Matrilineality

<h2 id="early-human-kinship">Early human kinship</h2>
Scholars disagree on the nature of early human, that is, <a href="/facts/Homo_sapiens/rlcTENsr">Homo sapiens</a>, kinship.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:1" href="#fn:1">1</a> In the late 19th century, most scholars believed, influenced by <a href="/facts/Lewis_H._Morgan/mqUsFytE">Lewis H. Morgan</a>'s book <a href="/facts/Ancient_Society/lqRSYCST">Ancient Society</a>, that early kinship was matrilineal.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:2" href="#fn:2">2</a> <a href="/facts/Friedrich_Engels/bYNwAon1">Friedrich Engels</a> took this up in <a href="/facts/The_Origin_of_the_Family%2c_Private_Property_and_the_State/By5Uynn7">The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State</a>. This thesis that our first domestic institution was the matrilineal <a href="/facts/Clan/xvdhrCHz">clan</a>, not the <a href="/facts/Family/EmvXYlxe">family</a>, became <a href="/facts/Communist_theory/PkUwa9xK">communist orthodoxy</a>. However, by the 20th century most social anthropologists disagreed,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:3" href="#fn:3">3</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:4" href="#fn:4">4</a> although during the 1970s and 1980s, <a href="/facts/Feminism/RRqUvGmk">feminist</a> scholars often revived it.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5">5</a>
In recent years, <a href="/facts/Evolutionary_biologist/8tBoG55U">evolutionary biologists</a>, geneticists and <a href="/facts/Palaeoanthropologist/Umjg0sUn">palaeoanthropologists</a> have found indirect genetic and other evidence of early matriliny.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6">6</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7">7</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8">8</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9">9</a> Some genetic data suggest that over millennia, female <a href="/facts/Sub-Saharan_Africa/p4u389aa">sub-Saharan African</a> hunter-gatherers have lived with their maternal kin after marriage.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10">10</a> Also, when sisters and their mothers help each other with childcare, the descent line tends to be matrilineal.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11">11</a> <a href="/facts/Biological_anthropology/jAERMuwq">Biological anthropologists</a> now largely agree that cooperative childcare helped the large human brain and human psychology to evolve.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12">12</a> 
Matriliny is often tied to <a href="/facts/Matrilocality/oh7XNVbn">matrilocality</a>, which shows significant nuance. Pastoralists and farmers often gravitate toward patrilocality.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13">13</a> However, studies show that hunter-gatherer societies have a flexible <a href="/facts/Philopatry/yBLu6IJu">philopatry</a> or practice multilocality; matrilocality and <a href="/facts/Patrilocal_residence/Au376zzo">patrilocality</a> are not the only possibilities.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14">14</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15">15</a> Flexibility leads to a more egalitarian society, as both men and women can choose with whom to live.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16">16</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17">17</a> So, for example, among the pygmy <a href="/facts/Aka_people/GqSbAzAt">Aka Peoples</a> a young couple usually settles in the husband's camp after the birth of their first child.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18">18</a> However, the husband can stay in the wife's community, where one of his brothers or sisters can join him. Kinship and residence in hunter-gatherer societies may thus be complex and multifaceted. Supporting this, a re-check of past data on hunter gatherers showed that about 40% of groups were bilocal, 22.9% matrilocal, and 25% patrilocal.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19">19</a>

<h2 id="matrilineal-surname">Matrilineal surname</h2>
Main article: <a href="/facts/Matriname/jz0yEjBk">Matriname</a>
Further information: <a href="/facts/Extinction_of_surnames/9hv6EdPN">Extinction of surnames</a>
Matrilineal <a href="/facts/Surname/gca0qxem">surnames</a> (matrinames) are names transmitted from mother to daughter, in contrast to the more familiar patrilineal surnames (patrinames) transmitted from father to son, the pattern most common among <a href="/facts/Family_name/gca0qxem">family names</a> today.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20">20</a>

<h2 id="cultural-patterns">Cultural patterns</h2>
In some societies, membership was—and, in the following list, still is if shown in italics—inherited matrilineally. Examples include many, if not most, Native <a href="/facts/North_American/djNjCQIl">North American</a> groups: the <a href="/facts/Cherokee/M43yAzsu">Cherokee</a>, <a href="/facts/Choctaw/tRfRBwBu">Choctaw</a>, <a href="/facts/Gitksan/MAJSnQRI">Gitksan</a>, <a href="/facts/Haida_people/RDm5Dox6">Haida</a>, <a href="/facts/Hopi/et30jSxz">Hopi</a>, <a href="/facts/Iroquois/PnYFTuIP">Iroquois</a>, <a href="/facts/Lenape/nPwqEfld">Lenape</a>, <a href="/facts/Navajo_people/phXNDqz5">Navajo</a> and <a href="/facts/Tlingit_people/gBEdklwR">Tlingit</a> among others; the <a href="/facts/Cab%25C3%25A9car_people/SNdYcJBP">Cabécar</a> and <a href="/facts/Bribri_people/KtHonYBb">Bribri</a> of Costa Rica; the <a href="/facts/Naso_people/aY72GLJr">Naso</a> and <a href="/facts/Kuna_people/ak83Tq7I">Kuna people</a> of Panama; the <a href="/facts/Kogi_people/W4DaEM6z">Kogi</a>, <a href="/facts/Wayuu_people/QfoHFbUQ">Wayuu</a> and <a href="/facts/Kalina_people/zN40uSSq">Carib</a> of South America; the <a href="/facts/Minangkabau_people/eTvhMWBN">Minangkabau</a> people of <a href="/facts/West_Sumatra/odzXp8aE">West Sumatra</a>, <a href="/facts/Indonesia/vQnWU3IW">Indonesia</a> and <a href="/facts/Negeri_Sembilan/7FBebKn9">Negeri Sembilan</a>, <a href="/facts/Malaysia/8zbUMzCP">Malaysia</a>; the <a href="/facts/Trobrianders/trA0BmyQ">Trobrianders</a>, <a href="/facts/Dobu/F9LRu9gd">Dobu</a> and Nagovisi of Melanesia; the <a href="/facts/Nairs/YSkGm9Kg">Nairs</a>, some <a href="/facts/Ezhava/JKaw1xn5">Thiyyas</a> & <a href="/facts/Muslims/W2ukq4pg">Muslims</a> of <a href="/facts/Kerala/DMP5u40q">Kerala</a> and the <a href="/facts/Mogaveera/IWtopjC6">Mogaveeras</a>, <a href="/facts/Billava/PLKplC3I">Billavas</a> & the <a href="/facts/Bunt_(community)/79WsoNYR">Bunts</a> of <a href="/facts/Karnataka/NhJAc4t9">Karnataka</a> in south <a href="/facts/India/1kKHcnxM">India</a>; the <a href="/facts/Khasi_people/CV20CenW">Khasi</a>, <a href="/facts/Synteng/sKWX6x6Q">Jaintia</a> and <a href="/facts/Garo_(tribe)/5lPpJaN0">Garo</a> of <a href="/facts/Meghalaya/lkm1Upzw">Meghalaya</a> in northeast India and <a href="/facts/Bangladesh/NXk4f78Y">Bangladesh</a>; the <a href="/facts/Ngalop_people/xmhLNBtl">Ngalops</a> and <a href="/facts/Sharchops/8EgpHIo2">Sharchops</a> of <a href="/facts/Bhutan/fSRsLss9">Bhutan</a>; the <a href="/facts/Mosuo/havYILRX">Mosuo</a> of <a href="/facts/China/lTjIXY5p">China</a>; the <a href="/facts/Kayah_people/zjT2XpGt">Kayah</a> of Southeast Asia; the <a href="/facts/Basques/leFXJxBH">Basques</a> of <a href="/facts/Spain/bIyrB8EY">Spain</a> and <a href="/facts/France/CxIeIKM3">France</a>; the <a href="/facts/Akan_people/JHbwYWDw">Akan</a> including the <a href="/facts/Ashanti_people/NIN7hfz6">Ashanti</a>, <a href="/facts/Bono_people/q1MbUd40">Bono</a>, <a href="/facts/Akwamu/nV1Kg1wA">Akwamu</a>, <a href="/facts/Fante_people/GXRkheRu">Fante</a> of <a href="/facts/Ghana/IkUw32Ya">Ghana</a>; most groups across the so-called "<a href="/facts/Matrilineal_belt/R21C8sFG">matrilineal belt</a>" of south-central Africa; the <a href="/facts/Nubians/0aLIBCzj">Nubians</a> of Southern <a href="/facts/Egypt/8Ttg0JwB">Egypt</a> & <a href="/facts/Sudan/yGeaNdvS">Sudan</a>; the <a href="/facts/Tuareg_people/A697J6Ju">Tuareg</a> of west and north Africa; and the <a href="/facts/Serer_people/4NGoxQYS">Serer</a> of <a href="/facts/Senegal/PPaRNYJH">Senegal</a>, <a href="/facts/The_Gambia/en5tl7Sz">The Gambia</a> and <a href="/facts/Mauritania/JcP8EJku">Mauritania</a>. The title of the <a href="/facts/Rain_Queen/wMP5dv40">Rain Queen</a> in <a href="/facts/South_Africa/vvXQpLgq">South Africa</a> is inherited via matrilineal <a href="/facts/Primogeniture/taMEFK8d">primogeniture</a>: <a href="/facts/Dynasty/6xXfAm3Y">dynastic</a> descent is matrilineal, with only females eligible to inherit.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21">21</a>
Genetic evidence shows matriliny, and matrilocality, among <a href="/facts/Celts/eMCVYAFz">Celts</a> in <a href="/facts/Iron_Age_Britain/pp33u4nv">Iron Age Britain</a>. As other data indicate patriarchy in the <a href="/facts/Early_Bronze_Age/c09qWcTt">Early Bronze Age</a>, this may indicate a rare patriarchal to matrifocal transition.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22">22</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23">23</a> There is evidence of matrilineal royal descent, from maternal uncle to nephew, in early Iron Age (ca. 500 BCE) Celtics in continental Europe.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24">24</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25">25</a> There is evidence of matriliny in <a href="/facts/Pre-Islamic_Arabia/v6TGYKyB">Pre-Islamic Arabia</a> among a subclan of the Amarite tribal confederation of <a href="/facts/Ancient_Saba/IfK8LwS3">Ancient Saba</a>; the wider society there was overwhelmingly patrilineal.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26">26</a> Genetic data has also established matriliny and matrilocality of an elite among <a href="/facts/Ancestral_Pueblo_people/KBn3XUVd">Ancestral Pueblo People</a>, from 8th to 11th century AD, in <a href="/facts/Chaco_Canyon/S2DIpX1I">Chaco Canyon</a>, <a href="/facts/New_Mexico/wosJCGaW">New Mexico</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27">27</a> The initial people of <a href="/facts/Micronesia/xUf6LkMv">Micronesia</a> practiced matrilocality, as seen in ancient DNA.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28">28</a> Ancient DNA from a late neolithic site in Northern China (Fujia in <a href="/facts/Shandong/7IyuMEdW">Shandong Province</a>), dated around 2700 BCE, showed both matrilocality and possibly a general preference for the maternal bloodline as opposed to affinal (marital) kin.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29">29</a>

<h3>Clan names vs. surnames</h3>
Matrilineal groups are often made up of matrilineal <a href="/facts/Clan/xvdhrCHz">clans</a>, at times with <a href="/facts/Descent_group/grXkJ2u7">descent groups</a> or family groups each with a separate female ancestor. Sometimes the male ancestor, that is, the partner of the female ancestor where known, is mentioned as the ancestor though the clan is matrilineal.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30">30</a> Surnames in these situations may follow several patterns. The clan name may be the surname, handed down matrilineally. The clan name may be tracked but not used in the personal names. This is true of the Minangkabau, for instance, who mostly use just one name. It is also true of the Akan, who do use two names, but do not inherit the second name, hence making it a surname but not a family name.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31">31</a> The surname may also be the name of the descent group.

