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Curry
Spiced Asian-inspired sauces and dishes

Curry is a flavorful dish featuring a sauce or gravy seasoned with spices, originating from the fusion of Indian cuisine and European tastes starting with the Portuguese and British. The introduction of chili peppers and other ingredients during the Columbian exchange enriched curry’s flavor. During the British Raj, Anglo-Indian cuisine emerged, spreading curry worldwide, including to the Caribbean and Japan. Varieties differ by region: Southeast Asian curries often use coconut milk, while Indian curries fry spices in oil or ghee, sometimes adding broth. In Britain, curry became a national dish with creations like chicken tikka masala, developed by Bangladeshi restaurants in the 20th century, showcasing curry’s global evolution and adaptability.

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Etymology

The word 'Curry' is "ultimately derived"2 from Dravidian kari in languages such as Middle Tamil.34 The Oxford Dictionaries suggest an origin specifically from Tamil.5 Other Dravidian languages, namely Malayalam (കറി kari, "hot condiments; meats, vegetables"6), Middle Kannada and Kodava, have similar words.7 Kaṟi is described in a 17th-century Portuguese cookbook8 who were trading with Tamil merchants along the Coromandel Coast of southeast India, becoming known as a "spice blend ... called kari podi or curry powder".9 The first appearance in its anglicised form (spelt currey) was in Hannah Glasse's 1747 book The Art of Cookery Made Plain and Easy.1011

The term "curry" is not derived from the name of the curry tree, although some curries do include curry leaves among many other spices.1213 The cookery writer Pat Chapman noted the similarity of the words Karahi or Kadai, an Indian cooking dish shaped like a wok, without adducing evidence.14 "Curry" is not related to the word cury in The Forme of Cury,15 a 1390s English cookbook;16 that term comes from the Middle French word cuire, meaning 'to cook'.17

Cultural exchanges

Ancient spice trade in Asia

Austronesian merchants in South East Asia traded spices along marine trade routes between South Asia (primarily the ports on the south eastern coast of India and Sri Lanka) and East Asia as far back as 5000 BCE.1819 Archaeological evidence dating to 2600 BCE from Mohenjo-daro suggests the use of mortar and pestle to pound spices including mustard, fennel, cumin, and tamarind pods with which they flavoured food.20 Black pepper is native to the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia and has been known to Indian cooking since at least 2000 BCE.21 The three basic ingredients of the spicy stew were ginger, garlic, and turmeric. Using starch grain analysis, archaeologists identified the residue of these spices in both skeletons and pottery shards from excavations in India, finding that turmeric and ginger were present.2223 Sauces in India before Columbus could contain black pepper or long pepper to provide a little heat, but not chili, so they were not spicy hot by modern standards.24

Early modern trade

The establishment of the Mughal Empire, in the early 16th century, influenced some curries, especially in the north. Another influence was the establishment of the Portuguese trading centre in Goa in 1510, resulting in the introduction of chili peppers, tomatoes and potatoes to India from the Americas, as a byproduct of the Columbian Exchange.25 The scholar of food culture Lizzie Collingham suggests that the Portuguese in Goa (in West India) heard and adopted words adopted into a local language from the Dravidian words from South India, becoming caril or carree as transcribed by British travellers of the time. This adoption resulting eventually in curry's modern meaning of a dish, often spiced, in a sauce or gravy.26 In 1598, an English translation of a Dutch book about travel in the East Indies mentioned a "somewhat sour" broth called Carriel, eaten with rice.27 The later Dutch word karie was used in the Dutch East Indies from the 19th century; many Indians had by then migrated to Southeast Asia.28

British influence

Further information: Anglo-Indian cuisine

Curry was introduced to English cuisine from Anglo-Indian cooking in the 17th century, as spicy sauces were added to plain boiled and cooked meats.29 That cuisine was created in the British Raj when British wives or memsahibs instructed Indian cooks on the food they wanted, transforming many dishes in the process.30 Further, in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, when there were few British women in India, British men often lived with Indian mistresses, acquiring the local customs, language, and food.31 Curry was first served in coffee houses in Britain from 1809.32

