Menu
Home
People
Places
Arts
History
Plants & Animals
Science
Life & Culture
Technology
Reference.org
1945 in science
open-in-new
<h2 id="biology">Biology</h2> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Salvador_Edward_Luria/v9z5Cbkg">Salvador Edward Luria</a> and <a href="/facts/Alfred_Day_Hershey/lAEvkfBe">Alfred Day Hershey</a> independently recognize that <a href="/facts/Virus/mf88Bcbl">viruses</a> undergo <a href="/facts/Mutation/Ee4NnWbY">mutations</a>.</li></ul> <h2 id="chemistry">Chemistry</h2> <ul><li>A team at <a href="/facts/Oak_Ridge_National_Laboratory/Elq84HKF">Oak Ridge National Laboratory</a> led by <a href="/facts/Charles_DuBois_Coryell/rTYQL6jd">Charles Coryell</a> discovers <a href="/facts/Chemical_element/0jducgWD">chemical element</a> 61, the only one still missing between 1 and 96 on the <a href="/facts/Periodic_table/umdGIfUb">periodic table</a>, which they will name <a href="/facts/Promethium/8xvCz9Rg">promethium</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:1" href="#fn:1"><sup>1</sup></a> Found by analysis of fission products of irradiated uranium fuel, its discovery is not made public until 1947.</li> <li><a href="/facts/Dorothy_Hodgkin/vjsD4zQS">Dorothy Hodgkin</a> and C. H. (Harry) Carlisle publish the first three-dimensional molecular structure of a <a href="/facts/Steroid/4AhMbgXt">steroid</a>, cholesteryl iodide.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:2" href="#fn:2"><sup>2</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:3" href="#fn:3"><sup>3</sup></a> In January, Hodgkin also discovers the structure of <a href="/facts/Penicillin/Abo8VQ3p">penicillin</a>, not published until <a href="/facts/1949_in_science/hppNMvQT">1949</a>.</li> <li>A team at <a href="/facts/American_Cyanamid/fbBUI2EN">American Cyanamid</a>'s Lederle Laboratories, <a href="/facts/Pearl_River%2c_New_York/R78kITGd">Pearl River, New York</a>, led by <a href="/facts/Yellapragada_Subbarow/tD7e8S8E">Yellapragada Subbarow</a>, obtain <a href="/facts/Folic_acid/8Eb7An6D">folic acid</a> in a pure crystalline form.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:4" href="#fn:4"><sup>4</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5"><sup>5</sup></a></li></ul> <h2 id="computer-science">Computer science</h2> <ul><li>June 30 – Distribution of <a href="/facts/John_von_Neumann/aUk6urof">John von Neumann</a>'s <i><a href="/facts/First_Draft_of_a_Report_on_the_EDVAC/CQBHmxoe">First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC</a></i>, containing the first published description of the logical design of a computer with <a href="/facts/Stored-program_computer/CwcIk5S8">stored-program</a> and instruction data stored in the same address space within the memory (<a href="/facts/Von_Neumann_architecture/te0yulFa">von Neumann architecture</a>).</li> <li>July – Publication of <a href="/facts/Vannevar_Bush/F12rLyGQ">Vannevar Bush</a>'s article "<a href="/facts/As_We_May_Think/Nb9qc8nw">As We May Think</a>" proposing a <a href="/facts/Proto-hypertext/1hlP0A5V">proto-hypertext</a> <a href="/facts/Collective_memory/qcwCnmLs">collective memory</a> machine which he calls '<a href="/facts/Memex/vVmwyHyJ">memex</a>'.</li> <li>November – Assembly of the world's first general purpose electronic computer, the Electronic Numerical Integrator Analyzer and Computer (<a href="/facts/ENIAC/EcfmM1Y0">ENIAC</a>), is completed in the United States, covering 1,800 square feet (170 m2) of floor space, and the first set of calculations is run on it.