<h3>Care of children</h3>
While a mother normally takes care of her own children in all cultures, in some matrilineal cultures, particularly matrilocal ones, an "uncle-father," termed a social father, will take care of, and be guardian to, his nieces and nephews instead of his sons. The biological father plays little role in child rearing.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32">32</a>

<h2 id="matriliny-in-specific-ethnic-groups">Matriliny in specific ethnic groups</h2>
<h3>Africa</h3>
<h4>Akan</h4>
Main articles: <a href="/facts/Akan_people/JHbwYWDw">Akan people</a> and <a href="/facts/Abusua/VGUNkLhG">Abusua</a>
Some 20 million <a href="/facts/Akan_people/JHbwYWDw">Akan</a> live in Africa, particularly in <a href="/facts/Ghana/IkUw32Ya">Ghana</a> and <a href="/facts/Ivory_Coast/mSSED5Yl">Ivory Coast</a>. (See as well their subgroups, the <a href="/facts/Ashanti_people/NIN7hfz6">Ashanti</a>, also called Asante, <a href="/facts/Akyem/hkmHYBeg">Akyem</a>, <a href="/facts/Bono_people/q1MbUd40">Bono</a>, <a href="/facts/Fante_people/GXRkheRu">Fante</a>, <a href="/facts/Akwamu/nV1Kg1wA">Akwamu</a>.) Many but not all of the Akan still (2001)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33">33</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34">34</a> practice their traditional matrilineal customs, living in their traditional <a href="/facts/Extended_family/0xoH779Y">extended family</a> households, as follows. The traditional Akan economic, political and social organization is based on maternal lineages, which are the basis of inheritance and succession. A lineage is defined as all those related by <a href="/facts/Matrilineal_descent/RFgpp4Bg">matrilineal descent</a> from a particular ancestress. Several lineages are grouped into a political unit headed by a chief and a council of elders, each of whom is the elected head of a lineage – which itself may include multiple extended-family households. Public offices are thus vested in the lineage, as are land tenure and other lineage property. In other words, lineage property is inherited only by matrilineal kin.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35">35</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36">36</a>
"The principles governing inheritance stress sex, generation and age – that is to say, men come before women and seniors before juniors." When a woman's brothers are available, a consideration of generational seniority stipulates that the line of brothers be exhausted before the right to inherit lineage property passes down to the next senior genealogical generation of sisters' sons. Finally, "it is when all possible male heirs have been exhausted that the females" may inherit.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37">37</a>
Each lineage controls the lineage land farmed by its members, functions together in the veneration of its ancestors, supervises marriages of its members, and settles internal disputes among its members.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38">38</a>
The political units above are likewise grouped into eight larger groups called <a href="/facts/Abusua/VGUNkLhG">abusua</a> (similar to <a href="/facts/Clan/xvdhrCHz">clans</a>), named Aduana, Agona, Asakyiri, Asenie, Asona, Bretuo, Ekuona and Oyoko. The members of each abusua are united by their belief that they are all descended from the same ancient ancestress. Marriage between members of the same abusua is forbidden. One inherits or is a lifelong member of the lineage, the political unit, and the abusua of one's mother, regardless of one's gender and/or marriage. Note that members and their spouses thus belong to different abusuas, mother and children living and working in one household and their husband/father living and working in a different household.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39">39</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40">40</a>
According to this source<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:41" href="#fn:41">41</a> of further information about the Akan, "A man is strongly related to his mother's brother (wɔfa) but only weakly related to his father's brother. This must be viewed in the context of a <a href="/facts/Polygamous/KcotxHJ5">polygamous</a> society in which the mother/child bond is likely to be much stronger than the father/child bond. As a result, in inheritance, a man's nephew (sister's son) will have priority over his own son. Uncle-nephew relationships therefore assume a dominant position."<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:42" href="#fn:42">42</a>
Certain other aspects of the Akan culture are determined <a href="/facts/Patrilineally/DRID1Ly4">patrilineally</a> rather than matrilineally. There are 12 patrilineal <a href="/facts/Ntoro/kDCnIkmW">Ntoro</a> (which means spirit) groups, and everyone belongs to their father's Ntoro group but not to his (matrilineal) family lineage and abusua. Each patrilineal Ntoro group has its own surnames,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:43" href="#fn:43">43</a> taboos, ritual purifications, and etiquette.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:44" href="#fn:44">44</a>
A recent (2001) book<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:45" href="#fn:45">45</a> provides this update on the Akan: Some families are changing from the above abusua structure to the <a href="/facts/Nuclear_family/kFofMITE">nuclear family</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:46" href="#fn:46">46</a> Housing, childcare, education, daily work, and elder care etc. are then handled by that individual family rather than by the abusua or clan, especially in the city.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:47" href="#fn:47">47</a> The above taboo on marriage within one's abusua is sometimes ignored, but "clan membership" is still important,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:48" href="#fn:48">48</a> with many people still living in the abusua framework presented above.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:49" href="#fn:49">49</a>

<h4>Guanches</h4>
Main article: <a href="/facts/Guanches/t26NUS9u">Guanches</a>
The <a href="/facts/Berbers/kuN9pFNf">Berber</a> inhabitants of <a href="/facts/Gran_Canaria/lsC5k0oe">Gran Canaria</a> island had developed a matrilineal society by the time the <a href="/facts/Canary_Islands/7lfpqymu">Canary Islands</a> and their people, called <a href="/facts/Guanches/t26NUS9u">Guanches</a>, were conquered by the Spanish.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:50" href="#fn:50">50</a>

<h4>Serer</h4>
Main article: <a href="/facts/Serer_maternal_clans/lgJjSUXp">Serer maternal clans</a>
The <a href="/facts/Serer_people/4NGoxQYS">Serer people</a> of <a href="/facts/Senegal/PPaRNYJH">Senegal</a>, the <a href="/facts/Gambia/en5tl7Sz">Gambia</a> and <a href="/facts/Mauritania/JcP8EJku">Mauritania</a> are patrilineal (simanGol in <a href="/facts/Serer_language/5eYuDt0J">Serer language</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:51" href="#fn:51">51</a>) as well as matrilineal (tim<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:52" href="#fn:52">52</a>). There are several <a href="/facts/Serer_maternal_clans/lgJjSUXp">Serer matriclans</a> and matriarchs. Some of these matriarchs include <a href="/facts/Lingeer_Fatim_Beye/3bjBcExo">Fatim Beye</a> (1335) and <a href="/facts/Lingeer_Ndoye_Demba/UGEQuKFQ">Ndoye Demba</a> (1367) – matriarchs of the <a href="/facts/Joos_Maternal_Dynasty/YgJB4UuM">Joos matriclan</a> which also became a dynasty in <a href="/facts/Waalo/vYUhfN4r">Waalo</a> (Senegal). Some <a href="/facts/Matriclan/lgJjSUXp">matriclans</a> or maternal clans form part of <a href="/facts/Serer_history_(medieval_era_to_present)/AoVrqvWQ">Serer medieval</a> and dynastic history, such as the <a href="/facts/Guelowar/2zQCIm7w">Guelowars</a>. The most revered clans tend to be rather ancient and form part of <a href="/facts/Serer_ancient_history/tdz8CagS">Serer ancient history</a>. These <a href="/facts/Timeline_of_Serer_history/Kss5aPCS">proto-Serer</a> clans hold great significance in <a href="/facts/Serer_religion/oGmuSd4K">Serer religion</a> and <a href="/facts/Serer_creation_myth/nyJs44tU">mythology</a>. Some of these proto-Serer matriclans include the Cegandum and Kagaw, whose historical account is enshrined in Serer religion, mythology and <a href="/facts/Traditions/5qkV7G2A">traditions</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:53" href="#fn:53">53</a>
In Serer culture, inheritance is both matrilineal and patrilineal.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:54" href="#fn:54">54</a> It all depends on the asset being inherited – i.e. whether the asset is a paternal asset – requiring paternal inheritance (kucarla<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:55" href="#fn:55">55</a> ) or a maternal asset – requiring maternal inheritance (den yaay<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:56" href="#fn:56">56</a> or ƭeen yaay<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:57" href="#fn:57">57</a>). The actual handling of these maternal assets (such as jewelry, land, livestock, equipment or furniture, etc.) is discussed in the subsection <a href="/facts/Serer_maternal_clans/lgJjSUXp">Role of the Tokoor</a> of one of the above-listed main articles.

<h4>Tuareg</h4>
Main article: <a href="/facts/Tuareg_people/A697J6Ju">Tuareg people</a>
The <a href="/facts/Tuareg_people/A697J6Ju">Tuareg</a> (Arabic:طوارق, sometimes spelled Touareg in French, or Twareg in English) are a large <a href="/facts/Berbers/kuN9pFNf">Berber</a> ethnic confederation found across several nations in north Africa, including <a href="/facts/Niger/hRbX6MkM">Niger</a>, <a href="/facts/Mali/sAaVqV1e">Mali</a> and <a href="/facts/Algeria/UXDF4Tj6">Algeria</a>. The Tuareg are clan-based,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:58" href="#fn:58">58</a> and are (still, in 2007) "largely matrilineal".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:59" href="#fn:59">59</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:60" href="#fn:60">60</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:61" href="#fn:61">61</a> The Tuareg are <a href="/facts/Muslim/W2ukq4pg">Muslim</a>, but mixed with a "heavy dose" of their pre-existing beliefs including matriliny.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:62" href="#fn:62">62</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:63" href="#fn:63">63</a>
Tuareg women enjoy high status within their society, compared with their <a href="/facts/Arab/E77duPsg">Arab</a> counterparts and with other Berber tribes: Tuareg social status is transmitted through women, with residence often <a href="/facts/Matrilocal_residence/oh7XNVbn">matrilocal</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:64" href="#fn:64">64</a> Most women could read and write, while most men were illiterate, concerning themselves mainly with herding livestock and other male activities.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:65" href="#fn:65">65</a> The livestock and other movable property were owned by the women, whereas personal property is owned and inherited regardless of gender.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:66" href="#fn:66">66</a> In contrast to most other Muslim cultural groups, men wear veils but women do not.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:67" href="#fn:67">67</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:68" href="#fn:68">68</a> This custom is discussed in more detail in the Tuareg article's <a href="/facts/Tuareg_people/A697J6Ju">clothing section</a>, which mentions it may be the protection needed against the blowing sand while traversing the <a href="/facts/Sahara/JVlJd2VC">Sahara desert</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:69" href="#fn:69">69</a>

<h3>Americas</h3>
<h4>Bororo</h4>
Main article: <a href="/facts/Bororo/qlNdAeAe">Bororo</a>
The Bororo people of Brazil and Bolivia live in matrilineal clans, with husbands moving to live with their wives' extended families.

<h4>Bribri</h4>
Main article: <a href="/facts/Bribri_people/KtHonYBb">Bribri people</a>
The clan system of the Bribri people of Costa Rica and Panama is matrilineal; that is, a child's clan is determined by the clan his or her mother belongs to. Only women can inherit land.

<h4>Cabécar</h4>
Main article: <a href="/facts/Cab%25C3%25A9car_people/SNdYcJBP">Cabécar people</a>
The social organization of the Cabécar people of Costa Rica is predicated on matrilineal clans in which the mother is the head of household. Each matrilineal clan controls marriage possibilities, regulates land tenure, and determines property inheritance for its members.

<h4>Guna</h4>
Main article: <a href="/facts/Guna_people/ak83Tq7I">Guna people</a>
In the traditional culture of the <a href="/facts/Guna_people/ak83Tq7I">Guna people</a> of Panama and Colombia, families are matrilinear and matrilocal, with the groom moving to become part of the bride's family. The groom also takes the last name of the bride.