Indian cooks in the 19th century prepared curries for their British masters simplified and adjusted to Anglo-Indian taste. For instance, a quarama from Lucknow contained (among other ingredients) ghee, yoghurt, cream, crushed almonds, cloves, cardamom, and saffron; whereas an 1869 Anglo-Indian quorema or korma, "different in substance as well as name",33 had no cream, almonds, or saffron, but it added the then-standard British curry spices, namely coriander, ginger, and black peppercorns.3435 Curry, initially understood as "an unfamiliar set of Indian stews and ragouts",36 had become "a dish in its own right, created for the British in India".37 Collingham describes the resulting Anglo-Indian cuisine as "eclectic", "pan-Indian", "lacking sophistication", embodying a "passion for garnishes", and forming a "coherent repertoire"; but it was eaten only by the British.38 Collingham writes that "The idea of a curry is, in fact, a concept that the Europeans imposed on India's food culture. Indians referred to their different dishes by specific names... But the British lumped all these together under the heading of curry.39

Elsewhere in the 19th century, curry was carried to the Caribbean by Indian indentured workers in the British sugar industry.4041

Globalisation

Since the mid-20th century, curries of many national styles have become popular far from their origins, and increasingly become part of international fusion cuisine.42 Alan Davidson writes that curry's worldwide extension is a result of the Indian diaspora and globalisation, starting within the British Empire, and followed by economic migrants who brought Indian cuisine to many countries.43 In 1886, 咖喱 (Gālí) (Chinese pronunciation of "curry") appeared among the Chinese in Singapore.44 Malay Chinese people then most likely brought curry to China.45

In India, spices are always freshly prepared for use in sauces.46 Derived from such mixtures (but not containing curry leaves47), curry powder is a ready-prepared spice blend first sold by Indian merchants to European colonial traders. This was commercially available from the late 18th century,4849 with brands such as Crosse & Blackwell and Sharwood's persisting to the present.50 British traders introduced the powder to Meiji era Japan, in the mid-19th century, where it became known as Japanese curry.51

Types

There are many varieties of curry. The choice of spices for each dish in traditional cuisine depends on regional cultural traditions and personal preferences.52 Such dishes have names such as dopiaza and rogan josh that refer to their ingredients, spicing, and cooking methods.53 Outside the Indian subcontinent, a curry is a dish from Southeast Asia which uses coconut milk and spice pastes, and is commonly eaten over rice.54 Curries may contain fish, meat, poultry, or shellfish, either alone or in combination with vegetables. Others are vegetarian. A masala mixture is a combination of dried or dry-roasted spices commonly homemade for some curries.55

Dry curries are cooked using small amounts of liquid, which is allowed to evaporate, leaving the other ingredients coated with the spice mixture. Wet curries contain significant amounts of sauce or gravy based on broth, coconut cream or coconut milk, dairy cream or yogurt, or legume purée, sautéed crushed onion, or tomato purée.56

Curry powder, a commercially prepared mixture of spices marketed in the West, was first exported to Britain in the 18th century when Indian merchants sold a concoction of spices, similar to garam masala, to the British East India Company returning to Britain.57 Other commercial mixes include curry pastes and Japanese-style curry roux (in block or powder form).58

Ways curries can vary5960
Type of variationFromTo
Mild ↔ Hot  Korma (aromatic spices61)Madras (chili)
Watery ↔ CreamyRogan josh (broth)Korma (yoghurt or cream)
Dry ↔ WetTikka (skewered meat, spices)Tikka masala (tomato, cream)
 Sour ↔ SweetDopiaza (onion, lemon)Pasanda (almonds, sugar)
 Stir-fry ↔ SimmerBalti (oil, onion, potato)Dhansak (lentils, spices, tomato)

By region

United Kingdom

Main article: Curry in the United Kingdom

Curry is very popular in the United Kingdom, with a curry house in nearly every town.6263 Such is its popularity that it has frequently been called its "adopted national dish".64 It was estimated that in 2016 there were 12,000 curry houses, employing 100,000 people and with annual combined sales of approximately £4.2 billion.65 The food offered is cooked to British taste, but with increasing demand for authentic Indian styles.66 In 2001, chicken tikka masala was described by the British foreign secretary Robin Cook as "a true British national dish, not only because it is the most popular, but because it is a perfect illustration of the way Britain absorbs and adapts external influences."67 Its origin is not certain, but many sources attribute it to British Asians; some cite Glasgow as the city of origin.686970 It may derive from butter chicken, popular in the north of India.71

Curries in Britain are derived partly from India and partly from invention in local Indian restaurants. They vary from mildly-spiced to extremely hot, with names that are to an extent standardised across the country, but are often unknown in India.72

