shift in power from rural landowners to urban elites.612 Festivals like Eid ul-Fitr, Eid ul-Azha, Ramadan, Christmas, Easter, Holi, and Diwali are primarily religious.613 Pakistan ranked 56th on the 2006 A.T. Kearney/FP Globalization Index due to increasing globalization.614
Architecture
Main articles: Pakistani architecture and Hindu, Jain and Buddhist architectural heritage of Pakistan
Four periods define Pakistani architecture: pre-Islamic, Islamic, colonial, and post-colonial. The onset of the Indus civilization around the mid-3rd millennium BCE heralded an urban culture, evidenced by surviving large structures.615 Notable pre-Islamic settlements include Mohenjo-daro, Harappa, and Kot Diji.616 The fusion of Buddhism and Greek influences birthed a distinctive Greco-Buddhist style from the 1st century CE, exemplified by the renowned Gandhara style.617 Notable Buddhist architectural remnants include the Takht-i-Bahi monastery in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa.618
The advent of Islam in present-day Pakistan marked the cessation of Buddhist architecture, ushering in Islamic architecture. The notable Indo-Islamic structure, the tomb of Shah Rukn-i-Alam in Multan, remains significant. During the Mughal era, Persian-Islamic design merged with Hindustani art, seen in Lahore's architectural gems like the Badshahi Mosque and the Lahore Fort with the iconic Alamgiri Gate. Lahore also boasts the vibrant Wazir Khan Mosque,619 and the lush Shalimar Gardens. In the British colonial period, Indo-European buildings emerged, blending European and Indian-Islamic styles. Post-colonial identity shines through modern landmarks like the Faisal Mosque, Minar-e-Pakistan, and Mazar-e-Quaid. British architectural influence persists in structures across Lahore, Peshawar, and Karachi.620
Clothing, arts, and fashion
Main articles: Pakistani clothing, Shalwar kameez, Sherwani, Jinnah cap, Peshawari chappal, Pakol, and Sindhi topi
The Shalwar kameez is Pakistan's national dress, worn in all provinces: Punjab, Sindh, Balochistan, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, and Azad Kashmir. Each province has its own style. Pakistanis wear a variety of fabrics like silk, chiffon, and cotton. In addition to the national dress, men often wear domestically tailored suits and neckties, especially in offices, schools, and social gatherings.621
Pakistan's fashion industry has thrived, blending traditional and modern styles to create a unique cultural identity. Regional and traditional dress remain significant symbols of native tradition, evolving into both modern and purer forms. Organizations like the Pakistan Fashion Design Council in Lahore and the Fashion Pakistan Council in Karachi host events like PFDC Fashion Week and Fashion Pakistan Week. Pakistan's inaugural fashion week took place in November 2009.622
Literature and philosophy
Main articles: Literature of Pakistan, Urdu poetry, and Pakistani philosophy
Pakistan boasts literature in various languages including Urdu, Sindhi, Punjabi, Pashto, Baluchi, Persian, English, and more.623 The Pakistan Academy of Letters actively promotes literature and poetry both domestically and internationally.624 National Library contributes to literary dissemination. Historically, Pakistani literature consisted mainly of lyric, religious, and folkloric works, later diversifying under colonial influence into prose fiction, now widely embraced.625626
The national poet of Pakistan, Muhammad Iqbal, wrote influential poetry in Urdu and Persian, advocating for Islamic civilizational revival.627 Notable figures in contemporary Urdu literature include Josh Malihabadi, Faiz Ahmed Faiz, and Saadat Hasan Manto.628 Popular Sufi poets like Shah Abdul Latif and Bulleh Shah are revered.629 Mirza Kalich Beg is hailed as the father of modern Sindhi prose.630 Pakistani philosophy has been shaped by influences from British and American philosophy, with notable figures like M. M. Sharif contributing to its development.631 Post-1971, Marxist thought gained prominence in Pakistani philosophy through figures like Jalaludin Abdur Rahim.632
Media and entertainment
Main articles: Mass media in Pakistan, Cinema of Pakistan, Music of Pakistan, History of Pakistani pop music, Theatre of Pakistan, and Pakistani dramas
The private print media, state-owned Pakistan Television Corporation (PTV), and Pakistan Broadcasting Corporation (PBC) dominated media until the 21st century. Pakistan now boasts a vast network of domestic, privately owned 24-hour news media and television channels.633 Reporters Without Borders has indicated pressure faced by Pakistani reporters, particularly when reporting against the army or government.634 The BBC describes Pakistani media as "among the most outspoken in South Asia".635 Pakistani media has been instrumental in exposing corruption.636
The Lollywood, Punjabi, and Pashto film industry is centered in Karachi, Lahore, and Peshawar. Although Bollywood films were banned from public cinemas from 1965 to 2008, they remained influential in Pakistani popular culture.637 However, in 2019, the screening of Bollywood movies faced an indefinite ban.638 Despite challenges faced by the Pakistani film industry, Urdu televised dramas and theatrical performances remain popular, frequently broadcast by many entertainment media outlets.639 Urdu dramas dominate the television entertainment industry, renowned for their quality since the 1990s.640 Pakistani music encompasses diverse forms, from provincial folk music and traditional styles like Qawwali and Ghazal Gayaki to modern fusions of traditional and western music.641 Pakistan boasts numerous renowned folk singers, and the arrival of Afghan refugees in western provinces has sparked interest in Pashto music, despite occasional intolerance.642
Cuisine
Main article: Pakistani cuisine
Pakistani cuisine, rooted in the royal kitchens of 16th-century Mughal emperors, blends influences from British, Indian, Central Asian, and Middle Eastern culinary traditions.643 Unlike Middle Eastern fare, Pakistani dishes are heavily spiced with garlic, ginger, turmeric, chili, and garam masala. Roti, a wheat-based flatbread, accompanies most meals, alongside curry, meat, vegetables, and lentils. Rice is also common, served plain, spiced, or in sweet dishes.644645 Lassi, a traditional drink from the Punjab region, and black tea with milk and sugar are popular beverages enjoyed nationwide.646647 Sohan halwa, a beloved sweet dish from southern Punjab, is savored across Pakistan.648
Sports
Main article: Sport in Pakistan
Cricket is the most popular sport in Pakistan, followed by football. Field hockey is the national sport. Other sports like squash, polo, and traditional games are also enjoyed.
In cricket, Pakistan boasts victories in all major ICC tournaments, including the ICC Cricket World Cup, ICC World Twenty20, and ICC Champions Trophy. The Pakistan Super League ranks among the top T20 leagues globally.649650
In football, Pakistan established the Pakistan Football Federation soon after its creation, and it is known for producing FIFA World Cup balls.651652
In field hockey, Pakistan boasts four Hockey World Cup wins, eight Asian Games gold medals, and three Olympic gold medals. Squash player Jahangir Khan holds the record for the longest winning streak in professional sport history, winning 555 consecutive matches.653654 Pakistan has hosted various international events, including Cricket and Hockey World Cups and Asian Games.655
See also
- Pakistan portal
- Asia portal
Notes
Bibliography
See also: Bibliography of Pakistan
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Geography
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Government and politics
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- Ziegfeld, Adam (19 February 2016). Why Regional Parties?: Clientelism, Elites, and the Indian Party System. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-316-53900-2. Retrieved 21 July 2024.
- Zierke, Niklas; Stockmann, Reinhard; Meyer, Wolfgang, eds. (21 November 2023). The Institutionalisation of Evaluation in Asia-Pacific. Springer International Publishing. p. 274. ISBN 978-3-031-36918-6. Retrieved 8 July 2024.
- Zreik, Mohamad, ed. (2024). Soft Power and Diplomatic Strategies in Asia and the Middle East. IGI Global. p. 209. ISBN 979-8-3693-2445-5. Retrieved 18 August 2024.
Further reading
- Allchin, F. Raymond (1993). "The Urban Position of Taxila and Its Place in Northwest India-Pakistan". Studies in the History of Art. 31: 69–81. JSTOR 42620473.
- Lieven, Anatol (2012). Pakistan: A Hard Country. PublicAffairs. ISBN 978-1-61039-145-0.
- Malik, Hafeez (2006). The Encyclopedia of Pakistan. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-597735-6.
- Malik, Iftikhar (2005). Culture and Customs of Pakistan (Culture and Customs of Asia). Greenwood. ISBN 978-0-313-33126-8.
- McCartney, Matthew (2011). Pakistan: The Political Economy of Growth, Stagnation and the State, 1951–2009. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-57747-2.
- Raja, Masood Ashraf (2010). Constructing Pakistan: Foundational Texts and the Rise of Muslim National Identity. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-547811-2.