<h4>Hopi</h4>
Main article: <a href="/facts/Hopi_people/et30jSxz">Hopi people</a>
The <a href="/facts/Hopi_people/et30jSxz">Hopi</a> (in what is now the <a href="/facts/Hopi_Reservation/QKXXIddW">Hopi Reservation</a> in northeastern <a href="/facts/Arizona/6ayM3swJ">Arizona</a>), according to <a href="/facts/Alice_Schlegel/hUHAScNA">Alice Schlegel</a>, had as its "gender ideology ... one of female superiority, and it operated within a social actuality of sexual equality."<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:70" href="#fn:70">70</a> According to LeBow (based on Schlegel's work), in the Hopi, "gender roles ... are egalitarian .... [and] [n]either sex is inferior."<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:71" href="#fn:71">71</a> LeBow concluded that Hopi women "participate fully in ... political decision-making."<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:72" href="#fn:72">72</a> According to Schlegel, "the Hopi no longer live as they are described here"<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:73" href="#fn:73">73</a> and "the attitude of female superiority is fading".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:74" href="#fn:74">74</a> Schlegel said the Hopi "were and still are matrilinial"<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:75" href="#fn:75">75</a> and "the household ... was matrilocal".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:76" href="#fn:76">76</a>
Schlegel explains why there was female superiority as that the Hopi believed in "life as the highest good ... [with] the female principle ... activated in women and in Mother Earth ... as its source"<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:77" href="#fn:77">77</a> and that the Hopi "were not in a state of continual war with equally matched neighbors"<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:78" href="#fn:78">78</a> and "had no standing army"<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:79" href="#fn:79">79</a> so that "the Hopi lacked the spur to masculine superiority"<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:80" href="#fn:80">80</a> and, within that, as that women were central to institutions of clan and household and predominated "within the economic and social systems (in contrast to male predominance within the political and ceremonial systems)",<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:81" href="#fn:81">81</a> the <a href="/facts/Haudenosaunee_Clan_Mother/3dsa1Jxg">Clan Mother</a>, for example, being empowered to overturn land distribution by men if she felt it was unfair,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:82" href="#fn:82">82</a> since there was no "countervailing ... strongly centralized, male-centered political structure".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:83" href="#fn:83">83</a>

<h4>Iroquois</h4>
Main article: <a href="/facts/Iroquois/PnYFTuIP">Iroquois</a>
The <a href="/facts/Iroquois/PnYFTuIP">Iroquois Confederacy or League</a>, combining five to six Native American <a href="/facts/Iroquois/PnYFTuIP">Haudenosaunee</a> nations or tribes before the <a href="/facts/United_States/P0sCdLe5">U.S.</a> became a nation, operated by <a href="/facts/Great_Law_of_Peace/27anm680">The Great Binding Law of Peace</a>, a constitution by which women retained matrilineal-rights and participated in the League's political decision-making, including deciding whether to proceed to war,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:84" href="#fn:84">84</a> through what may have been a matriarchy<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:85" href="#fn:85">85</a> or "gyneocracy".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:86" href="#fn:86">86</a> The dates of this constitution's operation are unknown: the League was formed in approximately 1000–1450, but the constitution was oral until written in about 1880.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:87" href="#fn:87">87</a> The League still exists.
Other Iroquoian-speaking peoples such as the <a href="/facts/Wyandot_people/JP1MnbQh">Wyandot</a> and the <a href="/facts/Meherrin/7M2j39CK">Meherrin</a>, that were never part of the Iroquois League, nevertheless have traditionally possessed a matrilineal family structure.

<h4>Kogi</h4>
Main article: <a href="/facts/Kogi_people/W4DaEM6z">Kogi people</a>
The Kogi people of northern Colombia practice bilateral inheritance, with certain rights, names or associations descending matrilineally.

<h4>Lenape</h4>
Main article: <a href="/facts/Lenape/nPwqEfld">Lenape</a>
Occupied for 10,000 years by <a href="/facts/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States/lr8Qmd6N">Native Americans</a>, the land that is present-day <a href="/facts/New_Jersey/pI5k19S7">New Jersey</a> was overseen by <a href="/facts/Clan/xvdhrCHz">clans</a> of the <a href="/facts/Lenape/nPwqEfld">Lenape</a>, who farmed, fished, and hunted upon it. The pattern of their culture was that of a matrilineal agricultural and mobile hunting society that was sustained with fixed, but not permanent, settlements in their matrilineal clan territories. Leadership by men was inherited through the maternal line, and the women elders held the power to remove leaders of whom they disapproved.
Villages were established and relocated as the clans farmed new sections of the land when soil fertility lessened and when they moved among their fishing and hunting grounds by seasons. The area was claimed as a part of the Dutch <a href="/facts/New_Netherland/2S44xW81">New Netherland</a> province dating from 1614, where active trading in furs took advantage of the natural pass west, but the Lenape prevented permanent settlement beyond what is now Jersey City.
"Early Europeans who first wrote about these Indians found matrilineal social organization to be unfamiliar and perplexing. As a result, the early records are full of 'clues' about early Lenape society, but were usually written by observers who did not fully understand what they were seeing."<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:88" href="#fn:88">88</a>

<h4>Mandan</h4>
Main article: <a href="/facts/Mandan/xdaLkF5L">Mandan</a>
The Mandan people of the northern Great Plains of the United States historically lived in matrilineal extended family lodges.

<h4>Naso</h4>
Main article: <a href="/facts/Naso_people/aY72GLJr">Naso people</a>
The Naso (Teribe or Térraba) people of Panama and Costa Rica describe themselves as a matriarchal community, although their monarchy has traditionally been inherited in the male line.

<h4>Navajo</h4>
Main article: <a href="/facts/Navajo/phXNDqz5">Navajo</a>
The Navajo people of the American southwest are a matrilineal society in which kinship, children, livestock and family histories are passed down through the female. In marriage the groom moved to live with the brides family. Children also came from their mother's clan living in hogans of the females family. 

<h4>Tanana Athabaskan</h4>
Main article: <a href="/facts/Tanana_Athabaskans/WHwytsEp">Tanana Athabaskans</a>
The Tanana Athabaskan people, the original inhabitants of the Tanana River basin in Alaska and Canada, traditionally lived in matrilineal semi-nomadic bands.

<h4>Tsenacommacah (Powhatan Confederacy)</h4>
Main article: <a href="/facts/Tsenacommacah/3nX01Izy">Tsenacommacah</a>
The <a href="/facts/Powhatan/eqy5N4rd">Powhatan</a> and other tribes of the <a href="/facts/Tsenacommacah/3nX01Izy">Tsenacommacah</a>, also known as the Powhatan Confederacy, practiced a version of male-preference matrilineal <a href="/facts/Order_of_succession/RSIExRWd">seniority</a>, favoring brothers over sisters in the current generation (but allowing sisters to inherit if no brothers remained), but passing to the next generation through the eldest female line. In A Map of Virginia <a href="/facts/John_Smith_of_Jamestown/x96kJSdx">John Smith of Jamestown</a> explains:<blockquote>His [<a href="/facts/Chief_Powhatan/2wRGHUwP">Chief Powhatan</a>'s] kingdome descendeth not to his sonnes nor children: but first to his brethren, whereof he hath 3 namely Opitchapan, <a href="/facts/Opechancanough/l2EpX1BC">Opechancanough</a>, and Catataugh; and after their decease to his sisters. First to the eldest sister, then to the rest: and after them to the heires male and female of the eldest sister; but never to the heires of the males.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:89" href="#fn:89">89</a></blockquote>
<h4>Upper Kuskokwim</h4>
Main article: <a href="/facts/Upper_Kuskokwim_people/gvJxkgn7">Upper Kuskokwim people</a>
The Upper Kuskokwim people are the original inhabitants of the Upper Kuskokwim River basin. They speak an Athabaskan language more closely related to Tanana than to the language of the Lower Kuskokkwim River basin. They were traditionally hunter-gatherers who lived in matrilineal semi-nomadic bands.

<h4>Wayuu</h4>
Main article: <a href="/facts/Wayuu_people/QfoHFbUQ">Wayuu people</a>
The Wayuu people of Colombia and Venezuela live in matrilineal clans, with paternal relationships in the background.

<h3>Asia</h3>
<h4>China</h4>
Originally, <a href="/facts/Chinese_surname/r8dpUG2R">Chinese surnames</a> were derived matrilineally,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:90" href="#fn:90">90</a> although by the time of the <a href="/facts/Shang_dynasty/6JYKH4wP">Shang dynasty</a> (1600 to 1046 <a href="/facts/BCE/e5DpqUoe">BCE</a>) they had become patrilineal.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:91" href="#fn:91">91</a>
Archaeological data supports the theory that during the <a href="/facts/Neolithic/wRS0Bnh4">Neolithic</a> period (7000 to 2000 <a href="/facts/BCE/e5DpqUoe">BCE</a>) in China, Chinese matrilineal clans evolved into the usual patrilineal families by passing through a transitional patrilineal clan phase.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:92" href="#fn:92">92</a> Evidence includes some "richly furnished" tombs for young women in the early Neolithic <a href="/facts/Yangshao/61WKDbfz">Yangshao</a> culture, whose multiple other collective burials imply a matrilineal clan culture.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:93" href="#fn:93">93</a> Toward the late Neolithic period, when burials were apparently of couples, "a reflection of patriarchy", an increasing elaboration of presumed chiefs' burials is reported.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:94" href="#fn:94">94</a>
Relatively isolated ethnic minorities such as the <a href="/facts/Mosuo/havYILRX">Mosuo</a> (Na) in southwestern China are highly matrilineal. 

<h4>India</h4>
Main articles: <a href="/facts/Marumakkathayam/yIv29pRq">Marumakkathayam</a>, <a href="/facts/Aliyasantana/VBYyJRHs">Aliyasantana</a>, and <a href="/facts/Meghalaya/lkm1Upzw">Meghalaya § Social_institutions</a>
Of communities recognized in the <a href="/facts/Constitution_of_India/u9BCSHYF">national Constitution</a> as Scheduled Tribes, "some ... [are] matriarchal and matrilineal"<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:95" href="#fn:95">95</a> "and thus have been known to be more egalitarian."<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:96" href="#fn:96">96</a> Some Hindu communities in Southwest India practiced matriliny, especially the <a href="/facts/Nair/YSkGm9Kg">Nair</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:97" href="#fn:97">97</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:98" href="#fn:98">98</a> (or Nayar), <a href="/facts/Ezhava/JKaw1xn5">Tiyyas</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:99" href="#fn:99">99</a> and some <a href="/facts/Namboothiri/kQYbkWEW">Namboothiri</a> Brahmins<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:100" href="#fn:100">100</a> in the state of <a href="/facts/Kerala/DMP5u40q">Kerala</a>, and the <a href="/facts/Bunt_(community)/79WsoNYR">Bunts</a> and <a href="/facts/Billava/PLKplC3I">Billava</a> in the state of <a href="/facts/Karnataka/NhJAc4t9">Karnataka</a>. The system of inheritance was known as <a href="/facts/Marumakkathayam/yIv29pRq">Marumakkathayam</a> in the Nair community or <a href="/facts/Aliyasantana/VBYyJRHs">Aliyasantana</a> in the <a href="/facts/Bunt_(community)/79WsoNYR">Bunt</a> and the <a href="/facts/Billava/PLKplC3I">Billava</a> community, and both communities were subdivided into <a href="/facts/Clan/xvdhrCHz">clans</a>. This system was exceptional in the sense that it was one of the few traditional systems in India that gave women some liberty and the right to property.
In the matrilineal system of <a href="/facts/Kerala/DMP5u40q">Kerala</a>, southern India, the family lived together in a <a href="/facts/Tharavadu/F3PQ32GJ">tharavadu</a> which was composed of a mother, her brothers and younger sisters, and her children in a system called as <a href="/facts/Marumakkathayam/yIv29pRq">Marumakkathayam</a>. The oldest male member was known as the <a href="/facts/Karnavar/T78cRuWY">Karnavar</a> and was the head of the household, managing the family estate. Lineage was traced through the mother, and the children belonged to the mother's family. The <a href="/facts/Surnames/gca0qxem">surname</a> would be from the maternal side and all family property was jointly owned. In the event of a partition, the shares of the children were clubbed with that of the mother. The Karnavar's property was inherited by his sisters' sons rather than his own sons. Almost all the kingdoms in Kerala practised this system, with the Karnavar of the family becoming the king. The <a href="/facts/Arakkal_kingdom/fNaY5V4x">Arakkal kingdom</a> of Kerala followed a similar matrilineal system of descent: the eldest member of the family, whether male or female, became its head and ruler. (For further information see the articles on <a href="/facts/Nair/YSkGm9Kg">Nair</a>, <a href="/facts/Ambalavasi/uu6CMJsN">Ambalavasi</a>, <a href="/facts/Bunt_(community)/79WsoNYR">Bunts</a> and <a href="/facts/Billava/PLKplC3I">Billava</a>). <a href="/facts/Amitav_Ghosh/hHGba0SQ">Amitav Ghosh</a> has stated that, although there were numerous other matrilineal succession systems in communities of the south Indian coast, the Nairs "achieved an unparalleled eminence in the anthropological literature on matriliny".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:101" href="#fn:101">101</a>
In the <a href="/facts/Northeast_India/JtFJkH2A">northeast Indian</a> state <a href="/facts/Meghalaya/lkm1Upzw">Meghalaya</a>, the <a href="/facts/Khasi_people/CV20CenW">Khasi</a>, <a href="/facts/Garo_people/5lPpJaN0">Garo</a>, <a href="/facts/Pnar_people/sKWX6x6Q">Jaintia people</a> have a long tradition of a largely matrilinear system in which the youngest daughter inherits the wealth of the parents and takes over their care.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:102" href="#fn:102">102</a>