Range of strengths of British curries73
StrengthExamplePlace of originDate of originDescription
MildKormaMughal court, North India16th centuryMild, creamy; may have almond, coconut, or fruit
MediumMadrasBritish Bangladeshi restaurants1970sRed, spicy with chili powder
HotVindalooBritish Bangladeshi restaurants741970sVery spicy with chili peppers and potatoes75
ExtremePhallBritish Bangladeshi, Birmingham20th centuryHigh-strength chili pepper e.g. scotch bonnet, habanero

South Asia

Further information: Indian cuisine

Many Indian dishes are spicy. The spices chosen for a dish are freshly ground and then fried in hot oil or ghee to create a paste.76 The content of the dish and style of preparation vary by region.77 The sauces are made with spices including black pepper, cardamom, chili peppers, cinnamon, cloves, coriander, cumin, fennel seed, mustard seed, and turmeric.78 As many as 15 spices may be used for a meat curry.79 The spices are sometimes fried whole, sometimes roasted, sometimes ground and mixed into a paste.80 The sauces are eaten with steamed rice or idli rice cakes in south India,81 and breads such as chapatis, roti, and naan in the north.82 The popular rogan josh, for example, from Kashmiri cuisine, is a wet dish of lamb with a red gravy coloured by Kashmiri chillies and an extract of the red flowers of the cockscomb plant (mawal).83 Rice and curry is the staple dish of Sri Lanka.84

East Asia

Japanese curry is usually eaten as karē raisu – curry, rice, and often pickled vegetables, served on the same plate and eaten with a spoon, a common lunchtime canteen dish. It is less spicy and seasoned than Indian and Southeast Asian curries, being more of a thick stew than a curry. British people brought curry from the Indian colony back to Britain85 and introduced it to Japan during the Meiji period (1868 to 1912), after Japan ended its policy of national self-isolation (sakoku), and curry in Japan was categorised as a Western dish.86 Its spread across the country is attributed to its use in the Japanese Army and Navy which adopted it extensively as convenient field and naval canteen cooking, allowing even conscripts from the remotest countryside to experience the dish. The Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force traditionally have curry every Friday for lunch and many ships have their own recipes.87 The standard Japanese curry contains onions, carrots, potatoes, and sometimes celery, and a meat that is cooked in a large pot. Sometimes grated apples or honey are added for additional sweetness and other vegetables are sometimes used instead.88

Curry spread to other regions of Asia. Curry powder is added to some dishes in the southern part of China. The curry powder sold in Chinese grocery stores is similar to Madras curry powder, but with the addition of star anise and cinnamon.89 The former Portuguese colony of Macau has its own culinary traditions and curry dishes, including Galinha à portuguesa ("Portuguese-style chicken") and curry crab. Portuguese sauce is a sauce flavoured with curry and thickened with coconut milk.90

Curry was popularized in Korean cuisine when Ottogi entered the Korean food industry with an imported curry powder in 1969.9192 Korean curry powder contains spices including cardamom, chili, cinnamon, and turmeric.93 Curry tteokbokki is made of tteok (rice cakes), eomuk (fish cakes), eggs, vegetables, and gochujang, fermented red chili paste. As in India, chilis were brought to Korea by European traders. Spicy chili sauce then replaced the soy sauce formerly used in tteokbokki.94

Southeast Asia

In Burmese cuisine, curries are broadly called hin. Burmese curries contains meat simmered in a curry paste containing onion, garlic, shrimp paste, tomato, and turmeric. Burmese curries are often mild, without chili, and somewhat oily.9596

Thai curries are called gaeng, and usually consist of meat, fish or vegetables in a sauce based on a paste made from chilies, onions or shallots, garlic, and shrimp paste.97 A few stir-fried Thai dishes use phong kari, an Indian style curry powder.98 In the West, Thai curries are often colour-coded green, yellow, and red, with green usually the mildest, red the hottest. Green curry is flavoured with green chili, coriander, kaffir lime, and basil; yellow, with yellow chili and turmeric; and red, with red chili.99

Malaysian Indian cuisine adapted curries (such as gulai, with coconut milk) via the region's Indian population,100 but it has become a staple among the Malay and Chinese populations there. Malaysian curries have many varieties, but are often flavoured with cumin, cinnamon, turmeric, coconut milk, shallots, chili peppers, and garlic.101