- Spear, Percival (2007). India, Pakistan and the West. Read Books Publishers. ISBN 978-1-4067-1215-5.
- Stimson, Robert; Haynes, Kingsley E. (1 January 2012). Studies in Applied Geography and Spatial Analysis: Addressing Real World Issues. Edward Elgar Publishing. ISBN 978-1-78100-796-9.
External links
Government
- Official website
- Press Information Department – Ministry of Information and Broadcasting
General information
- Pakistan. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.
- Pakistan from UCB Libraries GovPubs
- Pakistan from BBC News
- Wikimedia Atlas of Pakistan
- Key Development Forecasts for Pakistan from International Futures
- Geographic data related to Pakistan at OpenStreetMap
30°N 70°E / 30°N 70°E / 30; 70
References
Urdu: پَاکِسْتَان, Urdu pronunciation: [ˈpɑːkɪstɑːn] ⓘ; Pronounced variably in English as /ˈpækɪstæn/ ⓘ, /ˈpɑːkɪstɑːn/ ⓘ, /ˌpækɪˈstæn/, and /ˌpɑːkɪˈstɑːn/. /wiki/Urdu_language ↩
ISO: اِسْلامی جُمْہُورِیَہ پَاکِسْتَان, Islāmi Jumhūriyāh Pākistān /wiki/ISO_15919 ↩
"This figure does not include data for Pakistan-administered areas of Kashmir; Azad Kashmir and Gilgit-Baltistan, which, according to 2017 Pakistani census, had a population of 4,045,367 and 1,492,924 respectively." ↩
Wright (2009) "The Indus civilisation is one of three in the 'Ancient East' that, along with Mesopotamia and Pharaonic Egypt, was a cradle of early civilisation in the Old World (Childe, 1950). Mesopotamia and Egypt were longer lived, but coexisted with Indus civilisation during its florescence between 2600 and 1900 B.C. Of the three, the Indus was the most expansive, extending from today's northeast Afghanistan to Pakistan and India." - Wright, Rita P. (26 October 2009). The Ancient Indus: Urbanism, Economy, and Society. Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–2. ISBN 978-0-521-57219-4. Retrieved 30 April 2024. https://books.google.com/books?id=MG2ztAEACAAJ&pg=PA1 ↩
Badian 1987. - Badian, Ernst (1987). "Alexander at Peucelaotis". The Classical Quarterly. 37 (1): 117–128. doi:10.1017/S0009838800031712. JSTOR 639350. S2CID 246878679. https://www.jstor.org/stable/639350 ↩
Wynbrandt 2009. - Wynbrandt, James (2009). A Brief History of Pakistan. Infobase Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8160-6184-6. Retrieved 30 April 2024. https://archive.org/details/briefhistoryofpa0000wynb ↩
Spuler 1969. - Spuler, Bertold (1969). The Muslim World: a Historical Survey. Leiden, Netherlands: E.J. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-02104-4. Retrieved 30 April 2024. https://books.google.com/books?id=E2DGzwEACAAJ ↩
Copland (2001) "However, the real turning point for the new Muslim League came with the general election of December 1945 and January 1946. Despite facing a rejuvenated Congress, the League won four-fifths of all the Muslim-reserved seats ... The result left no one, not least the British, in doubt about where the locus of power within the Muslim community now lay ... In most respects, therefore, the League's success in the elections of 1945–46 can be interpreted as a clear Muslim mandate for Pakistan. (p 72)" - Copland, Ian (2001). India, 1885–1947: The Unmaking of an Empire. Seminar Studies in History. Longman. ISBN 978-0-582-38173-5. Retrieved 30 April 2024. https://books.google.com/books?id=Dw1uAAAAMAAJ ↩
Metcalf & Metcalf (2006) "The loss of life was immense, with estimates ranging from several hundred thousand up to a million. But, even for those who survived, fear generated a widespread perception that one could be safe only among members of one's own community; and this in turn helped consolidate loyalties towards the state, whether India or Pakistan, in which one might find a secure haven. This was especially important for Pakistan, where the succour it offered to Muslims gave that state for the first time a visible territorial reality. Fear too drove forward a mass migration unparalleled in the history of South Asia. ... Overall, partition uprooted some 12.5 million of undivided India's people." - Metcalf, Barbara D.; Metcalf, Thomas R. (2006). A Concise History of Modern India. Cambridge University Press. p. 221. ISBN 978-1-139-45887-0. Retrieved 30 April 2024. https://books.google.com/books?id=mjIfqyY7jlsC&pg=PA221 ↩
Talbot 2016. - Talbot, Ian (2016). A History of Modern South Asia: Politics, States, Diasporas. Yale University Press. pp. 227–240. ISBN 978-0-300-21659-2. Retrieved 30 April 2024. https://books.google.com/books?id=sXsmCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA227 ↩
Zia & Burton 2023. - Zia, Nadeem; Burton, Bruce (24 October 2023). Corporate Governance Challenges in Pakistan: Perceptions and Potential Routes Forward. De Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-077306-4. Retrieved 30 April 2024. https://books.google.com/books?id=1hzTEAAAQBAJ&pg=RA1-PA2002 ↩
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Coningham & Young (2015) "Mehrgarh remains one of the key sites in South Asia because it has provided the earliest known undisputed evidence for farming and pastoral communities in the region, and its plant and animal material provide clear evidence for the ongoing manipulation, and domestication, of certain species. Perhaps most importantly in a South Asian context, the role played by zebu makes this a distinctive, localised development, with a character completely different from other parts of the world. Finally, the longevity of the site, and its articulation with the neighbouring site of Nausharo (c. 2800—2000 BCE), provides a very clear continuity from South Asia's first farming villages to the emergence of its first cities (Jarrige, 1984)." - Coningham, Robin; Young, Ruth (31 August 2015). The Archaeology of South Asia: From the Indus to Asoka, c. 6500 BCE – 200 CE. Cambridge University Press. p. 138. ISBN 978-0-521-84697-4. Retrieved 30 April 2024. https://books.google.com/books?id=hB5TCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA138 ↩
Fisher (2018) "The earliest discovered instance in India of well-established, settled agricultural society is at Mehrgarh in the hills between the Bolan Pass and the Indus plain (today in Pakistan) (see Map 3.1). From as early as 7000 BCE, communities there started investing increased labor in preparing the land and selecting, planting, tending, and harvesting particular grain-producing plants. They also domesticated animals, including sheep, goats, pigs, and oxen (both humped zebu [Bos indicus] and unhumped [Bos taurus]). Castrating oxen, for instance, turned them from mainly meat sources into domesticated draft-animals as well." - Fisher, Michael H. (2018). An Environmental History of India: From Earliest Times to the Twenty-First Century. Cambridge University Press. p. 33. ISBN 978-1-107-11162-2. Retrieved 30 April 2024. https://books.google.com/books?id=kZVuDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA33 ↩
Dyson (2018) "The subcontinent's people were hunter-gatherers for many millennia. There were very few of them. Indeed, 10,000 years ago there may only have been a couple of hundred thousand people, living in small, often isolated groups, the descendants of various 'modern' human incomers. Then, perhaps linked to events in Mesopotamia, about 8,500 years ago agriculture emerged in Baluchistan." - Dyson, Tim (2018). A Population History of India: From the First Modern People to the Present Day. Oxford University Press. p. 29. ISBN 978-0-19-882905-8. Retrieved 30 April 2024. https://books.google.com/books?id=3TRtDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA29 ↩
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Vedic period: multiple sources: Ninan (2018) Parmar (2018) Consiglio (2015) Carmichael (2022) - Ninan, M M. (13 September 2018). Brahman: The Discovery of the God of Abraham. Lulu.com. p. 54. ISBN 978-0-359-08707-5. Retrieved 30 April 2024. https://books.google.com/books?id=H3ZvDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA54 ↩
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The precise time span of the period is uncertain. Philological and linguistic evidence indicates that the Rigveda, the oldest of the Vedas, was composed roughly between 1700 and 1100 BCE, also referred to as the early Vedic period. Oberlies gives an estimate of 1200–1100 BCE for the youngest hymns in book ten. Estimates for a terminus post quem of the earliest hymns are more uncertain. Other 'cumulative evidence' sets a wide range of 1700–1100. /wiki/Philology ↩
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Harjani 2018. - Harjani, Dayal N. (19 July 2018). Sindhi Roots & Rituals - Part 1. Notion Press. ISBN 978-1-64249-289-7. Retrieved 4 May 2024. https://books.google.com/books?id=J4ZlDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT244 ↩
Cook 1975. - Cook, Hugh C. B. (1975). The Sikh Wars: The British Army in the Punjab, 1845-1849. L. Cooper. ISBN 978-0-85052-164-1. Retrieved 4 May 2024. https://books.google.com/books?id=i0RuAAAAMAAJ ↩