<h4>Indonesia</h4>
Main article: <a href="/facts/Minangkabau_people/eTvhMWBN">Minangkabau people</a>
In the <a href="/facts/Minangs/eTvhMWBN">Minangkabau</a> matrilineal <a href="/facts/Clan/xvdhrCHz">clan</a> culture in <a href="/facts/Indonesia/vQnWU3IW">Indonesia</a>, a person's <a href="/facts/Clan/xvdhrCHz">clan</a> name is important in their marriage and their other cultural-related events.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:103" href="#fn:103">103</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:104" href="#fn:104">104</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:105" href="#fn:105">105</a> Two totally unrelated people who share the same clan name can never be married because they are considered to be from the same clan mother (unless they come from distant villages). Likewise, when <a href="/facts/Minangs/eTvhMWBN">Minangs</a> meet total strangers who share the same clan name, anywhere in Indonesia, they could theoretically expect to feel that they are distant relatives.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:106" href="#fn:106">106</a> Minang people do not have a family name or surname; neither is one's important clan name included in one's name; instead one's <a href="/facts/Given_name/KpX6sKs8">given name</a> is the only name one has.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:107" href="#fn:107">107</a>
The <a href="/facts/Minangs/eTvhMWBN">Minangs</a> are one of the world's largest matrilineal societies/cultures/ethnic groups, with a population of 4 million in their home province <a href="/facts/West_Sumatra/odzXp8aE">West Sumatra</a> in Indonesia and about 4 million elsewhere, mostly in Indonesia. The Minang people are well known within their country for their tradition of matriliny and for their "dedication to Islam" – despite Islam being "supposedly patrilineal".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:108" href="#fn:108">108</a> This well-known accommodation, between their traditional complex of customs, called <a href="/facts/Adat/gf0egofs">adat</a>, and their religion, was actually worked out to help end the Minangkabau 1821–37 <a href="/facts/Padri_War/PX3WxxRR">Padri War</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:109" href="#fn:109">109</a> 
The <a href="/facts/Minangkabau_people/eTvhMWBN">Minangkabau</a> are a prime example of a matrilineal culture with female inheritance. With Islamic religious background of <a href="/facts/Complementarian/D4t9nQ1u">complementarianism</a> and places a greater number of men than women in positions of religious and political power. Inheritance and proprietorship pass from mother to daughter.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:110" href="#fn:110">110</a>
Besides Minangkabau, several other ethnics in Indonesia are also matrilineal and have similar culture as the Minangkabau. They are Suku Melayu Bebilang, Suku Kubu and Kerinci people. Suku Melayu Bebilang live in Kota Teluk Kuantan, Kabupaten Kuantan Singingi (also known as Kuansing), Riau. They have similar culture as the Minang. Suku Kubu people live in Jambi and South Sumatera. They are around 200 000 people. Suku Kerinci people mostly live in Kabupaten Kerinci, Jambi. They are around 300 000 people.

<h4>Kurds</h4>
Main articles: <a href="/facts/Mangur_(Kurdish_tribe)/Dq9A2wty">Mangur (Kurdish tribe)</a> and <a href="/facts/Mokryan/KUvx5TSb">Mokryan</a> 
Matriliny was occasionally practiced by mainstream <a href="/facts/Sorani/S4RYJYNB">Sorani</a>, <a href="/facts/Zazas/M40nLlFN">Zaza</a>, <a href="/facts/Feyli_(Kurdish_tribe)/Tx1UqY2B">Feyli</a>, <a href="/facts/Gorani_people/yv8MQYUp">Gorani</a>, and <a href="/facts/Alevi/vWRLewNg">Alevi</a> <a href="/facts/Kurds/kV90PCdW">Kurds</a>, though the practice was much rarer among non-<a href="/facts/Alevi/vWRLewNg">Alevi</a> <a href="/facts/Kurmanji/4pp4wtq5">Kurmanji</a>-speaking <a href="/facts/Kurds/kV90PCdW">Kurds</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:111" href="#fn:111">111</a>
The <a href="/facts/Mangur_(Kurdish_tribe)/Dq9A2wty">Mangur</a> clan of the, Culturally, <a href="/facts/Mokri_(surname)/xcJP9c3w">Mokri</a> tribal confederation and, politically, Bolbas Federation<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:112" href="#fn:112">112</a> is an enatic clan, meaning members of the clan can only inherit their mothers last name and are considered to be a part of the mothers family. The entire Mokri tribe may have also practiced this form of enaticy before the collapse of their emirate and its direct rule from the Iranian or Ottoman state, or perhaps the tradition started because of depopulation in the area due to raids.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:113" href="#fn:113">113</a>

<h4>Malaysia</h4>
Main article: <a href="/facts/Adat_perpatih/bDnneokc">Adat perpatih</a>
A culture similar to lareh bodi caniago, practiced by the <a href="/facts/Minangkabau_people/eTvhMWBN">Minangkabau</a>, is the basis for <a href="/facts/Adat_perpatih/bDnneokc">adat perpatih</a> practices in the state of <a href="/facts/Negeri_Sembilan/7FBebKn9">Negeri Sembilan</a> and parts of <a href="/facts/Malacca/ncvoSb0j">Malacca</a> as a product of West Sumatran migration into the <a href="/facts/Malay_Peninsula/BrBger2u">Malay Peninsula</a> in the 15th century.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:114" href="#fn:114">114</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:115" href="#fn:115">115</a>

<h4>Sri Lanka</h4>
Further information: <a href="/facts/India/1kKHcnxM">India</a>
Matriliny among the <a href="/facts/Muslims/W2ukq4pg">Muslims</a> and <a href="/facts/Tamils/qJsVPkeT">Tamils</a> in the Eastern Province of <a href="/facts/Sri_Lanka/VtTBmysE">Sri Lanka</a> arrived from <a href="/facts/Kerala/DMP5u40q">Kerala</a>, India via Muslim traders before 1200 CE.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:116" href="#fn:116">116</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:117" href="#fn:117">117</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:118" href="#fn:118">118</a> Matriliny here includes <a href="/facts/Kinship/grXkJ2u7">kinship</a> and social organization, inheritance and property rights.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:119" href="#fn:119">119</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:120" href="#fn:120">120</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:121" href="#fn:121">121</a> For example, "the mother's <a href="/facts/Dowry/YGfNV0Xy">dowry</a> property and/or house is passed on to the eldest daughter."<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:122" href="#fn:122">122</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:123" href="#fn:123">123</a> The <a href="/facts/Sinhalese_people/bhCygCMS">Sinhalese people</a> are the third ethnic group in eastern Sri Lanka,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:124" href="#fn:124">124</a> and have a kinship system which is "intermediate" between that of matriliny and that of <a href="/facts/Patriliny/DRID1Ly4">patriliny</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:125" href="#fn:125">125</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:126" href="#fn:126">126</a> along with "bilateral inheritance", intermediate between matrilineal and patrilineal inheritance.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:127" href="#fn:127">127</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:128" href="#fn:128">128</a> While the first two groups speak the <a href="/facts/Tamil_language/7I0lHL0d">Tamil language</a>, the third group speaks the <a href="/facts/Sinhala_language/qfPUFGYS">Sinhala language</a>. The Tamils largely identify with <a href="/facts/Hinduism/oxV9YvQh">Hinduism</a>, the Sinhalese being primarily <a href="/facts/Buddhist/G0wsjrSl">Buddhist</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:129" href="#fn:129">129</a> The three groups are about equal in population size.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:130" href="#fn:130">130</a>
<a href="/facts/Patriarchal/oTko9QfX">Patriarchal</a> social structures apply to all of Sri Lanka, but in the <a href="/facts/Eastern_Province%2c_Sri_Lanka/mzfju9zF">Eastern Province</a> are mixed with the matrilineal features summarized in the paragraph above and described more completely in the following subsection:
According to Kanchana N. Ruwanpura, <a href="/facts/Eastern_Province%2c_Sri_Lanka/mzfju9zF">Eastern Sri Lanka</a> "is highly regarded even among" <a href="/facts/Feminist_economics/Wn09TC6I">feminist economists</a> "for the relatively favourable position of its women, reflected" in women's equal achievements in <a href="/facts/Human_Development_Index/hQpz064I">Human Development Indices</a> "(HDIs) as well as matrilineal and" <a href="/facts/Bilateral_descent/Vna1DBWH">bilateral</a> "inheritance patterns and property rights".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:131" href="#fn:131">131</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:132" href="#fn:132">132</a>
She also conversely argues that "feminist economists need to be cautious in applauding Sri Lanka's gender-based achievements and/or matrilineal communities",<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:133" href="#fn:133">133</a> because these matrilineal communities coexist with "patriarchal structures and ideologies" and the two "can be strange but ultimately compatible bedfellows",<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:134" href="#fn:134">134</a> as follows:
She "positions Sri Lankan women within gradations of patriarchy by beginning with a brief overview of the main religious traditions," <a href="/facts/Buddhism/G0wsjrSl">Buddhism</a>, <a href="/facts/Hinduism/oxV9YvQh">Hinduism</a>, and <a href="/facts/Islam/zDLbL45C">Islam</a>, "and the ways in which patriarchal interests are promoted through religious practice" in Eastern Sri Lanka (but without being as repressive as classical patriarchy).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:135" href="#fn:135">135</a> Thus, "feminists have claimed that Sri Lankan women are relatively well positioned in the" <a href="/facts/South_Asian/7gTqe3hY">South Asian</a> region,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:136" href="#fn:136">136</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:137" href="#fn:137">137</a> despite "patriarchal institutional laws that ... are likely to work against the interests of women," which is a "co-operative conflict" between women and these laws.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:138" href="#fn:138">138</a> (Clearly "female-heads have no legal recourse" from these laws which state "patriarchal interests".)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:139" href="#fn:139">139</a> For example, "the economic welfare of female-heads [heads of households] depends upon networks" ("of kin and [matrilineal] community"), "networks that mediate the patriarchal-ideological nexus."<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:140" href="#fn:140">140</a> She wrote that "some female heads possessed" "feminist consciousness"<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:141" href="#fn:141">141</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:142" href="#fn:142">142</a> and, at the same time, that "in many cases female-heads are not vociferous feminists ... but rather 'victims' of patriarchal relations and structures that place them in precarious positions.... [while] they have held their ground ... [and] provided for their children".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:143" href="#fn:143">143</a>
On the other hand, she also wrote that feminists including <a href="/facts/Malathi_de_Alwis/peyRMVEE">Malathi de Alwis</a> and <a href="/facts/Kumari_Jayawardena/gI6oXRRE">Kumari Jayawardena</a> have criticized a romanticized view of women's lives in Sri Lanka put forward by Yalman, and mentioned the Sri Lankan case "where young women raped (usually by a man) are married-off/required to cohabit with the rapists!"<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:144" href="#fn:144">144</a>

<h4>Vietnam</h4>
Most ethnic groups classified as "(<a href="/facts/Montagnard_(Vietnam)/fRDzVElC">Montagnards</a>, <a href="/facts/Austronesian_peoples/mMTl1M9J">Malayo-Polynesian</a> and <a href="/facts/Austroasian/htRcwIvn">Austroasian</a>)" are matrilineal.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:145" href="#fn:145">145</a>
On <a href="/facts/North_Vietnam/1d0osuEy">North Vietnam</a>, according to Alessandra Chiricosta, the legend of <a href="/facts/%25C3%2582u_C%25C6%25A1/e3n7qLQR">Âu Cơ</a> is said to be evidence of "the presence of an original 'matriarchy' ... and [it] led to the double kinship system, which developed there .... [and which] combined matrilineal and patrilineal patterns of family structure and assigned equal importance to both lines."<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:146" href="#fn:146">146</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:147" href="#fn:147">147</a>

<h3>Australia</h3>
The <a href="/facts/Arabana/e08Kbgof">Arabana</a> people of South Australia are described by <a href="/facts/Francis_Gillen/1Mm7Kz9c">Francis Gillen</a> and <a href="/facts/Walter_Baldwin_Spencer/HUkvcpMj">Walter Baldwin Spencer</a> in their 1899 book The Native Tribes of Central Australia (in which the name is spelled Urabunna) as counting their descent "in the female line".
The <a href="/facts/Diyari/K4MELd6T">Diyari</a> people of South Australia are described by Francis James Gillen and Walter Baldwin Spencer in their 1899 book The Native Tribes of Central Australia (in which the name is spelled Dieri) as counting their descent "in the female line".
The <a href="/facts/Tiwi_people/Tme38nm3">Tiwi people</a> living on the Tiwi Islands of Australia's Northern Territory base their social structure on matrilineal kinship groups. Traditional marriage practices have persisted in spite of the presence of Christian missionaries on the islands.