Indian Indonesian cuisine consists of adaptations of authentic dishes from India, as well as original creations inspired by the diverse food culture of Indonesia. Curry in Indonesian is kari and in Javanese, kare. In Indonesian cuisine especially in Bandung, there is a dish called lontong kari, a combined of lontong and beef yellow curry soup.102 In Javanese cuisine, kare rajungan, blue swimmer crab curry has become a delicacy of Tuban Regency, East Java.103

In Vietnamese cuisine, influenced by both Thai and Indian cooking, curry is known as cà ri. It is made with coconut milk, Madras curry powder with plenty of turmeric, and a variety of fresh ingredients such as coriander, lemongrass, and ginger.104

In the Philippines, a dish that may have been directly inspired by Indian curries is the oxtail stew kare-kare, possibly influenced by Sepoy expatriates during the brief British occupation of Manila (1762–1764), or indirectly via Southeast Asian spicy dishes.105 Ginataan are native dishes using coconut milk,106107 which as in the case of Filipino chicken curry can be called 'curries' when curry powder is added.108

South Africa

Curry spread to South Africa with the migration of people from the Indian subcontinent to the region in the colonial era. African curries, Cape Malay curries and Natal curries include the traditional Natal curry, the Durban curry, bunny chow, and roti rolls. South African curries appear to have been created in both KwaZulu-Natal and the Western Cape, while others developed across the country over the late 20th and early 21st centuries to include ekasi, coloured, and Afrikaner varieties.109 Durban has the largest population of Indians outside of India in the world.110 Bunny chow or a "set", a South African standard, consists of either lamb, chicken or bean curry poured into a tunnelled-out loaf of bread to be eaten with one's fingers by dipping pieces of the bread into it.111112 'Bunny chow' means 'Indian food', from Banian, an Indian. The method of serving the curry was created because apartheid forbade black people from eating in Indian restaurants; the loaves could speedily be taken away and eaten in the street.113

See also

Notes

Sources

Further reading

References

  1. "Curry". Online Etymology Dictionary, Douglas Harper. 2018. Archived from the original on 9 October 2018. Retrieved 8 October 2018. https://www.etymonline.com/word/curry#etymonline_v_491 ↩

  2. "Curry". Online Etymology Dictionary, Douglas Harper. 2018. Archived from the original on 9 October 2018. Retrieved 8 October 2018. https://www.etymonline.com/word/curry#etymonline_v_491 ↩

  3. "Curry". Online Etymology Dictionary, Douglas Harper. 2018. Archived from the original on 9 October 2018. Retrieved 8 October 2018. https://www.etymonline.com/word/curry#etymonline_v_491 ↩

  4. "What we know as "curry" has a long and curious history". The Takeout. 28 February 2018. Retrieved 31 March 2024. https://thetakeout.com/what-we-know-as-curry-has-a-long-and-curious-history-1798252495 ↩

  5. "curry noun". Oxford Dictionaries. Retrieved 1 January 2025. late 16th cent.: from Tamil kar̲i. https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/curry_1 ↩

  6. Gundert, Herman (1872). "കറി kari". Malayalam and English Dictionary. C. Stolz. p. 216. https://archive.org/details/MalayalamAndEnglishDictionary/page/n235/mode/2up ↩

  7. "kari – A Dravidian Etymological Dictionary". 1984. Archived from the original on 23 June 2020. https://dsalsrv04.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/app/burrow_query.py?qs=ka%E1%B9%9Fi&searchhws=yes ↩

  8. Taylor, Anna-Louise (11 October 2013). "Curry: Where did it come from?". BBC Food. Archived from the original on 29 March 2014. Retrieved 4 January 2017. https://web.archive.org/web/20140329151125/http://www.bbc.co.uk/food/0/24432750 ↩

  9. Sahni, Julie (1980). Classic Indian Cooking. New York: William Morrow. pp. 39–40. ↩

  10. "Curry". Online Etymology Dictionary, Douglas Harper. 2018. Archived from the original on 9 October 2018. Retrieved 8 October 2018. https://www.etymonline.com/word/curry#etymonline_v_491 ↩

  11. Taylor, Anna-Louise (11 October 2013). "Curry: Where did it come from?". BBC Food. Archived from the original on 29 March 2014. Retrieved 4 January 2017. https://web.archive.org/web/20140329151125/http://www.bbc.co.uk/food/0/24432750 ↩

  12. "Fresh Curry Leaves Add a Touch of India". NPR. 28 September 2011. Archived from the original on 11 April 2018. Retrieved 6 April 2018. https://www.npr.org/2011/09/28/140735689/fresh-curry-leaves-add-a-touch-of-india ↩