Khan 2022, p. 119. - Khan, Asghar (23 August 2022). Mainstreaming the Tribal Areas (ex-FATA) of Pakistan Bordering Afghanistan: Challenges and Prospects. Springer Nature Singapore. pp. 114, 119. ISBN 978-981-19-1794-3. Retrieved 30 April 2024. https://books.google.com/books?id=irSEEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA114 ↩
Cavendish 2006, p. 365. - Cavendish, Marshall (September 2006). World and Its Peoples: Volume 1. Marshall Cavendish Corporation. ISBN 978-0-7614-7571-2. Retrieved 30 April 2024. https://books.google.com/books?id=j894miuOqc4C ↩
Law 1999. - Law, Gwillim (1999). Administrative Subdivisions of Countries: A Comprehensive World Reference, 1900 Through 1998. McFarland & Company. p. 276. ISBN 978-1-4766-0447-3. Retrieved 5 May 2024. https://books.google.com/books?id=nXCeCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA276 ↩
Hussain 2015. - Hussain, Shafqat (2015). Remoteness and Modernity: Transformation and Continuity in Northern Pakistan. Yale University Press. p. 112. ISBN 978-0-300-20555-8. Retrieved 4 May 2024. https://books.google.com/books?id=4PfOBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA112 ↩
Malleson 2016. - Malleson, George (8 November 2016). The Indian Mutiny Of 1857. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform. ISBN 978-1-5399-7981-4. Retrieved 5 May 2024. https://books.google.com/books?id=wi8gMQAACAAJ ↩
Holt & Curta 2016. - Holt, Andrew; Curta, Florin, eds. (28 November 2016). Great Events in Religion: An Encyclopedia of Pivotal Events in Religious History [3 Volumes]. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 979-8-216-09187-5. Retrieved 6 May 2024. https://books.google.com/books?id=ouTNEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT1339 ↩
Hali & Akhtar 1993. - Hali, Khvajah Altaf Husain; Akhtar, Saleem (1993). Ḥayāt-i jāved. Lāhore: Sang-i Mīl Publications. ISBN 978-969-35-0186-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=hV1DAAAACAAJ ↩
Wolpert (1984, p. 17) "Barrister Jinnah of Bombay remained as remote from such feelings, as out of tune with such reasoning, as he had been in London in 1893, when Sir Sayyid first spoke of Hindus and Muslims as "different nationalities."" - Wolpert, Stanley A. (1984). Jinnah of Pakistan. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-503412-7. Retrieved 2 May 2024. https://books.google.com/books?id=-OFtAAAAMAAJ ↩
Sengupta (2023) "Syed Ahmad Khan, the founder of the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College (which later became Aligarh Muslim University), had declared in a speech in Meerut what would become famous as the "two nation theory.""......"Is it possible that under these circumstances two nations — the Mahomedans and the Hindus — could sit on the same throne and remain equal in power? Most certainly not." - Sengupta, Hindol (December 2023). Soul and Sword: The Endless Battle Over Political Hinduism. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 53. ISBN 978-1-5381-2684-4. Retrieved 3 May 2024. https://books.google.com/books?id=RcT3EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA53 ↩
Holt & Curta 2016. - Holt, Andrew; Curta, Florin, eds. (28 November 2016). Great Events in Religion: An Encyclopedia of Pivotal Events in Religious History [3 Volumes]. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 979-8-216-09187-5. Retrieved 6 May 2024. https://books.google.com/books?id=ouTNEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT1339 ↩
Hardy (1972) "Much has been made' of the failure of Congress and the Muslim parties to agree over the Nehru Report and of the rejection of Jinnah's 'Fourteen Points' as a significant milestone along the way to the partition of India. A great opportunity was lost, it is thought, for the abandonment of separate electorates by voluntary Muslim agreement." - Hardy, Peter (7 December 1972). The Muslims of British India. Cambridge University Press. p. 213. ISBN 978-0-521-08488-8. Retrieved 6 May 2024. https://books.google.com/books?id=RDw4AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA213 ↩
Wuthnow (2013) "To satisfy Muslims' determination to have guaranteed rights in the future political system of India and to maintain territorial unity of the Indian state, by 1929 Jinnah produced the formula known as the Fourteen Points of Mr. Jinnah. The Fourteen Points included separate electorates for Muslims in the provinces of India, parity of electoral representation in the Punjab and Bengal, and electoral considerations for Muslims in those provinces in which they were a minority, although they would retain clear majority in the Northwest Frontier Province, Baluchistan, and Sind." - Wuthnow, Robert, ed. (4 December 2013). The Encyclopedia of Politics and Religion: 2-volume Set. Taylor & Francis. p. 427. ISBN 978-1-136-28493-9. Retrieved 6 May 2024. https://books.google.com/books?id=MOVJAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA427 ↩
Singh & Shani (2021) "Jinnah's famous 'fourteen points' as a condition for support for India's unity, with strong provinces within a weak Indian federation, marked the parting of ways between the Congress and the Muslim national leadership (Jalal 1994, 10–11). At the 1930 session of the All-Indian Muslim Conference, Sir Mohammed Iqbal proposed a Muslim homeland that would serve 'as a symbolic cultural expression of the common striving of Muslim fulfilment – a political manifestation of a common mission' (Gilmartin 1988, 167). The idea of self-determination for India's Muslims was constructed mainly in fear of the majoritarian 'secular' (Hindu) nationalism of the Congress." - Singh, Gurharpal; Shani, Giorgio (25 November 2021). Sikh Nationalism. Cambridge University Press. p. 75. ISBN 978-1-009-21344-8. Retrieved 23 May 2024. https://books.google.com/books?id=IctVEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA75 ↩
Singh & Shani (2021) "Jinnah's famous 'fourteen points' as a condition for support for India's unity, with strong provinces within a weak Indian federation, marked the parting of ways between the Congress and the Muslim national leadership (Jalal 1994, 10–11). At the 1930 session of the All-Indian Muslim Conference, Sir Mohammed Iqbal proposed a Muslim homeland that would serve 'as a symbolic cultural expression of the common striving of Muslim fulfilment – a political manifestation of a common mission' (Gilmartin 1988, 167). The idea of self-determination for India's Muslims was constructed mainly in fear of the majoritarian 'secular' (Hindu) nationalism of the Congress." - Singh, Gurharpal; Shani, Giorgio (25 November 2021). Sikh Nationalism. Cambridge University Press. p. 75. ISBN 978-1-009-21344-8. Retrieved 23 May 2024. https://books.google.com/books?id=IctVEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA75 ↩
Iqbal (two-nation theory): multiple sources: N. Khan (2012) Basu & Miroshnik (2023) "Mohammed Iqbal was credited with coming up with the two-nation theory in his speech at Allahabad in 1930 to the Muslim League in a very formal way by saying: "I would like to see the Punjab, North-West Frontier Province, Sind, and Baluchistan amalgamated into a single State. Self-government within the British Empire or without the British Empire, the formation of a consolidated North-West Indian Moslem State appears to me to be the final destiny of the Moslems, at least of NorthWest India" (Zaidi, 1993; Ahmed, 1970)." Hussain (2018) "After repeated demands for stronger constitutional safeguards to protect the rights of minorities, Iqbal eventually opted for a separate Islamic Republic instead. As opposed to putting the free and rational individual at the centre of his democratic theory, Iqbal’s republic primarily required Muslims endowed with a specific character and smelted together by a peculiar vision of individuality. Like a number of his contemporaries, Iqbal warmed up to the two nation-theory. Unlike the mainstream view, however, which read an eternal struggle of Hindus and Muslims back into Indian history, Iqbal’s concept of the Muslim nation was something to be striven towards, not something to be replanted from the past. Iqbal believed that the best way to actualize this national sentiment in the present, was through individual political action." - Khan, Naveeda (22 May 2012). Muslim Becoming: Aspiration and Skepticism in Pakistan. Duke University Press. p. 58. ISBN 978-0-8223-5231-0. Retrieved 6 May 2024. https://books.google.com/books?id=cevbpt3SQqQC&pg=PA58 ↩
Pandeya 2003. - Pandeya, Visva Mohana (2003). Historiography of India's Partition: An Analysis of Imperialist Writings. Atlantic Publishers & Distributors. p. 37. ISBN 978-81-269-0314-6. Retrieved 7 May 2024. https://books.google.com/books?id=Vu2lu-ZI-vQC&pg=PA37 ↩