</li></ul> <h2 id="history-of-science-and-technology">History of science and technology</h2> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Douglas_Guthrie/4GPQH85a">Douglas Guthrie</a>'s <i><a href="/facts/A_History_of_Medicine/Xbjzeoqp">A History of Medicine</a></i> is published in the U.K.</li></ul> <h2 id="mathematics">Mathematics</h2> <ul><li><a href="/facts/George_Stigler/Jc82W4l6">George Stigler</a> solves the <a href="/facts/Stigler_diet/td2a3rgJ">Stigler diet</a> problem heuristically.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6"><sup>6</sup></a></li></ul> <h2 id="medicine">Medicine</h2> <ul><li>February – Raymond L. Libby of American Cyanamid's research laboratories at <a href="/facts/Stamford%2c_Connecticut/ByPXKdU2">Stamford, Connecticut</a>, announces a method of orally administering the antibiotic <a href="/facts/Penicillin/Abo8VQ3p">penicillin</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7"><sup>7</sup></a></li> <li>The <a href="/facts/Amsler_grid/Bh9dm9tc">Amsler grid</a> is introduced for monitoring of the central <a href="/facts/Visual_field/xckE6fpm">visual field</a>.</li></ul> <h2 id="meteorology">Meteorology</h2> <ul><li>High-altitude west-to-east winds across Pacific, discovered by Japanese in 1942 and by Americans in 1944, are dubbed "<a href="/facts/Jet_stream/cVqkU0V3">jet stream</a>".</li></ul> <h2 id="physics">Physics</h2> <ul><li>July 16 – <a href="/facts/Nuclear_testing/s2srGDFP">Nuclear testing</a>: the <a href="/facts/Trinity_test/0aHtpyUN">Trinity test</a>, the first test of an <a href="/facts/Nuclear_weapon/QVdBcMdm">atomic bomb</a>, using 6 kilograms of <a href="/facts/Plutonium/4bUw9zH3">plutonium</a>, succeeds in detonating an explosion equivalent to that of 20 kilotons of TNT.</li> <li>August 6 and 9 – <a href="/facts/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki/fRpj8aJA">Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki</a> make the world aware of the power of nuclear weapons.</li> <li>August 12 – The <a href="/facts/Smyth_Report/VhoG5wL6">Smyth Report</a> is released by the United States government, informing the public of the basics of <a href="/facts/Nuclear_fission/LfkIylvm">nuclear fission</a> and its military and civilian applications, and emphasizing the role played by physics in the development of the atomic bomb.</li> <li>August 21 – American physicist <a href="/facts/Harry_Daghlian/btGVJHoB">Harry Daghlian</a> accidentally drops a <a href="/facts/Tungsten_carbide/2w0zcaWJ">tungsten carbide</a> brick onto a <a href="/facts/Plutonium%25E2%2580%2593gallium_alloy/JKmwxXcC">plutonium–gallium alloy</a> bomb core, exposing himself to a lethal dose of <a href="/facts/Neutron_radiation/LVJhCcwL">neutron radiation</a> and becoming the first known fatality due to a <a href="/facts/Criticality_accident/c68hQvNh">criticality accident</a> 25 days later.</li></ul> <h2 id="technology">Technology</h2> <ul><li><a href="/facts/March_2/fwEowLwl">March 2</a> – The <a href="/facts/Bachem_Ba_349/K8tSVCmd">Bachem Ba 349</a> <i>Natter</i> is launched from <a href="/facts/Stetten_am_kalten_Markt/3m6GG27K">Stetten am kalten Markt</a>. The <i>Natter</i> is the first manned rocket, developed as an anti-aircraft weapon. The launch fails and the pilot dies.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8"><sup>8</sup></a></li> <li>October – <a href="/facts/Arthur_C._Clarke/2XJ6UGDB">Arthur C. Clarke</a> puts forward the idea of a <a href="/facts/Geosynchronous_satellite/xWRv8lAL">geosynchronous</a> <a href="/facts/Communications_satellite/y5RXPMDT">communications satellite</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9"><sup>9</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10"><sup>10</sup></a></li> <li>November – <a href="/facts/Slinky/Xc1Brzrd">Slinky</a> toy first demonstrated by engineer <a href="/facts/Richard_T._James/rvEBbNCp">Richard T. James</a> in <a href="/facts/Philadelphia/2bFFCCTU">Philadelphia</a>.