<h3>Europe</h3>
<h4>Ancient Greece</h4>
While men held positions of religious and political power, the Spartan constitution mandated that inheritance and proprietorship pass from mother to daughter.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:148" href="#fn:148">148</a>

<h4>Ancient Scotland</h4>
In Pictish society, succession in leadership (later kingship) was matrilineal (through the mother's side), with the reigning chief succeeded by either his brother or perhaps a nephew but not through patrilineal succession of father to son.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:149" href="#fn:149">149</a>

<h3>Oceania</h3>
Some oceanic societies, such as the <a href="/facts/Marshallese_people/C2PDeJB9">Marshallese</a> and the Trobrianders,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:150" href="#fn:150">150</a> the <a href="/facts/Palauans/sPy900Ip">Palauans</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:151" href="#fn:151">151</a> the <a href="/facts/Yapese_people/Ath4eKvn">Yapese</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:152" href="#fn:152">152</a> and the Siuai,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:153" href="#fn:153">153</a> are characterized by matrilineal descent. The sister's sons or the brothers of the decedent are commonly the successors in these societies.

<h2 id="matrilineal-identification-within-judaism">Matrilineal identification within Judaism</h2>
Main article: Matriliny in Judaism
Matriliny in Judaism or matrilineal descent in Judaism is the tracing of <a href="/facts/Judaism/tjQ5Tgs6">Jewish</a> descent through the maternal line. Close to all Jewish communities have followed matrilineal descent from at least early <a href="/facts/Tannaim/6rPwaeXs">Tannaitic</a> (c. 10–70 CE) times through modern times.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:154" href="#fn:154">154</a>
The origins and date-of-origin of matrilineal descent in Judaism are uncertain. <a href="/facts/Orthodox_Judaism/8PGzTQaL">Orthodox Judaism</a> maintains that matrilineal descent is an <a href="/facts/Oral_Law/WhxoDDYy">Oral Law</a> from at least the time of the Receiving of the Torah on <a href="/facts/Mount_Sinai/H9eNreG6">Mount Sinai</a> (c. 1310 BCE).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:155" href="#fn:155">155</a> According to some modern academic opinions, it was likely instituted in either the early <a href="/facts/Tannaim/6rPwaeXs">Tannaitic period</a> (c. 10–70 CE) or the time of <a href="/facts/Ezra/Rvx1sbAy">Ezra</a> (c. 460 BCE).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:156" href="#fn:156">156</a>
In practice, Jewish denominations define "<a href="/facts/Who_is_a_Jew%253F/oxYj1Xuv">Who is a Jew?</a>" via descent in different ways. All denominations of Judaism have protocols for <a href="/facts/Conversion_to_Judaism/RGAR32BJ">conversion</a> for those who are not Jewish by descent.
<a href="/facts/Orthodox_Judaism/8PGzTQaL">Orthodox Judaism</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:157" href="#fn:157">157</a> and <a href="/facts/Conservative_Judaism/svjNbYKM">Conservative Judaism</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:158" href="#fn:158">158</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:159" href="#fn:159">159</a> still practice matrilineal descent. <a href="/facts/Karaite_Judaism/8qHXQY86">Karaite Judaism</a>, which rejects the Oral Law, generally practices patrilineal descent. <a href="/facts/Reconstructionist_Judaism/XxNYPKI2">Reconstructionist Judaism</a> has recognized Jews of patrilineal descent since 1968.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:160" href="#fn:160">160</a>
In 1983, the <a href="/facts/Central_Conference_of_American_Rabbis/Roy4Q9ba">Central Conference of American Rabbis</a> of <a href="/facts/Reform_Judaism/yVKWaY5K">Reform Judaism</a> passed a resolution waiving the need for formal conversion for anyone with at least one Jewish parent, provided that either (a) one is raised as a Jew, by Reform standards, or (b) one engages in an appropriate act of public identification, formalizing a practice that had been common in Reform synagogues for at least a generation. This 1983 resolution departed from the Reform Movement's previous position requiring formal conversion to Judaism for children without a Jewish mother.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:161" href="#fn:161">161</a> However, the closely associated <a href="/facts/Israel_Movement_for_Reform_and_Progressive_Judaism/mb7zxMxy">Israel Movement for Reform and Progressive Judaism</a> has rejected this resolution and requires formal conversion for anyone without a Jewish mother.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:162" href="#fn:162">162</a>

<h2 id="exception-for-the-enslaved-in-the-united-states">Exception for the enslaved in the United States</h2>
In the United States, the offspring of enslaved women inherited their mother's status. A significant consequence of this is that children resulting from rape or unions between enslaved women and their owners did not have any of the rights of the father as they would have had under the patrilineal succession that applied to everyone but the enslaved.

<h2 id="in-mythology">In mythology</h2>
Certain ancient myths have been argued to expose ancient traces of matrilineal customs that existed before historical records.
The ancient historian <a href="/facts/Herodotus/hTgRSAnv">Herodotus</a> is cited by <a href="/facts/Robert_Graves/uppKYGNS">Robert Graves</a> in his translations of Greek myths as attesting that the <a href="/facts/Lycia/MMQwvk3G">Lycians</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:163" href="#fn:163">163</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:164" href="#fn:164">164</a> of their times "still reckoned" by matrilineal descent, or were matrilineal, as were the <a href="/facts/Caria/jrWBS8E6">Carians</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:165" href="#fn:165">165</a>
In Greek mythology, while the royal function was a <a href="/facts/Male_privilege/EDzQPKHs">male privilege</a>, power devolution often came through women, and the future king inherited power through marrying the queen heiress. This is illustrated in the <a href="/facts/Homer/Xw8Ur53U">Homeric</a> myths where all the noblest men in Greece vie for the hand of <a href="/facts/Helen_of_Troy/3zgevnGS">Helen</a> (and the throne of <a href="/facts/Sparta/6V9o1DSz">Sparta</a>), as well as the Oedipian cycle where <a href="/facts/Oedipus/7eGCgyJ6">Oedipus</a> weds the recently widowed queen at the same time he assumes the Theban kingship.
This trend also is evident in many <a href="/facts/Celtic_mythology/jP7VnaSX">Celtic myths</a>, such as the (Welsh) <a href="/facts/Mabinogi/WRTaNn0h">mabinogi</a> stories of <a href="/facts/Culhwch_and_Olwen/xjNarqtP">Culhwch and Olwen</a>, or the (Irish) <a href="/facts/Ulster_Cycle/DDVbtAXU">Ulster Cycle</a>, most notably the key facts to the <a href="/facts/C%25C3%25BAchulainn/tyqQkm4f">Cúchulainn</a> cycle that Cúchulainn gets his final secret training with a <a href="/facts/Warrior/scHDw76d">warrior</a> woman, <a href="/facts/Sc%25C3%25A1thach/xyNFmDN2">Scáthach</a>, and becomes the lover of her daughter; and the root of the <a href="/facts/T%25C3%25A1in_B%25C3%25B3_Cuailnge/1Iq4Llmp">Táin Bó Cuailnge</a>, that while <a href="/facts/Ailill_mac_M%25C3%25A1ta/eRkp5pCg">Ailill</a> may wear the crown of <a href="/facts/Connacht/rfQFugRg">Connacht</a>, it is his wife <a href="/facts/Medb/YjRUzS3f">Medb</a> who is the real power, and she needs to affirm her equality to her husband by owning chattels as great as he does.
The Picts are widely cited as being matrilineal.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:166" href="#fn:166">166</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:167" href="#fn:167">167</a>
A number of other <a href="/facts/Breton_people/0yN9dlNg">Breton</a> stories also illustrate the motif. Even the <a href="/facts/King_Arthur/JDyRQ8gx">King Arthur</a> legends have been interpreted in this light by some. For example, the <a href="/facts/Round_Table_(Camelot)/5JuCHaFU">Round Table</a>, both as a piece of furniture and as concerns the majority of knights belonging to it, was a gift to Arthur from <a href="/facts/Guinevere/4fC6k9JC">Guinevere</a>'s father <a href="/facts/Leodegrance/rBRPUwsY">Leodegrance</a>.
Arguments also have been made that matriliny lay behind various <a href="/facts/Fairy_tale/ex3X7qku">fairy tale</a> plots which may contain the vestiges of folk traditions not recorded.
For instance, the widespread motif of a father who wishes to marry his own daughter—appearing in such tales as <a href="/facts/Allerleirauh/l0B3RIG2">Allerleirauh</a>, <a href="/facts/Donkeyskin/jYweD2gT">Donkeyskin</a>, <a href="/facts/The_King_who_Wished_to_Marry_His_Daughter/ht79xr1V">The King who Wished to Marry His Daughter</a>, and <a href="/facts/The_She-Bear/ddbzajUD">The She-Bear</a>—has been explained as his wish to prolong his reign, which he would lose after his wife's death to his son-in-law.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:168" href="#fn:168">168</a> More mildly, the hostility of kings to their daughter's suitors is explained by hostility to their successors. In such tales as <a href="/facts/The_Three_May_Peaches/xhnJ0HlK">The Three May Peaches</a>, <a href="/facts/Jesper_Who_Herded_the_Hares/1t1HFS77">Jesper Who Herded the Hares</a>, or <a href="/facts/The_Griffin_(fairy_tale)/p0WtneA1">The Griffin</a>, kings set dangerous tasks in an attempt to prevent the marriage.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:169" href="#fn:169">169</a>
Fairy tales with hostility between the mother-in-law and the heroine—such as <a href="/facts/Mary%2527s_Child/bzNIP02X">Mary's Child</a>, <a href="/facts/The_Six_Swans/SUlzKBPe">The Six Swans</a>, and Perrault's <a href="/facts/Sleeping_Beauty/HmFPeRJy">Sleeping Beauty</a>—have been held to reflect a transition between a matrilineal society, where a man's loyalty was to his mother, and a patrilineal one, where his wife could claim it, although this interpretation is predicated on such a transition being a normal development in societies.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:170" href="#fn:170">170</a>

<h2 id="see-also">See also</h2>
<ul><li><a href="/facts/Ruth_Br%25C3%25A9/SjkFtpLX">Ruth Bré</a>, advocate for matriliny</li>
<li><a href="/facts/List_of_matrilineal_or_matrilocal_societies/fKj1YvKu">List of matrilineal or matrilocal societies</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Maiden_and_married_names/u3eLIaRu">Maiden and married names</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Mater_semper_certa_est/ojyx8g0n">Mater semper certa est</a>, "the mother is always certain" – until 1978 and in vitro pregnancies.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Matriarchy/IDzCIWHy">Matriarchy</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Matrifocal_family/RhhMXoYp">Matrifocal family</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Partus_sequitur_ventrem/UrId0Gq6">Partus sequitur ventrem</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Wehali/3zTf8cCn">Wehali</a></li></ul>
<h2 id="notes">Notes</h2>