Basu & Miroshnik 2017. - Basu, Dipak; Miroshnik, Victoria (16 August 2017). India as an Organization: Volume One: A Strategic Risk Analysis of Ideals, Heritage and Vision · Volume 1. Springer International Publishing. p. 158. ISBN 978-3-319-53371-1. Retrieved 7 May 2024. https://books.google.com/books?id=lhUwDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA158 ↩
M. H. Khan 2016. - Khan, M. H. (September 2016). Memoir of M. H. Khan: Turbulence in the Indian Subcontinent. Mereo Books. p. 17. ISBN 978-1-86151-569-8. Retrieved 7 May 2024. https://books.google.com/books?id=Dp-QDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA17 ↩
Tucker (2020) "Gandhi's decision played directly into the hands of Jinnah. Jinnah's Muslim League strongly supported the Allied war effort and thereby greatly advanced the possibility of the creation of a separate Muslim state in the Indian subcontinent after the war." - Tucker, Spencer C. (2020). The Cold War [5 volumes]: The Definitive Encyclopedia and Document Collection [5 volumes]. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 1567. ISBN 979-8-216-06249-3. Retrieved 7 May 2024. https://books.google.com/books?id=vZX3EAAAQBAJ&pg=PT1567 ↩
Chandra 2008. - Chandra, Anjana Motihar (15 July 2008). India Condensed. Marshall Cavendish. p. 71. ISBN 978-981-261-975-4. Retrieved 7 May 2024. https://books.google.com/books?id=b7-IAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA71 ↩
Mohiuddin (2007, p. 70) "In the elections of 1946, the Muslim League won 90 percent of the legislative seats reserved for Muslims. It was the power of the big zamindars in Punjab and Sindh behind the Muslim League candidates that led to this massive landslide victory (Alavi 2002, 14). Even Congress, which had always denied the League's claim to be the only true representative of Indian Muslims had to concede the truth of that claim. The 1946 election was, in effect, a plebiscite among Muslims on Pakistan." - Mohiuddin, Yasmin Niaz (2007). Pakistan: A Global Studies Handbook. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-85109-801-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=OTMy0B9OZjAC ↩
Hoodbhoy 2023. - Hoodbhoy, Pervez (2023). Pakistan: Origins, Identity and Future. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-000-85667-5. Retrieved 30 April 2024. https://books.google.com/books?id=MgSqEAAAQBAJ ↩
Mohiuddin (2007, p. 71) "Despite the League's victory in the elections, the British did not want the partition of British India. As a last attempt to avoid it, Britain put forward the Cabinet Mission Plan, according to which India would become a federation of three large, self-governing provinces and the central government would be limited to power over foreign policy and defense, implying a weak center." - Mohiuddin, Yasmin Niaz (2007). Pakistan: A Global Studies Handbook. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-85109-801-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=OTMy0B9OZjAC ↩
Wolpert 1984, p. 309. - Wolpert, Stanley A. (1984). Jinnah of Pakistan. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-503412-7. Retrieved 2 May 2024. https://books.google.com/books?id=-OFtAAAAMAAJ ↩
Markovits 2012. - Markovits, Claude, ed. (2012). History of Modern India. Orient Blackswan. p. 350. ISBN 978-1-316-16517-1. Retrieved 8 May 2024. https://books.google.com/books?id=AybHBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA350 ↩
Wolpert 1984, pp. 328–329. - Wolpert, Stanley A. (1984). Jinnah of Pakistan. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-503412-7. Retrieved 2 May 2024. https://books.google.com/books?id=-OFtAAAAMAAJ ↩
Wolpert 1984, pp. 328–329. - Wolpert, Stanley A. (1984). Jinnah of Pakistan. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-503412-7. Retrieved 2 May 2024. https://books.google.com/books?id=-OFtAAAAMAAJ ↩
Hasanie 2013. - Hasanie, Ali Abbas (30 April 2013). Democracy in Pakistan: Crises, Conflicts and Hope for a Change. AuthorHouse UK. p. 1. ISBN 978-1-4817-9113-7. Retrieved 8 May 2024. https://books.google.com/books?id=DitBIy05_94C&pg=PA1 ↩
Akbarzadeh 2020. - Akbarzadeh, Shahram, ed. (29 December 2020). Routledge Handbook of Political Islam. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-429-75717-4. Retrieved 8 May 2024. https://books.google.com/books?id=bpoMEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT378 ↩
Cohen 2004, p. 6. - Cohen, Stephen Philip (2004). The idea of Pakistan (1st pbk. ed.). Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press. ISBN 978-0-8157-9761-6. Retrieved 8 May 2024. https://archive.org/details/ideaofpakistan00cohe ↩
Casualties/Genocide: multiple sources: Sikand (2004) Butalia (2000) Isaacs (1975) "2,000,000 killed in the Hindu-Muslim holocaust during the partition of British-India and the creation of India and Pakistan" Basrur (2008) "An estimated 12–15 million people were displaced, and some 2 million died. The legacy of Partition (never without a capital P) remains strong today ..." D'Costa (2011) "Estimates of the dead vary from 200,000 (the contemporary British figure) to 2 million (a subsequent Indian speculation). Today, however, it is widely accepted that nearly a million people died during Partition (Butalia, 1997)." Brass (2003) "In the event, largely but not exclusively as a consequence of their efforts, the entire Muslim population of the eastern Punjab districts migrated to West Punjab and the entire Sikh and Hindu populations moved to East Punjab in the midst of widespread intimidation, terror, violence, abduction, rape, and murder." - Sikand, Yoginder (2004). Muslims in India Since 1947: Islamic Perspectives on Inter-Faith Relations. Routledge. p. 5. ISBN 978-1-134-37825-8. Retrieved 9 May 2024. https://books.google.com/books?id=yf5aJi2loLcC&pg=PA5 ↩
Rape figures: multiple sources: Visweswaran (2011) Daiya (2011) "The official estimate of the number of abducted women during Partition was placed at 33,000 non-Muslim (Hindu or Sikh predominantly) women in Pakistan, and 50,000 Muslim women in India." Abraham (2002) "In addition thousands of women on both sides of the newly formed borders (estimated range from 29,000 to 50,000 Muslim women and 15,000 to 35,000 Hindu and Sikh women) were abducted, raped, forced to convert, forced into marriage, forced back into what the two States defined as 'their proper homes', torn apart from their families once during partition by those who abducted them, and again, after partition, by the State which tried to 'recover' and 'rehabilitate' them." Singh, Iyer & Gairola (2016) "The horrific statistics that surround women refugees-between 75,000–100,000 Hindu, Muslim and Sikh women who were abducted by men of the other communities, subjected to multiple rapes, mutilations, and, for some, forced marriages and conversions-is matched by the treatment of the abducted women in the hands of the nation-state. In the Constituent Assembly in 1949 it was recorded that of the 50,000 Muslim women abducted in India, 8,000 of then were recovered, and of the 33,000 Hindu and Sikh women abducted, 12,000 were recovered." - Visweswaran, Kamala, ed. (6 May 2011). Perspectives on Modern South Asia: A Reader in Culture, History, and Representation. Wiley. p. 125. ISBN 978-1-4051-0062-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=m-EYXNnvMugC&pg=PA125 ↩
Hasan & Raza (2009, p. 12) "When the British Indian Empire was partitioned in 1947, 4.7 million Sikhs and Hindus left what is today Pakistan for India, and 6.5 million Muslims migrated from India to Pakistan." - Hasan, Arif; Raza, Mansoor (2009). Migration and Small Towns in Pakistan. Human Settlements Programme, International Institute for Environment and Development. pp. 10–12. ISBN 978-1-84369-734-3. Retrieved 13 November 2024. https://books.google.com/books?id=U7imPH4KVJUC&pg=PA10 ↩
Riggs 2024. - Riggs, Erin P. (2024). A Contemporary Archaeology of Post-Displacement Resettlement: Delhi's 1947 Partition Refugee Homescapes. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-003-24714-2. Retrieved 10 May 2024. https://books.google.com/books?id=qZ1Z0AEACAAJ ↩
Bhaumik 1996. - Bhaumik, Subir (1996). Insurgent Crossfire: North-East India. Lancer Publishers. p. 6. ISBN 978-1-897829-12-7. Retrieved 12 May 2024. https://books.google.com/books?id=iftjFki3fhYC&pg=PA6 ↩
Tucker 2017. - Tucker, Spencer C. (17 April 2017). Modern Conflict in the Greater Middle East: A Country-by-Country Guide. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 241. ISBN 979-8-216-11844-2. Retrieved 13 May 2024. https://books.google.com/books?id=_QPHEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT241 ↩
Akbar 2018. - Akbar, M. J. (8 February 2018). India: The Siege Within. Roli Books. ISBN 978-81-936009-7-9. Retrieved 26 May 2024. https://books.google.com/books?id=qaohEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT55 ↩
Kazmi 2003. - Kazmi, Muhammad Raza (2003). Liaquat Ali Khan: His Life and Work. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-579788-6. Retrieved 13 May 2024. https://books.google.com/books?id=xBduAAAAMAAJ ↩