  13. Raghavan, S. (2007). Handbook of Spices, Seasonings and Flavourings. CRC Press. p. 302. ISBN 978-0-8493-2842-8. 978-0-8493-2842-8 ↩

  14. Gopal, Dubey, Krishna (2010). The Indian Cuisine. PHI Learning Pvt. p. 11. ISBN 978-81-203-4170-8. Pat Chapman of Curry Club fame offers possibilities: Karahi or Kadai from the wok-shaped cooking dish, Kari from Tamil or Turkuri a seasonal sauce or stew.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) 978-81-203-4170-8 ↩

  15. Taylor, Anna-Louise (11 October 2013). "Curry: Where did it come from?". BBC Food. Archived from the original on 29 March 2014. Retrieved 4 January 2017. https://web.archive.org/web/20140329151125/http://www.bbc.co.uk/food/0/24432750 ↩

  16. "Thys fourme of cury ys compyled of þe mayster cokes of kyng Richard þe secund ... by assent of Maysters of physik and of phylosophye". Things sweet to taste: selections from the Forme of Cury. 1996 ISBN 0-86373-134-1 /wiki/ISBN_(identifier) ↩

  17. "Curry". Online Etymology Dictionary, Douglas Harper. 2018. Archived from the original on 9 October 2018. Retrieved 8 October 2018. https://www.etymonline.com/word/curry#etymonline_v_491 ↩

  18. Manguin, Pierre-Yves (2016). "Austronesian Shipping in the Indian Ocean: From Outrigger Boats to Trading Ships". In Campbell, Gwyn (ed.). Early Exchange between Africa and the Wider Indian Ocean World. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 51–76. ISBN 9783319338224. Archived from the original on 26 March 2023. Retrieved 26 March 2023. 9783319338224 ↩

  19. Solheim, Wilhelm G. (1996). "The Nusantao and north-south dispersals". Bulletin of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association. 15: 101–109. /wiki/Wilhelm_Solheim ↩

  20. Iyer, Raghavan (2008). 660 Curries. New York: Workman Publishing. pp. 2–3. ISBN 9780761137870. 9780761137870 ↩

  21. Davidson 2014, "Pepper", pp. 612–613 - Davidson, Alan (2014). Tom Jaine (ed.). The Oxford Companion to Food (3rd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-967733-7. ↩

  22. "People Have Been Eating Curry for 4,500 Years". Smithsonian Magazine. Archived from the original on 17 May 2021. Retrieved 26 December 2020. https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/people-have-been-eating-curry-for-4500-years-8604270/ ↩

  23. Lawler, Andrew (29 January 2013). "Where Did Curry Come From?". Slate. Archived from the original on 15 November 2020. Retrieved 27 December 2020. https://slate.com/human-interest/2013/01/indus-civilization-food-how-scientists-are-figuring-out-what-curry-was-like-4500-years-ago.html ↩

  24. Twilley, Nicola; Graber, Nicola; Iyer, Raghavan; Collingham, Lizzie (9 April 2019). "Transcript: The Curry Chronicles". Gastropod. Retrieved 6 October 2024. /wiki/Raghavan_Iyer_(chef) ↩

  25. Batsha, Nishant (25 June 2020). "Curry Before Columbus". Contingent. Archived from the original on 17 May 2021. Retrieved 15 December 2020. /wiki/Nishant_Batsha ↩

  26. Twilley, Nicola; Graber, Cynthia (20 April 2019). "The Word Curry Came From a Colonial Misunderstanding". The Atlantic. Archived from the original on 17 May 2021. Retrieved 10 May 2021. https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2019/04/why-we-call-indian-dishes-curry-colonial-history/586828/ ↩

  27. Davidson 2014, "Curry", p. 240 - Davidson, Alan (2014). Tom Jaine (ed.). The Oxford Companion to Food (3rd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-967733-7. ↩

  28. Davidson 2014, "Curry", p. 240 - Davidson, Alan (2014). Tom Jaine (ed.). The Oxford Companion to Food (3rd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-967733-7. ↩

  29. Collingham 2006, p. 115. - Collingham, Lizzie (2006) [2005 (Chatto & Windus)]. Curry: A Tale of Cooks and Conquerors. London: Vintage Books. ISBN 978-0-099-43786-4. ↩