<h2 id="further-reading">Further reading</h2>
<ul><li>Cameron, Anne (1981) Daughters of Copper Woman. Press Gang Publishers.</li>
<li>Freud, Sigmund: <a href="/facts/Totem_and_Taboo/b7APyv6J">Totem and Taboo</a>, Leipzig, 1913 (and translations in many languages) gives a counter-position, insisting on patrilineality as the "natural" way.</li>
<li>Goldberg, Stephen (1973). "Review of Male Dominance and Female Autonomy: Domestic Authority in Martrilineal Societies". Contemporary Sociology. 2 (6): 630–632. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2062470">10.2307/2062470</a>. <a href="/facts/JSTOR_(identifier)/YTeVmaJ7">JSTOR</a> <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2062470">2062470</a>.</li>
<li>Holden, C. J. & Mace, R. (2003). Spread of cattle led to the loss of matrilineal descent in Africa: a coevolutionary analysis. The Royal Society <a href="http://courses.washington.edu/evpsych/Holden%20&%20Mace%20-%20matriliny%20and%20cattle%20-%20PRSL%202003.pdf">Full text</a></li>
<li>Holden, C.J., Sear, R. & Mace, R. (2003) Matriliny as daughter-biased investment. Evolution & Human Behavior 24: 99–112. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070610123102/http://personal.lse.ac.uk/sear/pdfs/holden%20EHB.pdf">Full text</a></li>
<li>Knight, C. 2008. Early human kinship was matrilineal. In N. J. Allen, H. Callan, R. Dunbar and W. James (eds.), Early Human Kinship. Oxford: Blackwell, pp. 61–82.<a href="http://www.radicalanthropologygroup.org/old/class_text_105.pdf">Full text</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140407063411/http://www.radicalanthropologygroup.org/old/class_text_105.pdf">Archived</a> 7 April 2014 at the <a href="/facts/Wayback_Machine/nmQ3a6JC">Wayback Machine</a></li>
<li>Reed, Evelyn (1975) Woman's Evolution, from matriarchal clan to patriarchal family. Pathfinder Press, New York, 1975. ISBN cloth 0-87348-421-5; paper 0-87348-422-3 (also available in Spanish, Farsi, and Indonesian)</li>
<li>Sear, R (2008). <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/225787815">"Kin and child survival in rural Malawi: Are matrilineal kin always beneficial in a matrilineal society?"</a>. Human Nature. 19 (3): 277–293. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs12110-008-9042-4">10.1007/s12110-008-9042-4</a>. <a href="/facts/PMID_(identifier)/JlHAvMHt">PMID</a> <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26181618">26181618</a>. <a href="/facts/S2CID_(identifier)/ldJsHa2Y">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:40826492">40826492</a>.</li>
<li>Mattison, S.M. (2011). <a href="https://auckland.academia.edu/SiobhanMattison/Papers/865962/Evolutionary_Contributions_to_Solving_the_Matrilineal_Puzzle_A_Test_of_Holden_Sear_and_Maces_Model_">"Evolutionary contributions to solving the "Matrilineal Puzzle": A test of Holden, Sear, and Mace's model"</a>. Human Nature. 22 (1–2): 64–88. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs12110-011-9107-7">10.1007/s12110-011-9107-7</a>. <a href="/facts/PMID_(identifier)/JlHAvMHt">PMID</a> <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22388801">22388801</a>. <a href="/facts/S2CID_(identifier)/ldJsHa2Y">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:32332130">32332130</a>.</li></ul>