Tucker 2017. - Tucker, Spencer C. (17 April 2017). Modern Conflict in the Greater Middle East: A Country-by-Country Guide. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 241. ISBN 979-8-216-11844-2. Retrieved 13 May 2024. https://books.google.com/books?id=_QPHEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT241 ↩
Kumarasingham (2013) "Few today, including those who work on the subcontinent, recollect that India, Pakistan and Sri Lanka did not become republics the day British rule ended. Even distinguished scholars of Empire like Perry Anderson and A. G. Hopkins have made the common assumption that India naturally became a republic upon independence on 15 August 1947. Instead, all three of these South Asian states began their independent life as Realms within the British Commonwealth and mirrored the style and institutions of the Dominions of Canada, Australia, South Africa and New Zealand. Though their sovereignty was in no way impaired by this seemingly ambiguous position they all held the British sovereign as their head of state who was represented in each capital by a governor- general appointed on the advice of the local prime minister. India, Pakistan and Ceylon were Realms from 1947 to 1950, 1947 to 1956 and 1948 to 1972 respectively." - Kumarasingham, Harshan (2013). "The 'Tropical Dominions': The Appeal of Dominion Status in the Decolonisation of India, Pakistan, and Ceylon, vol. 23". Transactions of the Royal Historical Society. 23. Cambridge University Press: 223–245. doi:10.1017/S0080440113000108. JSTOR 23726109. https://www.jstor.org/stable/23726109 ↩
McGrath (1996) "Undivided India, their magnificent imperial trophy, was besmirched by the creation of Pakistan, and the division of India was never emotionally accepted by many British leaders, Mountbatten among them." - McGrath, Allen (1996). The Destruction of Pakistan's Democracy. Oxford University Press. p. 38. ISBN 978-0-19-577583-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=a0FuAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA38 ↩
Ahmed (1997) "Mountbatten's partiality was apparent in his own statements. He tilted openly and heavily towards Congress. While doing so he clearly expressed his lack of support and faith in the Muslim League and its Pakistan idea." - Ahmed, Akbar S. (1997). Jinnah, Pakistan and Islamic Identity: The Search for Saladin. Psychology Press. p. 136. ISBN 978-0-415-14966-2. Retrieved 13 May 2024. https://books.google.com/books?id=YGdiqF6V8wYC&pg=PA136 ↩
Wolpert (2009) "Mountbatten tried to convince Jinnah of the value of accepting him, Mountbatten, as Pakistan's first governor-general, but Jinnah refused to be moved from his determination to take that job himself." - Wolpert, Stanley A. (2009). Shameful Flight: The Last Years of the British Empire in India. Oxford University Press. p. 163. ISBN 978-0-19-974504-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=uJHTif-WA6oC&pg=PA163 ↩
Lapierre & Collins (2015) "Not only was I not aware, but nobody was aware. Nobody had a clue. I'm glad I didn't because I just don't know what I would have done if I'd known that. You see, Jinnah was so much of a one-man band. If somebody had told me he's going to be dead in x months would I then -I am asking myself this question now-would I have said, Let's hold India together and not divide it? Would I have put back the clock, and held the position? Most probably. I have a feeling Jinnah may not have known himself he had tuberculosis. He was a very severe, cold and repressed person. Nothing would have surprised me about him. He was an extraordinary creature." - Lapierre, Dominique; Collins, Larry, eds. (2015). Mountbatten and the Partition of India. Wide Canvas. p. 57. ISBN 978-93-259-8601-5. Retrieved 13 May 2024. https://books.google.com/books?id=kxjdjgEACAAJ ↩
Hussain (2008) "Mawlānā Shabbīr Ahmad Usmānī, a respected Deobandī ʿālim (scholar) who was appointed to the prestigious position of Shaykh al-Islām of Pakistan in 1949, was the first to demand that Pakistan become an Islamic state. But Mawdūdī and his Jamāʿat-i Islāmī played the central part in the demand for an Islamic constitution. Mawdūdī demanded that the Constituent Assembly make an unequivocal declaration affirming the "supreme sovereignty of God" and the supremacy of the sharīʿah as the basic law of Pakistan." - Hussain, Rizwan (2008). "Pakistan". The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World. Archived from the original on 21 November 2008. https://web.archive.org/web/20081121052313/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t236/e0616 ↩
Hussain (2008) "The first important result of the combined efforts of the Jamāʿat-i Islāmī and the ʿulamāʿ was the passage of the Objectives Resolution in March 1949, whose formulation reflected compromise between traditionalists and modernists. The resolution embodied "the main principles on which the constitution of Pakistan is to be based". It declared that "sovereignty over the entire universe belongs to God Almighty alone and the authority which He has delegated to the State of Pakistan through its people for being exercised within the limits prescribed by Him is a sacred trust", that "the principles of democracy, freedom, equality, tolerance and social justice, as enunciated by Islam shall be fully observed", and that "the Muslims shall be enabled to order their lives in the individual and collective spheres in accord with the teaching and requirements of Islam as set out in the Holy Qurʿan and Sunna". The Objectives Resolution has been reproduced as a preamble to the constitutions of 1956, 1962, and 1973." - Hussain, Rizwan (2008). "Pakistan". The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World. Archived from the original on 21 November 2008. https://web.archive.org/web/20081121052313/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t236/e0616 ↩
Wynbrandt 2009, p. 190–197. - Wynbrandt, James (2009). A Brief History of Pakistan. Infobase Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8160-6184-6. Retrieved 30 April 2024. https://archive.org/details/briefhistoryofpa0000wynb ↩
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Kathpalia 1986. - Kathpalia, Pran Nath (1986). Mission with a Difference: The Exploits of 71 Mountain Brigade. Lancer International. p. 17. ISBN 978-81-7062-069-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=c_MMAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA17 ↩
Koumar 2023. - Koumar, Shaupaun (16 January 2023). Naturocracy. Zorba Books. ISBN 978-93-952172-0-0. Retrieved 15 May 2024. https://books.google.com/books?id=haSnEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT118 ↩
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Bose 2005. - Bose, Sarmila (2005). "Anatomy of Violence: Analysis of Civil War in East Pakistan in 1971". Economic and Political Weekly. 40 (41): 4463–4471. ISSN 2349-8846. JSTOR 4417267. https://www.jstor.org/stable/4417267 ↩
Sunkara, Walter & Rojas 2024. - Sunkara, Bhaskar; Walter, Jonah; Rojas, René, eds. (17 January 2024). The Good Die Young: The Verdict on Henry Kissinger. Verso Books. p. 113. ISBN 978-1-78873-030-3. Retrieved 15 May 2024. https://books.google.com/books?id=K9DmEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA113 ↩
Hiro 2015. - Hiro, Dilip (2015). The Longest August: The Unflinching Rivalry Between India and Pakistan. Nation Books. p. 216. ISBN 978-1-56858-503-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=PpPCBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA216 ↩
Rummel 1998. - Rummel, Rudolph J. (1998). Statistics of Democide: Genocide and Mass Murder Since 1900. LIT Verlag. p. 153. ISBN 978-3-8258-4010-5. Retrieved 16 May 2024. https://books.google.com/books?id=LFDWp7O9_dIC&pg=PA153 ↩
Beachler 2011. - Beachler, Donald W. (14 August 2011). The Genocide Debate: Politicians, Academics, and Victims. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 16. ISBN 978-0-230-33763-3. Retrieved 16 May 2024. https://books.google.com/books?id=gStdAQAAQBAJ&pg=PT31 ↩
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Agha 2021. - Agha, Karrar Ali (8 May 2021). Fall of East Pakistan: The Forgotten War: Forgotten Yet Never Forgiven. Amazon Digital Services LLC – KDP Print US. ISBN 978-969-23257-0-7. Retrieved 16 May 2024. https://books.google.com/books?id=WbNrzgEACAAJ ↩
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Oldenburg 2010. - Oldenburg, Philip (13 September 2010). India, Pakistan, and Democracy: Solving the Puzzle of Divergent Paths. Taylor & Francis. p. 226. ISBN 978-1-136-93930-3. Retrieved 17 May 2024. https://books.google.com/books?id=oLsuCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA226 ↩
Fitzpatrick 2007. - Fitzpatrick, Mark (2007). Nuclear Black Markets: Pakistan, A.Q. Khan and the Rise of Proliferation Networks : a Net Assessment. International Institute for Strategic Studies. pp. 115–116. ISBN 978-0-86079-201-7. Retrieved 17 May 2024. https://books.google.com/books?id=PbLddoNkxi4C&pg=PA115 ↩