</li> <li>The first <a href="/facts/Desalination/feP0m9wS">desalination</a> plant becomes operational.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11"><sup>11</sup></a></li></ul> <h2 id="institutions">Institutions</h2> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Kathleen_Lonsdale/U8rs3kpn">Kathleen Lonsdale</a> and <a href="/facts/Marjory_Stephenson/XrlMxvbN">Marjory Stephenson</a> become the first women elected as Fellows of the <a href="/facts/Royal_Society/KI5yXCuV">Royal Society</a> of London.</li></ul> <h2 id="publications">Publications</h2> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Argentine/aBjJqrlh">Argentine</a> <a href="/facts/Physicist/cQcgvSIm">physicist</a> <a href="/facts/Ernesto_Sabato/8TLl9JMY">Ernesto Sabato</a> publishes <i>Uno y el Universo</i> ("One and the Universe"), a collection of essays criticizing the apparent moral neutrality of science and warning of dehumanization in technological societies.</li> <li>First book in the <i><a href="/facts/New_Naturalist/tG5kuPLa">New Naturalist</a></i> series is published in the United Kingdom, <a href="/facts/E._B._Ford/maajeXRM">E. B. Ford</a>'s <i>Butterflies</i>.</li></ul> <h2 id="awards">Awards</h2> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Nobel_Prize/3z1Y3oFL">Nobel Prizes</a> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics/o6w1nCbr">Physics</a> – <a href="/facts/Wolfgang_Pauli/Ugk4ubXk">Wolfgang Pauli</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry/8Nb8Ajjy">Chemistry</a> – <a href="/facts/Artturi_Ilmari_Virtanen/u69bL9Bc">Artturi Ilmari Virtanen</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine/rlnpJX84">Medicine</a> – Sir <a href="/facts/Alexander_Fleming/qvMjfNVA">Alexander Fleming</a>, <a href="/facts/Ernst_Boris_Chain/VC1EwmT0">Ernst Boris Chain</a>, Sir <a href="/facts/Howard_Walter_Florey/DEoR72FC">Howard Walter Florey</a></li></ul></li></ul> <h2 id="births">Births</h2> <ul><li>January 4 – <a href="/facts/Richard_R._Schrock/ad4XdIw5">Richard R. Schrock</a>, American <a href="/facts/Chemist/N09K7Bdm">chemist</a>, <a href="/facts/Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry/8Nb8Ajjy">Nobel Prize</a> laureate.</li> <li>February 9 – <a href="/facts/Yoshinori_Ohsumi/wrEHFDzQ">Yoshinori Ohsumi</a>, Japanese <a href="/facts/Cell_biologist/kdIBGHub">cell biologist</a>, <a href="/facts/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine/rlnpJX84">Nobel Prize</a> laureate.</li> <li>February 26 – <a href="/facts/Michael_Marmot/qX1g3zCb">Michael Marmot</a>, English <a href="/facts/Epidemiologist/wgTmxoMA">epidemiologist</a>.</li> <li>February 28 – <a href="/facts/Alexey_Ekimov/3x6gDRLP">Alexey Ekimov</a>, Russian-born <a href="/facts/Chemist/N09K7Bdm">chemist</a>, <a href="/facts/Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry/8Nb8Ajjy">Nobel Prize</a> laureate.</li> <li>March 31 – <a href="/facts/Edwin_Catmull/4o0C8Nrl">Edwin Catmull</a>, American <a href="/facts/Computer_scientist/DavggjGL">computer scientist</a>.</li> <li>April 11 – <a href="/facts/John_Krebs%2c_Baron_Krebs/4ShgbvHX">John Krebs</a>, English <a href="/facts/Zoologist/6Kj13mBt">zoologist</a>.</li> <li>April 24 – <a href="/facts/Larry_Tesler/0N6fCKhH">Larry Tesler</a> (died <a href="/facts/2020_in_science/t6HkpHEr">2020</a>), American computer scientist.