  30. Davidson 2014, "Anglo-Indian" pp. 21–22 - Davidson, Alan (2014). Tom Jaine (ed.). The Oxford Companion to Food (3rd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-967733-7. ↩

  31. Collingham 2006, pp. 110–111. - Collingham, Lizzie (2006) [2005 (Chatto & Windus)]. Curry: A Tale of Cooks and Conquerors. London: Vintage Books. ISBN 978-0-099-43786-4. ↩

  32. "How Britain got the hots for curry". BBC. 26 November 2009. Archived from the original on 28 January 2016. Retrieved 29 January 2016. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8370054.stm ↩

  33. Collingham 2006, pp. 116–117. - Collingham, Lizzie (2006) [2005 (Chatto & Windus)]. Curry: A Tale of Cooks and Conquerors. London: Vintage Books. ISBN 978-0-099-43786-4. ↩

  34. Collingham 2006, pp. 116–117. - Collingham, Lizzie (2006) [2005 (Chatto & Windus)]. Curry: A Tale of Cooks and Conquerors. London: Vintage Books. ISBN 978-0-099-43786-4. ↩

  35. Thirty-Five Years' Resident (1869). "Kurma or Quorema Curry". The Indian Cookery Book. Calcutta: Wyman & Co. p. 22. This, without exception, is one of the richest of Hindoostanee curries, but it is quite unsuited to European taste, if made according to the original recipe, of which the following is a [Europeanised] copy: https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=EvcpAAAAYAAJ&pg=GBS.PA22&hl=en_GB ↩

  36. Collingham 2006, p. 118. - Collingham, Lizzie (2006) [2005 (Chatto & Windus)]. Curry: A Tale of Cooks and Conquerors. London: Vintage Books. ISBN 978-0-099-43786-4. ↩

  37. Collingham 2006, p. 118. - Collingham, Lizzie (2006) [2005 (Chatto & Windus)]. Curry: A Tale of Cooks and Conquerors. London: Vintage Books. ISBN 978-0-099-43786-4. ↩

  38. Collingham 2006, pp. 118–125, 140. - Collingham, Lizzie (2006) [2005 (Chatto & Windus)]. Curry: A Tale of Cooks and Conquerors. London: Vintage Books. ISBN 978-0-099-43786-4. ↩

  39. Collingham 2006, p. 115. - Collingham, Lizzie (2006) [2005 (Chatto & Windus)]. Curry: A Tale of Cooks and Conquerors. London: Vintage Books. ISBN 978-0-099-43786-4. ↩

  40. Mishan, Ligaya (10 November 2017). "Asian-American Cuisine's Rise, and Triumph". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 22 March 2023. Retrieved 29 March 2023. https://www.nytimes.com/2017/11/10/t-magazine/asian-american-cuisine.html ↩

  41. Davidson 2014, "Curry", p. 240 - Davidson, Alan (2014). Tom Jaine (ed.). The Oxford Companion to Food (3rd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-967733-7. ↩

  42. Mishan, Ligaya (10 November 2017). "Asian-American Cuisine's Rise, and Triumph". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 22 March 2023. Retrieved 29 March 2023. https://www.nytimes.com/2017/11/10/t-magazine/asian-american-cuisine.html ↩

  43. Davidson 2014, "Curry", p. 240 - Davidson, Alan (2014). Tom Jaine (ed.). The Oxford Companion to Food (3rd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-967733-7. ↩

  44. Lim, Hiong Seng (1886). "Provisions, Fish, Vegetable and Fruit". Handbook of the Swatow Vernacular. Singapore: Koh Yew Hean Press. p. 95. https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Page:Handbook_of_the_Swatow_vernacular.djvu/111 ↩

  45. Davidson 2014, "Curry", p. 240 - Davidson, Alan (2014). Tom Jaine (ed.). The Oxford Companion to Food (3rd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-967733-7. ↩

  46. Davidson 2014, "Curry Powder" p. 241 - Davidson, Alan (2014). Tom Jaine (ed.). The Oxford Companion to Food (3rd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-967733-7. ↩

  47. Davidson 2014, "Curry leaf" p. 240 - Davidson, Alan (2014). Tom Jaine (ed.). The Oxford Companion to Food (3rd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-967733-7. ↩

  48. "First British advert for curry powder". bl.uk. Archived from the original on 23 August 2021. Retrieved 29 December 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/20210823180723/http://www.bl.uk/learning/timeline/item126721.html ↩

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