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Dhulipala (2015, p. 496) "The idea of Pakistan may have had its share of ambiguities, but its dismissal as a vague emotive symbol hardly illuminates the reasons as to why it received such overwhelmingly popular support among Indian Muslims, especially those in the 'minority provinces' of British India such as U.P." - Dhulipala, Venkat (2015). Creating a New Medina: State Power, Islam, and the Quest for Pakistan in Late Colonial North India. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-316-25838-5. Retrieved 15 July 2024. https://books.google.com/books?id=PrqLBgAAQBAJ ↩
Dhulipala (2015, p. 497) "As the book has demonstrated, local ML functionaries, (U.P.) ML leadership, Muslim modernists at Aligarh, the ulama and even Jinnah at times articulated their vision of Pakistan in terms of an Islamic state." - Dhulipala, Venkat (2015). Creating a New Medina: State Power, Islam, and the Quest for Pakistan in Late Colonial North India. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-316-25838-5. Retrieved 15 July 2024. https://books.google.com/books?id=PrqLBgAAQBAJ ↩
Dhulipala (2015, p. 489) "But what is undeniable is the close association he developed with the ulama, for when he died a little over a year after Pakistan was born, Maulana Shabbir Ahmad Usmani, in his funeral oration, described Jinnah as the greatest Muslim after the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb."……"Similarly, Usmani asked Pakistanis to remember the Qaid's ceaseless message of Unity, Faith and Discipline and work to fulfil his dream to create a solid bloc of all Muslim states from Karachi to Ankara, from Pakistan to Morocco. He [Jinnah] wanted to see the Muslims of the world united under the banner of Islam as an effective check against the aggressive designs of their enemies." - Dhulipala, Venkat (2015). Creating a New Medina: State Power, Islam, and the Quest for Pakistan in Late Colonial North India. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-316-25838-5. Retrieved 15 July 2024. https://books.google.com/books?id=PrqLBgAAQBAJ ↩
Hussain (2008) "The first important result of the combined efforts of the Jamāʿat-i Islāmī and the ʿulamāʿ was the passage of the Objectives Resolution in March 1949, whose formulation reflected compromise between traditionalists and modernists. The resolution embodied "the main principles on which the constitution of Pakistan is to be based". It declared that "sovereignty over the entire universe belongs to God Almighty alone and the authority which He has delegated to the State of Pakistan through its people for being exercised within the limits prescribed by Him is a sacred trust", that "the principles of democracy, freedom, equality, tolerance and social justice, as enunciated by Islam shall be fully observed", and that "the Muslims shall be enabled to order their lives in the individual and collective spheres in accord with the teaching and requirements of Islam as set out in the Holy Qurʿan and Sunna". The Objectives Resolution has been reproduced as a preamble to the constitutions of 1956, 1962, and 1973." - Hussain, Rizwan (2008). "Pakistan". The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World. Archived from the original on 21 November 2008. https://web.archive.org/web/20081121052313/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t236/e0616 ↩
Haqqani (2010, p. 16) "The first formal step toward transforming Pakistan into an Islamic ideological state was taken in March 1949 when the country's first prime minister, Liaquat Ali Khan, presented the Objectives Resolution in the constituent assembly." - Haqqani, Husain (2010). Pakistan: Between Mosque and Military. Carnegie Endowment. ISBN 978-0-87003-285-1. Retrieved 18 July 2024. https://books.google.com/books?id=nYppZ_dEjdIC ↩
Dhulipala (2015, p. 491) "Khaliq drew a sharp distinction between this Islamic state and a Muslim state. He claimed that as of now Pakistan was only a Muslim state in view of the majority of its population being Muslim, and indeed could never be an Islamic state by itself. It could certainly fulfill its promise and destiny by bringing together all the believers of Islam into one political unit and it is only then that an Islamic state would be achieved." - Dhulipala, Venkat (2015). Creating a New Medina: State Power, Islam, and the Quest for Pakistan in Late Colonial North India. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-316-25838-5. Retrieved 15 July 2024. https://books.google.com/books?id=PrqLBgAAQBAJ ↩
Haqqani (2010, p. 18) "One of the earliest Western scholars of Pakistani politics, Keith Callard, observed that Pakistanis seemed to believe in the essential unity of purpose and outlook in the Muslim world: Pakistan was founded to advance the cause of Muslims. Other Muslims might have been expected to be sympathetic, even enthusiastic. But this assumed that other Muslim states would take the same view of the relation between religion and nationality." - Haqqani, Husain (2010). Pakistan: Between Mosque and Military. Carnegie Endowment. ISBN 978-0-87003-285-1. Retrieved 18 July 2024. https://books.google.com/books?id=nYppZ_dEjdIC ↩
Haqqani (2010, p. 18) "Pakistan's pan-Islamic aspirations, however, were neither shared nor supported by the Muslim governments of the time. Nationalism in other parts of the Muslim world was based on ethnicity, language, or territory." - Haqqani, Husain (2010). Pakistan: Between Mosque and Military. Carnegie Endowment. ISBN 978-0-87003-285-1. Retrieved 18 July 2024. https://books.google.com/books?id=nYppZ_dEjdIC ↩
Haqqani (2010, p. 19) "Although Muslim governments were initially unsympathetic to Pakistan's pan-Islamic aspirations, Islamists from the world over were drawn to Pakistan. Controversial figures such as the pro-Nazi former grand mufti of Palestine, Al-Haj Amin al-Husseini, and leaders of Islamist political movements like the Arab Muslim Brotherhood became frequent visitors to the country." - Haqqani, Husain (2010). Pakistan: Between Mosque and Military. Carnegie Endowment. ISBN 978-0-87003-285-1. Retrieved 18 July 2024. https://books.google.com/books?id=nYppZ_dEjdIC ↩
Haqqani 2010, p. 19. - Haqqani, Husain (2010). Pakistan: Between Mosque and Military. Carnegie Endowment. ISBN 978-0-87003-285-1. Retrieved 18 July 2024. https://books.google.com/books?id=nYppZ_dEjdIC ↩
Cochrane (2009) "The social scientist, Nasim Ahmad Jawed has conducted a survey of nationalism in pre-divided Pakistan and identifies the links between religion, politics and nationalism in both wings of Pakistan. His findings are fascinating and go some way to explain the differing attitudes of West and East Pakistan to the relationship between Islam and Pakistani nationalism and how this affected the views of people in both wings, especially the views of the peoples of both wings towards each other. In 1969, Jawed conducted a survey on the type of national identity that was used by educated professional people. He found that just over 60% in the East wing professed to have a secular national identity. However, in the West wing, the same figure professed an Islamic and not a secular identity. Furthermore, the same figure in the East wing described their identity in terms of their ethnicity and not in terms of Islam. He found that the opposite was the case in the West wing where Islam was stated to be more important than ethnicity." - Cochrane, Iain (29 December 2009). The Causes of the Bangladesh War. Lulu.com. ISBN 978-1-4452-4043-5. Retrieved 19 July 2024. https://books.google.com/books?id=X2_FAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT37 ↩
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Diamantides & Gearey (2011, p. 196) "The Constitution of 1973 was created by a parliament that was elected in the 1970 elections. In this first ever general elections ..." - Diamantides, Marinos; Gearey, Adam, eds. (8 August 2011). Islam, Law and Identity. Routledge. pp. 196–198. ISBN 978-1-136-67565-2. Retrieved 20 July 2024. https://books.google.com/books?id=WG-pAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA196 ↩
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Diamantides & Gearey (2011, p. 198) "The 1973 constitution also created certain institutions to channel the application and interpretation of Islam: the Council of Islamic Ideology and the Shariat Court." - Diamantides, Marinos; Gearey, Adam, eds. (8 August 2011). Islam, Law and Identity. Routledge. pp. 196–198. ISBN 978-1-136-67565-2. Retrieved 20 July 2024. https://books.google.com/books?id=WG-pAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA196 ↩
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Diamantides & Gearey (2011, p. 198) "The Shariat judicial courts were not present in the original Constitution of 1973 and were later inserted in 1979 by General Zia-ul Haq ..." - Diamantides, Marinos; Gearey, Adam, eds. (8 August 2011). Islam, Law and Identity. Routledge. pp. 196–198. ISBN 978-1-136-67565-2. Retrieved 20 July 2024. https://books.google.com/books?id=WG-pAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA196 ↩