</li> <li>April 30 – <a href="/facts/Michael_J._Smith_(astronaut)/RUrMQsyg">Mike Smith</a> (killed <a href="/facts/1986_in_science/ywkYU3NA">1986</a> in rocket accident), American <a href="/facts/Astronaut/HB1bd6Lz">astronaut</a>.</li> <li>May 3 – <a href="/facts/Jeffrey_C._Hall/LEKRdWcN">Jeffrey C. Hall</a>, American <a href="/facts/Geneticist/cCvzvuKU">geneticist</a> and <a href="/facts/Chronobiology/wjHwfPuP">chronobiologist</a>, <a href="/facts/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine/rlnpJX84">Nobel Prize</a> laureate.</li> <li>May 20 – <a href="/facts/Anton_Zeilinger/bJoKANHh">Anton Zeilinger</a>, <a href="/facts/Austrians/EaCmCnHx">Austrian</a> quantum physicist, <a href="/facts/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics/o6w1nCbr">Nobel Prize</a> laureate.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12"><sup>12</sup></a></li> <li>July 7 – <a href="/facts/Adele_Goldberg_(computer_scientist)/FhCtLdpJ">Adele Goldberg</a>, American computer scientist.</li> <li>July 19 – <a href="/facts/Richard_Henderson_(biologist)/5Q9C0Uua">Richard Henderson</a>, <a href="/facts/Scottish_people/0rp2bd12">Scottish</a> <a href="/facts/Molecular_biologist/YgqU35ub">molecular biologist</a>, <a href="/facts/Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry/8Nb8Ajjy">Nobel Prize</a> laureate.</li> <li>August 1 – <a href="/facts/Douglas_Osheroff/YKVI9sL1">Douglas Osheroff</a>, American <a href="/facts/Physicist/cQcgvSIm">physicist</a>, <a href="/facts/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics/o6w1nCbr">Nobel Prize</a> laureate.</li> <li>September 18 – <a href="/facts/John_McAfee/QnnCxPQs">John McAfee</a> (presumed suicide <a href="/facts/2021_in_science/jWGfKMyf">2021</a>), <a href="/facts/British_American/Yah6UQoU">British American</a> <a href="/facts/Computer_programmer/WGTS1Jv9">computer programmer</a>.</li> <li>September 19 – <a href="/facts/Ruxandra_Sireteanu/d7H1gnWK">Ruxandra Sireteanu</a> (died <a href="/facts/2008_in_science/NLKwU0lC">2008</a>), <a href="/facts/Romanians/CzdFLDpf">Romanian</a> <a href="/facts/Neuroscientist/DvcNRpyM">neuroscientist</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13"><sup>13</sup></a></li> <li>October 2 – <a href="/facts/Martin_Hellman/QCxKCFgn">Martin Hellman</a>, American <a href="/facts/Cryptologist/EYETs590">cryptologist</a>.</li> <li>Undated – <a href="/facts/Lyn_Evans/N4xMScpp">Lyn Evans</a>, <a href="/facts/Welsh_people/gWY430zy">Welsh</a> physicist.</li></ul> <h2 id="deaths">Deaths</h2> <ul><li>March 23 – <a href="/facts/Napier_Shaw/5Yv08Lz3">Sir Napier Shaw</a> (born <a href="/facts/1854_in_science/jsrGlvtb">1854</a>), English <a href="/facts/Meteorologist/GDUQ6qxD">meteorologist</a>.</li> <li>April 22 – <a href="/facts/Wilhelm_Cauer/TfLzRRAc">Wilhelm Cauer</a> (born <a href="/facts/1900_in_science/tY9grWXa">1900</a>), German mathematician and electronic engineer, shot during Battle of Berlin.</li> <li>May 12 – <a href="/facts/Julius_Fromm/vUBSkYQp">Julius Fromm</a> (born <a href="/facts/1883_in_science/kccv3awX">1883</a>), German businessman, inventor known for the <a href="/facts/Condom_machine/Er6QMxEo">Condom machine</a></li> <li>May 14 – <a href="/facts/Isis_Pogson/m25qEEjX">Isis Pogson</a> (born <a href="/facts/1852_in_science/BSfIEwWG">1852</a>), English <a href="/facts/Astronomer/ronF8j4a">astronomer</a> and meteorologist.</li> <li>August 4 – <a href="/facts/Gerhard_Gentzen/9ujN0ssI">Gerhard Gentzen</a> (born <a href="/facts/1909_in_science/9XtDzVts">1909</a>), German <a href="/facts/Mathematician/eaFSR8Fx">mathematician</a>, starved in prison camp.