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Wynbrandt (2009, pp. 216–217) "Zia, however, tried to bolster the influence of Islamic parties and the ulama on government and society." - Wynbrandt, James (2009). A Brief History of Pakistan. Infobase Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8160-6184-6. Retrieved 30 April 2024. https://archive.org/details/briefhistoryofpa0000wynb ↩
Syed et al. (2016, p. 379) "... the military dictator Zia ul Haq (1977–1988) forged a strong alliance between the military and Deobani institutions and movements (e.g. the TJ)." - Syed, Jawad; Pio, Edwina; Kamran, Tahir; Zaidi, Abbas, eds. (2016). Faith-Based Violence and Deobandi Militancy in Pakistan. Springer Publishing. ISBN 978-1-349-94966-3. Retrieved 21 July 2024. https://books.google.com/books?id=0Mx5DQAAQBAJ ↩
Syed et al. (2016, p. 346) "The grave impact of that legacy was compunded by the Iranian Revolution, and Zia-ul Haq's anti-Shia policies, which added the violence and regimentation of the organization." - Syed, Jawad; Pio, Edwina; Kamran, Tahir; Zaidi, Abbas, eds. (2016). Faith-Based Violence and Deobandi Militancy in Pakistan. Springer Publishing. ISBN 978-1-349-94966-3. Retrieved 21 July 2024. https://books.google.com/books?id=0Mx5DQAAQBAJ ↩
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Clary 2022. - Clary, Christopher (31 October 2022). "Russia–Pakistan Relations and the Constraints of Geoeconomics". Asian Survey. 62 (5–6). University of California Press: 838–865. doi:10.1525/as.2022.1801312. ISSN 0004-4687. Retrieved 7 August 2024. https://online.ucpress.edu/as/article/62/5-6/838/194531/Russia-Pakistan-Relations-and-the-Constraints-of ↩
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Afridi & Bajoria 2010. - Afridi, Jamal; Bajoria, Jayshree (6 July 2010). "China-Pakistan Relations". Council on Foreign Relations. Retrieved 14 August 2024. https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/china-pakistan-relations ↩
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Afridi & Bajoria 2010. - Afridi, Jamal; Bajoria, Jayshree (6 July 2010). "China-Pakistan Relations". Council on Foreign Relations. Retrieved 14 August 2024. https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/china-pakistan-relations ↩
Raju 2021. - Raju, Adluri Subramanyam, ed. (5 October 2021). South Asia and China: Engagement in the Twenty-First Century. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-000-45953-1. Retrieved 17 August 2024. https://books.google.com/books?id=y1dBEAAAQBAJ&pg=RA2-PA30 ↩
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Dorsey 2018."The countries where homosexuality is still illegal". The Week. 12 June 2019. Archived from the original on 28 November 2019. Retrieved 22 November 2019.- "Home Office refused thousands of LGBT asylum claims, figures reveal". The Guardian. 2 September 2019. - Dorsey, James M. (19 July 2018). China and the Middle East: Venturing Into the Maelstrom. Springer International Publishing. p. 180. ISBN 978-3-319-64355-7. Retrieved 19 August 2024. https://books.google.com/books?id=csRlDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA180 ↩
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Pasha (2005, p. 225) "Pakistan's expression of solidarity was followed, after Independence, by a vigorous pursuit of bilateral relations with Muslim countries like Iran and Turkey." - Pasha, Sayed Abdul Muneem (2005). Islam in Pakistan's Foreign Policy. Global Media Publications. pp. 225–226. ISBN 978-81-88869-15-2. Retrieved 20 August 2024. https://books.google.com/books?id=FjJuAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA225 ↩
Pasha (2005, p. 226) "Following Khaliquzzaman, the Ali brothers had sought to project Pakistan, with its comparatively larger manpower and military strength, as the natural leader of the Islamic world." - Pasha, Sayed Abdul Muneem (2005). Islam in Pakistan's Foreign Policy. Global Media Publications. pp. 225–226. ISBN 978-81-88869-15-2. Retrieved 20 August 2024. https://books.google.com/books?id=FjJuAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA225 ↩
Dhulipala (2015, p. 18) "As a top ranking ML leader Khaliquzzaman declared, 'Pakistan would bring all Muslim countries together into Islamistan – a pan-Islamic entity'." - Dhulipala, Venkat (2015). Creating a New Medina: State Power, Islam, and the Quest for Pakistan in Late Colonial North India. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-316-25838-5. Retrieved 15 July 2024. https://books.google.com/books?id=PrqLBgAAQBAJ ↩
Haqqani (2013, pp. 20–21) "Within a few years the president of the Muslim League, Chaudhry Khaliq-uz-Zaman, announced that Pakistan would bring all Muslim countries together into Islamistan – a pan-Islamic entity. None of these developments within the new country elicited approval among Americans for the idea of India's partition ... British Prime Minister Clement Attlee voiced the international consensus at the time when he told the House of Commons of his hope that 'this severance may not endure.' He hoped that the proposed dominions of India and Pakistan would in course of time, come together to form one great Member State of the British Commonwealth of Nations." - Haqqani, Husain (5 November 2013). Magnificent Delusions: Pakistan, the United States, and an Epic History of Misunderstanding. PublicAffairs. pp. 20–22. ISBN 978-1-61039-317-1. Retrieved 20 August 2024. https://books.google.com/books?id=VNAiBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA20 ↩
Haqqani (2013, p. 22) "During this time most of the Arab world was going through a nationalist awakening. Pan-Islamic dreams involving the unification of Muslim countries, possibly under Pakistani leadership, had little attraction." - Haqqani, Husain (5 November 2013). Magnificent Delusions: Pakistan, the United States, and an Epic History of Misunderstanding. PublicAffairs. pp. 20–22. ISBN 978-1-61039-317-1. Retrieved 20 August 2024. https://books.google.com/books?id=VNAiBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA20 ↩
Roberts (2003) "The following year, Choudhry Khaliquzzaman toured the Middle East, pleading for the formation of an alliance or confederation of Muslim states. The Arab states, often citing Pakistan's inability to solve its problems with Muslim neighbor Afghanistan, showed little enthusiasm ... Some saw the effort to form 'Islamistan' as a Pakistani attempt to dominate other Muslim states." - Roberts, Jeffery (30 December 2003). The Origins of Conflict in Afghanistan. Bloomsbury Academic. p. 134. ISBN 978-0-275-97878-5. Retrieved 21 August 2024. https://books.google.com/books?id=NfZtAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA134 ↩
Jafri, Sultana & Ijaz 2021. - Jafri, Mubashar Hasan; Sultana, Summer; Ijaz, Sabir (29 March 2021). "Muhammad Ali Jinnah's Views on Palestine and Question of Recognizing Israel". Pakistan Journal of International Affairs. 4 (1). Karachi, Pakistan: Society for Social Sciences & Research Association: 727–739. doi:10.58575/pjia.v4i1.164 (inactive 17 June 2025). ISSN 2664-360X. Retrieved 24 August 2024. https://www.pjia.com.pk/index.php/pjia/article/download/164/123 ↩
Arora & Grover 1995. - Arora, Ranjana; Grover, Verinder, eds. (1995). Political System in Pakistan: The Islamic state of Pakistan: role of religion in politics. Deep & Deep. p. 189. ISBN 978-81-7100-737-0. Retrieved 24 August 2024. https://books.google.com/books?id=ofRtAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA189 ↩
Hunter (2010) "Since then, Pakistan's sectarian tensions have been a major irritant in Iranian-Pakistan relations." - Hunter, Shireen T. (20 May 2010). Iran's Foreign Policy in the Post-Soviet Era: Resisting the New International Order. Bloomsbury Academic. p. 144. ISBN 978-0-313-38194-2. Retrieved 22 August 2024. https://books.google.com/books?id=rIXDEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA144 ↩
Pande (2011, p. 159) "Both Saudi Arabia and Iran used Pakistan as a battleground for their proxy war for the 'hearts and minds' of Pakistani Sunnis and Shias with the resultant rise in sectarian tensions in Pakistan. The rise of the Taliban in Afghanistan in the 1990s further strained Pakistan-Iran relations. Pakistan's support of the Sunni Pashtun organization created problems for Shia Iran for whom a Taliban-controlled Afghanistan was a nightmare." - Pande, Aparna (16 March 2011). Explaining Pakistan's Foreign Policy: Escaping India. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-136-81894-3. Retrieved 31 July 2024. https://books.google.com/books?id=ceg-kSmft94C ↩
Talbot 2020. - Talbot, Ian (28 December 2020). The History of British Diplomacy in Pakistan. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-000-32670-3. Retrieved 24 August 2024. https://books.google.com/books?id=kwIPEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT205 ↩
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Halladay, Matei & Bruneau 2021. - Halladay, Carolyn; Matei, Florina Cristiana; Bruneau, Thomas C., eds. (November 2021). The Routledge Handbook of Civil-Military Relations. Taylor & Francis. p. 53. ISBN 978-1-000-47155-7. Retrieved 24 August 2024. https://books.google.com/books?id=InYIEQAAQBAJ&pg=PA53 ↩
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Halladay, Matei & Bruneau 2021. - Halladay, Carolyn; Matei, Florina Cristiana; Bruneau, Thomas C., eds. (November 2021). The Routledge Handbook of Civil-Military Relations. Taylor & Francis. p. 53. ISBN 978-1-000-47155-7. Retrieved 24 August 2024. https://books.google.com/books?id=InYIEQAAQBAJ&pg=PA53 ↩
Basharat 2023. - Basharat, Iqra (17 December 2023), "Diplomatic Evolution: Pakistan's Transition from Neutrality to Mediation in the Saudi-Iran Rivalry [2015-2023] Section: BSIR-A", International Islamic University, retrieved 23 August 2024 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/376595410 ↩
Riedel 2010. - Riedel, Bruce (20 May 2010). "Pakistan's Role in the Afghanistan War's Outcome". Brookings Institution. Retrieved 26 August 2024. https://www.brookings.edu/articles/pakistans-role-in-the-afghanistan-wars-outcome/ ↩
Visoka & Richmond 2022. - Visoka, Gëzim; Richmond, Oliver P., eds. (21 June 2022). The Palgrave Encyclopedia of Peace and Conflict Studies. Springer International Publishing. p. 305. ISBN 978-3-030-77954-2. Retrieved 27 August 2024. https://books.google.com/books?id=goF2EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA305 ↩
Maizland 2023. - Maizland, Lindsay (19 January 2023). "Pakistan's Role in the Afghanistan War's Outcome". Council on Foreign Relations. Retrieved 27 August 2024. https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/taliban-afghanistan ↩
Pande (2011, p. 159) "Both Saudi Arabia and Iran used Pakistan as a battleground for their proxy war for the 'hearts and minds' of Pakistani Sunnis and Shias with the resultant rise in sectarian tensions in Pakistan. The rise of the Taliban in Afghanistan in the 1990s further strained Pakistan-Iran relations. Pakistan's support of the Sunni Pashtun organization created problems for Shia Iran for whom a Taliban-controlled Afghanistan was a nightmare." - Pande, Aparna (16 March 2011). Explaining Pakistan's Foreign Policy: Escaping India. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-136-81894-3. Retrieved 31 July 2024. https://books.google.com/books?id=ceg-kSmft94C ↩
Pande (2011, p. 178) "The belief that the creation of Pakistan made Pakistan the true leader of Muslim causes around the world led Pakistan's diplomats to vigorously champion the cause of self-determination for fellow Muslims at the United Nations. Pakistan's founders, including Jinnah, supported anti-colonial movements: "Our heart and soul go out in sympathy with those who are struggling for their freedom ... If subjugation and exploitation are carried on, there will be no peace and there will be no end to wars." Pakistani efforts on behalf of Indonesia (1948), Algeria (1948–1949), Tunisia (1948–1949), Morocco (1948–1956) and Eritrea (1960–1991) were significant and initially led to close ties between these countries and Pakistan." - Pande, Aparna (16 March 2011). Explaining Pakistan's Foreign Policy: Escaping India. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-136-81894-3. Retrieved 31 July 2024. https://books.google.com/books?id=ceg-kSmft94C ↩
Berg & Kursani 2021. - Berg, Eiki; Kursani, Shpend (21 December 2021). De Facto States and Land-for-Peace Agreements: Territory and Recognition at Odds?. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-000-51859-7. Retrieved 9 August 2024. https://books.google.com/books?id=gJZOEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT101 ↩
Babayev, Schoch & Spanger 2019. - Babayev, Azer; Schoch, Bruno; Spanger, Hans-Joachim, eds. (2 May 2019). The Nagorno-Karabakh Deadlock: Insights from Successful Conflict Settlements. Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden. p. 286. ISBN 978-3-658-25199-4. Retrieved 11 August 2024. https://books.google.com/books?id=KwiZDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA286 ↩
Ahmed & Zahoor 2019. - Ahmed, Zahid Shahab; Zahoor, Musharaf (17 February 2019). "Bangladesh-Pakistan relations: hostage to a traumatic past". Commonwealth & Comparative Politics. 57 (1). Taylor & Francis: 31–51. doi:10.1080/14662043.2019.1575032. ISSN 0306-3631. Retrieved 17 November 2024. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14662043.2019.1575032 ↩
Pande 2011. - Pande, Aparna (16 March 2011). Explaining Pakistan's Foreign Policy: Escaping India. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-136-81894-3. Retrieved 31 July 2024. https://books.google.com/books?id=ceg-kSmft94C ↩
Kudaisya & Yong 2004. - Kudaisya, Gyanesh; Yong, Tan Tai (March 2004). The Aftermath of Partition in South Asia. Taylor & Francis. p. 217. ISBN 978-1-134-44048-1. Retrieved 29 August 2024. https://books.google.com/books?id=aPOBAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA217 ↩
Zahoor & Rumi 2020. - Zahoor, Bilal; Rumi, Raza, eds. (23 September 2020). Rethinking Pakistan: A 21st Century Perspective. Anthem Press. p. 221. ISBN 978-1-78527-493-0. Retrieved 30 August 2024. https://books.google.com/books?id=RxD8DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA221 ↩
Bhattacharyya 2023. - Bhattacharyya, Rituparna, ed. (7 July 2023). Genocides and Xenophobia in South Asia and Beyond: A Transdisciplinary Perspective on Known, Lesser-known and Unknown Crime of Crimes. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-000-90434-5. Retrieved 31 August 2024. https://books.google.com/books?id=EunAEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT105 ↩
Raghavan 2012. - Raghavan, V. R., ed. (9 May 2012). Conflicts in Jammu and Kashmir: Impact on Polity, Society and Economy. Vij Books India Private Limited. p. 83. ISBN 978-93-82573-33-3. Retrieved 31 August 2024. https://books.google.com/books?id=A_6pCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA83 ↩
Stone 2017. - Stone, Lester B. (February 2017). War and the Market Economy. Vij Books India Private Limited. ISBN 978-93-86834-41-6. Retrieved 31 August 2024. https://books.google.com/books?id=FXLOEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT140 ↩
Endrst (1965) "Former Indian Defense Minister Krishna Menon who for years influenced the decisions of late Prime Minister Nehru himself a Kashmiri-put it bluntly last March in an interview with an American newsman when he said India could never agree to a U.N. sponsored plebiscite because 'Kashmir would vote to join Pakistan, and no Indian government responsible for agreeing to the plebiscite could survive.'" - Endrst, Jeff (8 September 1965). "Kashmir Old Headache For U.N." The Pittsburgh Press. Retrieved 31 August 2024. https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1144&dat=19650908&id=9wwvAAAAIBAJ&pg=7266,2323319&hl=en ↩
Khurshid 2016. - Khurshid, Tooba (2016). "United Nations Security Council Resolutions: Status of the People of Jammu and Kashmir" (PDF). Strategic Studies. 36 (4). Institute of Strategic Studies Islamabad: 100–122. ISSN 1811-9557. JSTOR 48535976. Retrieved 2 September 2024. https://issi.org.pk/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/SS_Tooba_Khurshid_No-4_2016.pdf ↩
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Middle power: multiple sources: Buzan (2004) Solomon (1997) Rajagopalan (2011) Buzan & Waever (2003) Paul (2012, p. 11) "The regional powers such as Israel or Pakistan are not simple bystanders of great power politics in their regions; they attempt to asymmetrically influence the major power system often in their own distinct ways." Vandamme (2014, p. 14) "Countries like Saudi Arabia and Pakistan have enough influence to not be considered small, but not enough to be major powers. Within the limits of their regions, they play a significant political role. Thus instinctively, they would qualify as middle powers. While it is not the objective here to question the characteristics of Jordan's definition of middle powers, we argue that Pakistan is in fact a middle power despite its being nuclear-armed. When looking at the numbers, for instance, it appears that Saudi Arabia and Pakistan can be classified as middle powers." - Buzan, Barry (2004). The United States and the great powers: world politics in the twenty-first century. Polity. pp. 71, 99. ISBN 978-0-7456-3374-9. Retrieved 30 April 2024. https://books.google.com/books?id=XvtS5hKg9jYC&pg=PR8 ↩
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This number includes population of the Hindu (Jati) and the scheduled castes. ↩
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