</li> <li>August 10 – <a href="/facts/Robert_Goddard_(scientist)/tYmyRRta">Robert Goddard</a> (born <a href="/facts/1882_in_science/33pFPWcL">1882</a>), American <a href="/facts/Rocket/b6j4keIl">rocket</a> scientist, throat cancer.</li> <li>August 31 – <a href="/facts/Stefan_Banach/b1qHSNg2">Stefan Banach</a> (born <a href="/facts/1892_in_science/tfqwTHgh">1892</a>), Polish <a href="/facts/Mathematician/eaFSR8Fx">mathematician</a>, lung cancer.</li> <li>September 15 – <a href="/facts/Richard_Friedrich_Johannes_Pfeiffer/L3FfFl3S">Richard Friedrich Johannes Pfeiffer</a> (born <a href="/facts/1858_in_science/bxUykk1b">1858</a>), German <a href="/facts/Physician/qJ3woFvG">physician</a> and <a href="/facts/Bacteriologist/Xk70D2YU">bacteriologist</a>.</li> <li>September 24 – <a href="/facts/Hans_Geiger/SGNJNM2g">Hans Geiger</a> (born <a href="/facts/1882_in_science/33pFPWcL">1882</a>), German <a href="/facts/Inventor/P3LdUHBY">inventor</a> of the <a href="/facts/Geiger_counter/3xDNYh7I">Geiger counter</a>.</li> <li>October 1 – <a href="/facts/Walter_Bradford_Cannon/y3SXCS03">Walter Bradford Cannon</a> (born <a href="/facts/1871_in_science/JxgmMrur">1871</a>), American <a href="/facts/Physiologist/fh25y2pQ">physiologist</a>.</li> <li>November 20 – <a href="/facts/Francis_William_Aston/DVoj9ebB">Francis William Aston</a> (born <a href="/facts/1877_in_science/PvF8wXrx">1877</a>), English chemist, <a href="/facts/Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry/8Nb8Ajjy">Nobel Prize</a> laureate.</li> <li>December 4 – <a href="/facts/Thomas_Hunt_Morgan/4wswVmWC">Thomas Hunt Morgan</a> (born <a href="/facts/1866_in_science/pLoM3mjz">1866</a>), American <a href="/facts/Biologist/yJJGXyKR">biologist</a>, <a href="/facts/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine/rlnpJX84">Nobel Prize</a> laureate.</li> <li>December 11 – <a href="/facts/Charles_Fabry/Tn8nFMV5">Charles Fabry</a> (born <a href="/facts/1867_in_science/W9300Kyo">1867</a>), French <a href="/facts/Optical_physics/6HeJIr7P">optical physicist</a>.</li> <li>December 21/22 – <a href="/facts/Arthur_Korn/cvkBTKLd">Arthur Korn</a> (born <a href="/facts/1870_in_science/o4uJznAF">1870</a>), German-born inventor.</li></ul> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>"Discovery of Promethium". Oak Ridge National Laboratory Review. 36 (1). 2003. Archived from the original on 2011-06-22. Retrieved 2011-06-16. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110622100448/http://www.ornl.gov/info/ornlreview/v36_1_03/article_02.shtml" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20110622100448/http://www.ornl.gov/info/ornlreview/v36_1_03/article_02.shtml</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>Carlisle, C. H.; Crowfoot, D. (1945). "The crystal structure of cholesteryl iodide". Proceedings of the Royal Society. A184 (996): 64–83. JSTOR 97644. <a href="/wiki/Proceedings_of_the_Royal_Society" target="_blank">/wiki/Proceedings_of_the_Royal_Society</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>Glusker, Jenny P. (1994). "Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin (1910–1994)". Protein Science. 3 (12): 2465–2469. doi:10.1002/pro.5560031233. PMC 2142778. PMID 7757003. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2142778" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2142778</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:4"><p>Angier, R. B.; Boothe, J. H.; Hutchings, B. L.; Mowat, J. H.; Semb, J.; Stokstad, E. L. R.; Subbarow, Y.; Waller, C. W.; Cosulich, D. B.; Fahrenbach, M. J.; Hultquist, M. E.; Kuh, E.; Northey, E. H.; Seeger, D. R.; Sickels, J. P.; Smith Jr, J. M. (1945). "Synthesis of a Compound Identical with the L. Casei Factor Isolated from Liver". Science. 102 (2644): 227–228. Bibcode:1945Sci...102..227A. doi:10.1126/science.102.2644.227. PMID 17778509. <a href="/wiki/Science_(journal)" target="_blank">/wiki/Science_(journal)</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:5"><p>Hoffbrand, A. V.; Weir, D. G. (2001). "The history of folic acid". British Journal of Haematology. 113 (3): 579–589. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2141.2001.02822.x. PMID 11380441. <a href="/wiki/British_Journal_of_Haematology" target="_blank">/wiki/British_Journal_of_Haematology</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:6"><p>Stigler, George J. (May 1945). "The Cost of Subsistence". Journal of Farm Economics. 27 (2): 303–314. doi:10.2307/1231810. JSTOR 1231810. <a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Farm_Economics" target="_blank">/wiki/Journal_of_Farm_Economics</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:7"><p>"Penicillin Pills May Replace Injection". The Milwaukee Sentinel. 1945-02-16. Retrieved 2012-05-22. <a href="https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1368&dat=19450216&id=N0waAAAAIBAJ&sjid=7wwEAAAAIBAJ&pg=2626,3158721" target="_blank">https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1368&dat=19450216&id=N0waAAAAIBAJ&sjid=7wwEAAAAIBAJ&pg=2626,3158721</a> <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:8"><p>Year by Year – 1945. History International. <a href="/wiki/History_International" target="_blank">/wiki/History_International</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:9"><p>Clarke, Arthur C. (October 1945). "Extra-Terrestrial Relays: Can Rocket Stations Give World-wide Radio Coverage?". Wireless World: 305–6. Archived from the original on 2006-11-07. Retrieved 2019-05-20. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061107121143/http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/on-line/clarke/ww2.asp" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20061107121143/http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/on-line/clarke/ww2.asp</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:10"><p>"Peacetime Uses for V2" (JPG). Wireless World. February 1945. Archived from the original on 2007-03-15. Retrieved 2007-02-08. <a href="http://lakdiva.org/clarke/1945ww/1945ww_058.jpg" target="_blank">http://lakdiva.org/clarke/1945ww/1945ww_058.jpg</a> <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:11"><p>"Installed Desalination Capacity by Year, Number of Plants, and Total Capacity, 1945 to 2004" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-11-26. Retrieved 2013-07-21. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131126115625/http://www.worldwater.org/data20062007/Table22.pdf" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20131126115625/http://www.worldwater.org/data20062007/Table22.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:12"><p>"The Nobel Prize in Physics 2022". Nobel Prize (Press release). The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. 2022-10-04. Retrieved 2022-10-06. <a href="https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/2022/press-release/" target="_blank">https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/2022/press-release/</a> <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:13"><p>Ganea, Constanþa (2009). "Ruxandra Sireteanu-Constantinescu (1945-2008)". Curierul de Fizica (in Romanian). 63 (1): 18. <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> </ol>