<h2 id="references">References</h2>

<ol>
<li id="fn:1">Neanderthals may have been patrilocal in mating patterns, again evidenced by aDNA (https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-022-05283-y, but also see https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3088635/, and https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-022-05283-y for a population at the easternmost fringe of their known range). <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-022-05283-y" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-022-05283-y</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:2">Murdock, G. P. 1949. Social Structure. London and New York: Macmillan, p. 185. <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:3">Malinowski, B. 1956. Marriage: Past and Present. A debate between Robert Briffault and Bronislaw Malinowski, ed. M. F. Ashley Montagu. Boston: Porter Sargent. <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:4">Harris, M. 1969. The Rise of Anthropological Theory. London: Routledge, p. 305. <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:5">Leacock, E. B. 1981. Myths of Male Dominance. Collected articles on women cross-culturally. New York: Monthly Review Press. <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:6">Hrdy, S. B. 2009. Mothers and others. The evolutionary origins of mutual understanding. London and Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:7">Knight, C. 2008. Early human kinship was matrilineal. Archived 7 April 2014 at the Wayback Machine In N. J. Allen, H. Callan, R. Dunbar and W. James (eds.), Early Human Kinship. Oxford: Blackwell, pp. 61–82. <a href="http://www.radicalanthropologygroup.org/old/class_text_105.pdf" target="_blank">http://www.radicalanthropologygroup.org/old/class_text_105.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:8">Opie, K. and C. Power, 2009. Grandmothering and Female Coalitions. A basis for matrilineal priority? In N. J. Allen, H. Callan, R. Dunbar and W. James (eds.), Early Human Kinship. Oxford: Blackwell, pp. 168–186. <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:9">Chris Knight, 2012. Engels was Right: Early Human Kinship was Matrilineal. <a href="http://libcom.org/history/engels-was-right-early-human-kinship-was-matrilineal" target="_blank">http://libcom.org/history/engels-was-right-early-human-kinship-was-matrilineal</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:10">Schlebusch, C.M. (2010) Genetic variation in Khoisan-speaking populations from southern Africa. Dissertation, University of Witwatersrand this is available online, see pages following p.68, Fig 3.18 and p.180-81, fig 4.23 and p.243, p.287 <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:11">Wu, J-J; He, Q-Q; Deng, L-L; Wang, S–C; Mace, R; Ji, T; Tao, Y (2013). "Communal breeding promotes a matrilineal social system where husband and wife live apart". Proc R Soc B. 280 (1758): 20130010. doi:10.1098/rspb.2013.0010. PMC 3619460. PMID 23486437. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3619460" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3619460</a> <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:12">Burkart, J. M.; Hrdy, S. B.; van Schaik, C. P. (2009). "Cooperative breeding and human cognitive evolution". Evolutionary Anthropology. 18 (5): 175–186. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.724.8494. doi:10.1002/evan.20222. S2CID 31180845. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:13">Verdu, Paul; Becker, Noémie S. A.; Froment, Alain; Georges, Myriam; Grugni, Viola; Quintana-Murci, Lluis; Hombert, Jean-Marie; Van der Veen, Lolke; Le Bomin, Sylvie; Bahuchet, Serge; Heyer, Evelyne (2013). "Sociocultural behavior, sex-biased admixture, and effective population sizes in Central African Pygmies and non-Pygmies". Molecular Biology and Evolution. 30 (4): 918–937. doi:10.1093/molbev/mss328. ISSN 1537-1719. PMC 3603314. PMID 23300254. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3603314" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3603314</a> <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:14">Hill, Kim R.; Walker, Robert S.; Bozicević, Miran; Eder, James; Headland, Thomas; Hewlett, Barry; Hurtado, A. Magdalena; Marlowe, Frank; Wiessner, Polly; Wood, Brian (11 March 2011). "Co-residence patterns in hunter-gatherer societies show unique human social structure". Science. 331 (6022): 1286–1289. Bibcode:2011Sci...331.1286H. doi:10.1126/science.1199071. ISSN 1095-9203. PMID 21393537. S2CID 93958. <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21393537/#:~:text=We%20found%20that%20hunter-gatherers,residential%20groups%20are%20genetically%20unrelated." target="_blank">https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21393537/#:~:text=We%20found%20that%20hunter-gatherers,residential%20groups%20are%20genetically%20unrelated.</a> <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:15">Marlowe, Frank W. (2004). "Marital Residence among Foragers". Current Anthropology. 45 (2): 277–283. doi:10.1086/382256. S2CID 145129698. <a href="https://www.africabib.org/rec.php?RID=P00035606" target="_blank">https://www.africabib.org/rec.php?RID=P00035606</a> <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:16">Hill, Kim R.; Walker, Robert S.; Bozicević, Miran; Eder, James; Headland, Thomas; Hewlett, Barry; Hurtado, A. Magdalena; Marlowe, Frank; Wiessner, Polly; Wood, Brian (11 March 2011). "Co-residence patterns in hunter-gatherer societies show unique human social structure". Science. 331 (6022): 1286–1289. Bibcode:2011Sci...331.1286H. doi:10.1126/science.1199071. ISSN 1095-9203. PMID 21393537. S2CID 93958. <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21393537/#:~:text=We%20found%20that%20hunter-gatherers,residential%20groups%20are%20genetically%20unrelated." target="_blank">https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21393537/#:~:text=We%20found%20that%20hunter-gatherers,residential%20groups%20are%20genetically%20unrelated.</a> <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:17">Dyble, M.; Salali, G. D.; Chaudhary, N.; Page, A.; Smith, D.; Thompson, J.; Vinicius, L.; Mace, R.; Migliano, A. B. (15 May 2015). "Human behavior. Sex equality can explain the unique social structure of hunter-gatherer bands". Science. 348 (6236): 796–798. doi:10.1126/science.aaa5139. ISSN 1095-9203. PMID 25977551. S2CID 5078886. <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25977551/" target="_blank">https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25977551/</a> <a href="#fnref:17" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:18">Destro-Bisol, Giovanni; Donati, Francesco; Coia, Valentina; Boschi, Ilaria; Verginelli, Fabio; Caglià, Alessandra; Tofanelli, Sergio; Spedini, Gabriella; Capelli, Cristian (1 September 2004). "Variation of Female and Male Lineages in Sub-Saharan Populations: the Importance of Sociocultural Factors". Molecular Biology and Evolution. 21 (9): 1673–1682. doi:10.1093/molbev/msh186. ISSN 0737-4038. PMID 15190128. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/molbev/msh186" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1093/molbev/msh186</a> <a href="#fnref:18" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:19">Dyble, M. (2016). "The behavioural ecology and evolutionary implications of hunter-gatherer social organisation". S2CID 202198539. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help) <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:19" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:20">Sykes, Bryan (2001). The Seven Daughters of Eve. W.W. Norton. ISBN 0-393-02018-5; pp. 291–2. Bryan Sykes uses "matriname" and states that women adding their own matriname to men's patriname (or "surname" as Sykes calls it) would really help in future genealogy work and historical record searches. Sykes also states (p. 292) that a woman's matriname will be handed down with her mtDNA, the main topic of his book. <a href="/wiki/The_Seven_Daughters_of_Eve" target="_blank">/wiki/The_Seven_Daughters_of_Eve</a> <a href="#fnref:20" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:21">"The Balobedu Queenship Recognised and Dignity Restored". Cooperative Governance and Traditional Affairs. 27 July 2016. Retrieved 24 January 2020. <a href="http://www.cogta.gov.za/?p=867" target="_blank">http://www.cogta.gov.za/?p=867</a> <a href="#fnref:21" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:22">Cassidy, Lara M.; Russell, Miles; Smith, Martin; Delbarre, Gabrielle; Cheetham, Paul; Manley, Harry; Mattiangeli, Valeria; Breslin, Emily M.; Jackson, Iseult; McCann, Maeve; Little, Harry; O’Connor, Ciarán G.; Heaslip, Beth; Lawson, Daniel; Endicott, Phillip (January 2025). "Continental influx and pervasive matrilocality in Iron Age Britain". Nature. 637 (8048): 1136–1142. Bibcode:2025Natur.637.1136C. doi:10.1038/s41586-024-08409-6. ISSN 1476-4687. PMC 11779635. PMID 39814899. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11779635" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11779635</a> <a href="#fnref:22" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:23">Ferreira, Becky (15 January 2025). "Celtic Women Held Sway in 'Matrilocal' Societies". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2 April 2025. <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2025/01/15/science/celtic-women-dna.html#:~:text=An%20ancient%20cemetery%20reveals%20a,according%20to%20a%20DNA%20analysis." target="_blank">https://www.nytimes.com/2025/01/15/science/celtic-women-dna.html#:~:text=An%20ancient%20cemetery%20reveals%20a,according%20to%20a%20DNA%20analysis.</a> <a href="#fnref:23" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:24">Gretzinger, Joscha; Schmitt, Felicitas; Mötsch, Angela; Carlhoff, Selina; Lamnidis, Thiseas Christos; Huang, Yilei; Ringbauer, Harald; Knipper, Corina; Francken, Michael; Mandt, Franziska; Hansen, Leif; Freund, Cäcilia; Posth, Cosimo; Rathmann, Hannes; Harvati, Katerina (August 2024). "Evidence for dynastic succession among early Celtic elites in Central Europe". Nature Human Behaviour. 8 (8): 1467–1480. doi:10.1038/s41562-024-01888-7. ISSN 2397-3374. PMC 11343710. PMID 38831077. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11343710" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11343710</a> <a href="#fnref:24" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:25">Magazine, Smithsonian; Anderson, Sonja. "Ancient Celtic Elites Inherited Wealth From Their Mothers' Sides". Smithsonian Magazine. Retrieved 2 April 2025. <a href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/ancient-celtic-elites-inherited-wealth-from-their-mothers-sides-180984486/" target="_blank">https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/ancient-celtic-elites-inherited-wealth-from-their-mothers-sides-180984486/</a> <a href="#fnref:25" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:26">Korotayev, A. V. (1995). "Were There Any Truly Matrilineal Lineages in the Arabian Peninsula?". Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies. 25: 83–98. <a href="https://www.academia.edu/27745315" target="_blank">https://www.academia.edu/27745315</a> <a href="#fnref:26" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:27">Kennett, Douglas J.; Plog, Stephen; George, Richard J.; Culleton, Brendan J.; Watson, Adam S.; Skoglund, Pontus; Rohland, Nadin; Mallick, Swapan; Stewardson, Kristin; Kistler, Logan; LeBlanc, Steven A.; Whiteley, Peter M.; Reich, David; Perry, George H. (21 February 2017). "Archaeogenomic evidence reveals prehistoric matrilineal dynasty". Nature Communications. 8 (1): 14115. Bibcode:2017NatCo...814115K. doi:10.1038/ncomms14115. ISSN 2041-1723. PMC 5321759. PMID 28221340. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5321759" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5321759</a> <a href="#fnref:27" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:28">Liu, Yue-Chen; Hunter-Anderson, Rosalind; Cheronet, Olivia; Eakin, Joanne; Camacho, Frank; Pietrusewsky, Michael; Rohland, Nadin; Ioannidis, Alexander; Athens, J. Stephen; Douglas, Michele Toomay; Ikehara-Quebral, Rona Michi; Bernardos, Rebecca; Culleton, Brendan J.; Mah, Matthew; Adamski, Nicole (July 2022). "Ancient DNA reveals five streams of migration into Micronesia and matrilocality in early Pacific seafarers". Science. 377 (6601): 72–79. Bibcode:2022Sci...377...72L. doi:10.1126/science.abm6536. PMC 9983687. PMID 35771911. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9983687" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9983687</a> <a href="#fnref:28" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:29">Dong, Yu; Li, Chunxiang; Luan, Fengshi; Li, Zhenguang; Li, Hongjie; Cui, Yinqiu; Zhou, Hui; Malhi, Ripan S. (2015). "Low Mitochondrial DNA Diversity in an Ancient Population from China: Insight into Social Organization at the Fujia Site". Human Biology. 87 (1): 71–84. doi:10.13110/humanbiology.87.1.0071. ISSN 1534-6617. PMID 26416323. <a href="https://muse.jhu.edu/article/595013" target="_blank">https://muse.jhu.edu/article/595013</a> <a href="#fnref:29" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:30">Korotayev, A. V. (1995). "Were There Any Truly Matrilineal Lineages in the Arabian Peninsula?". Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies. 25: 83–98. <a href="https://www.academia.edu/27745315" target="_blank">https://www.academia.edu/27745315</a> <a href="#fnref:30" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:31">Witte, Marleen de (2001). Long Live the Dead!: Changing Funeral Celebrations in Asante, Ghana. Aksant Academic Publishers. ISBN 978-90-5260-003-1. <a href="978-90-5260-003-1" target="_blank">978-90-5260-003-1</a> <a href="#fnref:31" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:32">Schneider, D. M. 1961. The distinctive features of matrilineal descent groups. Introduction. In Schneider, D. M. and K. Gough (eds) Matrilineal Kinship. Berkeley: University of California Press, pp. 1–29. <a href="#fnref:32" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:33">Witte, Marleen de (2001). Long Live the Dead!: Changing Funeral Celebrations in Asante, Ghana. Aksant Academic Publishers. ISBN 978-90-5260-003-1. <a href="978-90-5260-003-1" target="_blank">978-90-5260-003-1</a> <a href="#fnref:33" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:34">Studies, University of Ghana Institute of African (1988). Research Review - Institute of African Studies. Institute of African Studies. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4FuWXpYixYUC&q=akan+matrilineal+inheritance" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=4FuWXpYixYUC&q=akan+matrilineal+inheritance</a> <a href="#fnref:34" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:35">Witte, Marleen de (2001). Long Live the Dead!: Changing Funeral Celebrations in Asante, Ghana. Aksant Academic Publishers. ISBN 978-90-5260-003-1. <a href="978-90-5260-003-1" target="_blank">978-90-5260-003-1</a> <a href="#fnref:35" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:36">Busia, Kofi Abrefa (1970). Encyclopædia Britannica, 1970. William Benton, publisher, The University of Chicago. ISBN 0-85229-135-3, Vol. 1, p. 477. (This Akan article was written by Kofi Abrefa Busia, formerly professor of Sociology and Culture of Africa at the University of Leiden, Netherlands.) <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:36" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:37">ashanti.com.au (before 2010). http://ashanti.com.au/pb/wp_8078438f.html, "Ashanti Home Page: The Ashanti Family unit" Archived https://web.archive.org/web/20070626101235/http://www.ashanti.com.au/pb/wp_8078438f.html on 26 June 2007. <a href="http://ashanti.com.au/pb/wp_8078438f.html" target="_blank">http://ashanti.com.au/pb/wp_8078438f.html</a> <a href="#fnref:37" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:38">Owusu-Ansah, David (November 1994). http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field%28DOCID+gh0048%29, "Ghana: The Akan Group". This source, "Ghana", is one of the Country Studies available from the US Library of Congress. Archived https://archive.today/20120710173040/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+gh0048) on 10 July 2012. <a href="http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field%28DOCID+gh0048%29" target="_blank">http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field%28DOCID+gh0048%29</a> <a href="#fnref:38" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:39">Witte, Marleen de (2001). Long Live the Dead!: Changing Funeral Celebrations in Asante, Ghana. Aksant Academic Publishers. ISBN 978-90-5260-003-1. <a href="978-90-5260-003-1" target="_blank">978-90-5260-003-1</a> <a href="#fnref:39" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:40">Busia, Kofi Abrefa (1970). Encyclopædia Britannica, 1970. William Benton, publisher, The University of Chicago. ISBN 0-85229-135-3, Vol. 1, p. 477. (This Akan article was written by Kofi Abrefa Busia, formerly professor of Sociology and Culture of Africa at the University of Leiden, Netherlands.) <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:40" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:41">ashanti.com.au (before 2010). http://ashanti.com.au/pb/wp_8078438f.html, "Ashanti Home Page: The Ashanti Family unit" Archived https://web.archive.org/web/20070626101235/http://www.ashanti.com.au/pb/wp_8078438f.html on 26 June 2007. <a href="http://ashanti.com.au/pb/wp_8078438f.html" target="_blank">http://ashanti.com.au/pb/wp_8078438f.html</a> <a href="#fnref:41" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:42">ashanti.com.au (before 2010). http://ashanti.com.au/pb/wp_8078438f.html, "Ashanti Home Page: The Ashanti Family unit" Archived https://web.archive.org/web/20070626101235/http://www.ashanti.com.au/pb/wp_8078438f.html on 26 June 2007. <a href="http://ashanti.com.au/pb/wp_8078438f.html" target="_blank">http://ashanti.com.au/pb/wp_8078438f.html</a> <a href="#fnref:42" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:43">de Witte (2001), p. 55 shows such surnames in a family tree, which provides a useful example of names. <a href="/wiki/Family_tree" target="_blank">/wiki/Family_tree</a> <a href="#fnref:43" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:44">Busia, Kofi Abrefa (1970). Encyclopædia Britannica, 1970. William Benton, publisher, The University of Chicago. ISBN 0-85229-135-3, Vol. 1, p. 477. (This Akan article was written by Kofi Abrefa Busia, formerly professor of Sociology and Culture of Africa at the University of Leiden, Netherlands.) <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:44" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:45">Witte, Marleen de (2001). Long Live the Dead!: Changing Funeral Celebrations in Asante, Ghana. Aksant Academic Publishers. ISBN 978-90-5260-003-1. <a href="978-90-5260-003-1" target="_blank">978-90-5260-003-1</a> <a href="#fnref:45" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:46">de Witte (2001), p. 53. <a href="#fnref:46" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:47">de Witte (2001), p. 73. <a href="#fnref:47" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:48">de Witte (2001), p. 53. <a href="#fnref:48" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:49">Witte, Marleen de (2001). Long Live the Dead!: Changing Funeral Celebrations in Asante, Ghana. Aksant Academic Publishers. ISBN 978-90-5260-003-1. <a href="978-90-5260-003-1" target="_blank">978-90-5260-003-1</a> <a href="#fnref:49" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:50">Jose Farrujia de la Rosa, Augusto (2014). An Archaeology of the Margins: Colonialism, Amazighity and Heritage Management in the Canary Islands. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 8. ISBN 9781461493969. <a href="9781461493969" target="_blank">9781461493969</a> <a href="#fnref:50" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:51">(in French) Kalis, Simone, "Médecine traditionnelle religion et divination chez les Seereer Sine du Senegal", La connaissance de la nuit, L'Harmattan (1997), p 299, ISBN 2-7384-5196-9 <a href="/w/index.php?title=Simone_Kalis&action=edit&redlink=1" target="_blank">/w/index.php?title=Simone_Kalis&action=edit&redlink=1</a> <a href="#fnref:51" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:52">Dupire, Marguerite, "Sagesse sereer : Essais sur la pensée sereer ndut, KARTHALA Editions (1994). For tim and den yaay (see p. 116). The book also deals in depth about the Serer matriclans and means of succession through the matrilineal line. See also pages : 38, 95–99, 104, 119–20, 123, 160, 172–4 (in French) [1] ISBN 2865374874 (Retrieved : 4 August 2012) <a href="/wiki/Marguerite_Dupire" target="_blank">/wiki/Marguerite_Dupire</a> <a href="#fnref:52" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:53">(in French) Gravrand, Henry, "La Civilisation Sereer – Cosaan", p 200, Nouvelles Editions africaines (1983), ISBN 2723608778 <a href="/wiki/Henry_Gravrand" target="_blank">/wiki/Henry_Gravrand</a> <a href="#fnref:53" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:54">(in French) Becker, Charles: "Vestiges historiques, trémoins matériels du passé clans les pays sereer", Dakar (1993), CNRS – ORS TO M. Excerpt (Retrieved : 4 August 2012) <a href="http://horizon.documentation.ird.fr/exl-doc/pleins_textes/pleins_textes_5/b_fdi_01/010014636.pdf" target="_blank">http://horizon.documentation.ird.fr/exl-doc/pleins_textes/pleins_textes_5/b_fdi_01/010014636.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:54" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:55">(in French) Becker, Charles: "Vestiges historiques, trémoins matériels du passé clans les pays sereer", Dakar (1993), CNRS – ORS TO M. Excerpt (Retrieved : 4 August 2012) <a href="http://horizon.documentation.ird.fr/exl-doc/pleins_textes/pleins_textes_5/b_fdi_01/010014636.pdf" target="_blank">http://horizon.documentation.ird.fr/exl-doc/pleins_textes/pleins_textes_5/b_fdi_01/010014636.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:55" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:56">Dupire, Marguerite, "Sagesse sereer : Essais sur la pensée sereer ndut, KARTHALA Editions (1994). For tim and den yaay (see p. 116). The book also deals in depth about the Serer matriclans and means of succession through the matrilineal line. See also pages : 38, 95–99, 104, 119–20, 123, 160, 172–4 (in French) [1] ISBN 2865374874 (Retrieved : 4 August 2012) <a href="/wiki/Marguerite_Dupire" target="_blank">/wiki/Marguerite_Dupire</a> <a href="#fnref:56" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:57">(in French) Becker, Charles: "Vestiges historiques, trémoins matériels du passé clans les pays sereer", Dakar (1993), CNRS – ORS TO M. Excerpt (Retrieved : 4 August 2012) <a href="http://horizon.documentation.ird.fr/exl-doc/pleins_textes/pleins_textes_5/b_fdi_01/010014636.pdf" target="_blank">http://horizon.documentation.ird.fr/exl-doc/pleins_textes/pleins_textes_5/b_fdi_01/010014636.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:57" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:58">Haven, Cynthia (23 May 07). http://news.stanford.edu/pr/2007/pr-tuareg-052307.html, "New exhibition highlights the 'artful' Tuareg of the Sahara," Stanford University. Archived https://archive.today/20121210143001/http://news.stanford.edu/pr/2007/pr-tuareg-052307.html on 10 December 2012. <a href="http://news.stanford.edu/pr/2007/pr-tuareg-052307.html" target="_blank">http://news.stanford.edu/pr/2007/pr-tuareg-052307.html</a> <a href="#fnref:58" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:59">Haven, Cynthia (23 May 07). http://news.stanford.edu/pr/2007/pr-tuareg-052307.html, "New exhibition highlights the 'artful' Tuareg of the Sahara," Stanford University. Archived https://archive.today/20121210143001/http://news.stanford.edu/pr/2007/pr-tuareg-052307.html on 10 December 2012. <a href="http://news.stanford.edu/pr/2007/pr-tuareg-052307.html" target="_blank">http://news.stanford.edu/pr/2007/pr-tuareg-052307.html</a> <a href="#fnref:59" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:60">Spain, Daphne (1992). Gendered Spaces. University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 0-8078-2012-1; p. 57. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:60" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:61">Murphy, Robert F. (1966). "Review of Ecology and Culture of the Pastoral Tuareg, with Particular Reference to the Tuareg of Ahaggar and Ayr". American Anthropologist. 68 (2): 554–556. doi:10.1525/aa.1966.68.2.02a00540. JSTOR 669389. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2Faa.1966.68.2.02a00540" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1525%2Faa.1966.68.2.02a00540</a> <a href="#fnref:61" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:62">Haven, Cynthia (23 May 07). http://news.stanford.edu/pr/2007/pr-tuareg-052307.html, "New exhibition highlights the 'artful' Tuareg of the Sahara," Stanford University. Archived https://archive.today/20121210143001/http://news.stanford.edu/pr/2007/pr-tuareg-052307.html on 10 December 2012. <a href="http://news.stanford.edu/pr/2007/pr-tuareg-052307.html" target="_blank">http://news.stanford.edu/pr/2007/pr-tuareg-052307.html</a> <a href="#fnref:62" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:63">Murphy, Robert F. (1966). "Review of Ecology and Culture of the Pastoral Tuareg, with Particular Reference to the Tuareg of Ahaggar and Ayr". American Anthropologist. 68 (2): 554–556. doi:10.1525/aa.1966.68.2.02a00540. JSTOR 669389. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2Faa.1966.68.2.02a00540" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1525%2Faa.1966.68.2.02a00540</a> <a href="#fnref:63" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:64">Spain, Daphne (1992). Gendered Spaces. University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 0-8078-2012-1; p. 57. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:64" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:65">Spain, Daphne (1992). Gendered Spaces. University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 0-8078-2012-1; p. 57. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:65" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:66">Spain, Daphne (1992). Gendered Spaces. University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 0-8078-2012-1; p. 57. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:66" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:67">Haven, Cynthia (23 May 07). http://news.stanford.edu/pr/2007/pr-tuareg-052307.html, "New exhibition highlights the 'artful' Tuareg of the Sahara," Stanford University. Archived https://archive.today/20121210143001/http://news.stanford.edu/pr/2007/pr-tuareg-052307.html on 10 December 2012. <a href="http://news.stanford.edu/pr/2007/pr-tuareg-052307.html" target="_blank">http://news.stanford.edu/pr/2007/pr-tuareg-052307.html</a> <a href="#fnref:67" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:68">Murphy, Robert F. (1966). "Review of Ecology and Culture of the Pastoral Tuareg, with Particular Reference to the Tuareg of Ahaggar and Ayr". American Anthropologist. 68 (2): 554–556. doi:10.1525/aa.1966.68.2.02a00540. JSTOR 669389. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2Faa.1966.68.2.02a00540" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1525%2Faa.1966.68.2.02a00540</a> <a href="#fnref:68" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:69">Bradshaw Foundation (2007 or later). http://www.bradshawfoundation.com/tuareg/index.php, "The Tuareg of the Sahara". Archived at https://archive.today/20120720193456/http://www.bradshawfoundation.com/tuareg/index.php on 20 July 2012. <a href="http://www.bradshawfoundation.com/tuareg/index.php" target="_blank">http://www.bradshawfoundation.com/tuareg/index.php</a> <a href="#fnref:69" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:70">Schlegel, Alice, Hopi Gender Ideology of Female Superiority, in Quarterly Journal of Ideology: "A Critique of the Conventional Wisdom", vol. VIII, no. 4, 1984, p. 44 and see pp. 44–52 (essay based partly on "seventeen years of fieldwork among the Hopi", per p. 44 n. 1) (author of Dep't of Anthropology, Univ. of Ariz., Tucson). <a href="/wiki/Alice_Schlegel" target="_blank">/wiki/Alice_Schlegel</a> <a href="#fnref:70" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:71">LeBow, Diana, Rethinking Matriliny Among the Hopi, op. cit., p. [8]. <a href="#fnref:71" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:72">LeBow, Diana, Rethinking Matriliny Among the Hopi, op. cit., p. 18. <a href="#fnref:72" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:73">Schlegel, Alice, Hopi Gender Ideology of Female Superiority, op. cit., p. 44 n. 1. <a href="#fnref:73" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:74">Schlegel, Alice, Hopi Gender Ideology of Female Superiority, op. cit., p. 44 n. 1. <a href="#fnref:74" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:75">Schlegel, Alice, Hopi Gender Ideology of Female Superiority, op. cit., p. 45. <a href="#fnref:75" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:76">Schlegel, Alice, Hopi Gender Ideology of Female Superiority, op. cit., p. 45. <a href="#fnref:76" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:77">Schlegel, Alice, Hopi Gender Ideology of Female Superiority, op. cit., p. 50. <a href="#fnref:77" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:78">Schlegel, Alice, Hopi Gender Ideology of Female Superiority, op. cit., p. 49. <a href="#fnref:78" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:79">Schlegel, Alice, Hopi Gender Ideology of Female Superiority, op. cit., p. 49. <a href="#fnref:79" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:80">Schlegel, Alice, Hopi Gender Ideology of Female Superiority, op. cit., p. 49. <a href="#fnref:80" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:81">Schlegel, Alice, Hopi Gender Ideology of Female Superiority, op. cit., p. 49. <a href="#fnref:81" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:82">Schlegel, Alice, Hopi Gender Ideology of Female Superiority, op. cit., p. 50. <a href="#fnref:82" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:83">Schlegel, Alice, Hopi Gender Ideology of Female Superiority, op. cit., p. 50. <a href="#fnref:83" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:84">Jacobs, Renée E., Iroquois Great Law of Peace and the United States Constitution: How the Founding Fathers Ignored the Clan Mothers, in American Indian Law Review, vol. 16, no. 2, pp. 497–531, esp. pp. 498–509 (© author 1991). <a href="#fnref:84" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:85">Jacobs, Renée, Iroquois Great Law of Peace and the United States Constitution, in American Indian Law Review, op. cit., pp. 506–507. <a href="#fnref:85" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:86">Jacobs, Renée, Iroquois Great Law of Peace and the United States Constitution, in American Indian Law Review, op. cit., p. 505 & p. 506 n. 38, quoting Carr, L., The Social and Political Position of Women Among the Huron-Iroquois Tribes, Report of the Peabody Museum of American Archaeology, p. 223 (1884). <a href="#fnref:86" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:87">Jacobs, Renée, Iroquois Great Law of Peace and the United States Constitution, in American Indian Law Review, op. cit., p. 498 & n. 6. <a href="#fnref:87" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:88">This quote is from Lenape's Society section. <a href="/wiki/Lenape" target="_blank">/wiki/Lenape</a> <a href="#fnref:88" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:89">Smith, John. A Map of Virginia. Oxford: Joseph Barnes, 1612. http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/etcbin/jamestown-browse?id=J1008 Archived 4 April 2005 at the Wayback Machine, also Repr. in The Complete Works of John Smith (1580–1631). Ed. Philip L. Barbour. Chapel Hill: University Press of Virginia, 1983. Vol. 1, pp. 305–63. <a href="http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/etcbin/jamestown-browse?id=J1008" target="_blank">http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/etcbin/jamestown-browse?id=J1008</a> <a href="#fnref:89" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:90">linguistics.berkeley.edu (2004). http://www.linguistics.berkeley.edu/~rosemary/55-2004-names.pdf, "Naming practices". A PDF file with a section on "Chinese naming practices (Mak et al., 2003)". <a href="http://www.linguistics.berkeley.edu/~rosemary/55-2004-names.pdf" target="_blank">http://www.linguistics.berkeley.edu/~rosemary/55-2004-names.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:90" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:91">Zhimin, An (1988). "Archaeological Research on Neolithic China". Current Anthropology. 29 (5): 753–759. doi:10.1086/203698. JSTOR 2743616. S2CID 144920735. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:91" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:92">Zhimin, An (1988). "Archaeological Research on Neolithic China". Current Anthropology. 29 (5): 753–759. doi:10.1086/203698. JSTOR 2743616. S2CID 144920735. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:92" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:93">Zhimin, An (1988). "Archaeological Research on Neolithic China". Current Anthropology. 29 (5): 753–759. doi:10.1086/203698. JSTOR 2743616. S2CID 144920735. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:93" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:94">Zhimin, An (1988). "Archaeological Research on Neolithic China". Current Anthropology. 29 (5): 753–759. doi:10.1086/203698. JSTOR 2743616. S2CID 144920735. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:94" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:95">Sinha Mukherjee, Sucharita (2013). "Women's Empowerment and Gender Bias in the Birth and Survival of Girls in Urban India". Feminist Economics. 19: 1–28. doi:10.1080/13545701.2012.752312. S2CID 155056803., p. 9, citing Srinivas, Mysore Narasimhachar, The Cohesive Role of Sanskritization and Other Essays (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1989), & Agarwal, Bina, A Field of One's Own: Gender and Land Rights in South Asia (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1994). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:95" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:96">Mukherjee, Sucharita Sinha, Women's Empowerment and Gender Bias in the Birth and Survival of Girls in Urban India, op. cit., p. 9. <a href="#fnref:96" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:97">Panikkar, Kavalam Madhava (July–December 1918). "Some Aspects of Nayar Life". The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland. 48: 254–293. doi:10.2307/2843423. JSTOR 2843423. Retrieved 9 June 2011. <a href="/wiki/Kavalam_Madhava_Panikkar" target="_blank">/wiki/Kavalam_Madhava_Panikkar</a> <a href="#fnref:97" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:98">Murray Schneider, David; Gough, Kathleen (1961). Matrilineal Kinship. Berkeley: University of California Press. pp. 298–384 is the whole "Nayar: Central Kerala" chapter, for example. ISBN 9780520025295. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help) Accessible here, via GoogleBooks. <a href="9780520025295" target="_blank">9780520025295</a> <a href="#fnref:98" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:99">Nossiter, Thomas Johnson (1982). Kerala's Identity: Unity and Diversity. In Communism in Kerala: A Study in Political Adaptation. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-04667-2. Retrieved 2011-06-09. P. 30. <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Nossiter" target="_blank">/wiki/Thomas_Nossiter</a> <a href="#fnref:99" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:100">"Matriarchy Among Namboothiris". www.namboothiri.com. Retrieved 19 February 2025. <a href="https://www.namboothiri.com/articles/matriarchy.htm" target="_blank">https://www.namboothiri.com/articles/matriarchy.htm</a> <a href="#fnref:100" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:101">Ghosh, Amitav (2003). The Imam and the Indian: prose pieces. Orient Blackswan. p. 193. ISBN 9788175300477. To access it via GoogleBooks, click on book title. <a href="9788175300477" target="_blank">9788175300477</a> <a href="#fnref:101" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:102">Sanghamitra Choudhury (5 February 2016). Women and Conflict in India. Taylor & Francis. p. 92. ISBN 978-1-317-55361-8. <a href="978-1-317-55361-8" target="_blank">978-1-317-55361-8</a> <a href="#fnref:102" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:103">Sanday, Peggy Reeves (December 2002). "Commentary: Matriarchy and Islam Post-9/11: A Report from Indonesia". Anthropology News. 43 (9): 7. doi:10.1111/an.2002.43.9.7. <a href="https://web.sas.upenn.edu/psanday/reports/matriarchy-and-islam-post-911-a-report-from-indonesia/" target="_blank">https://web.sas.upenn.edu/psanday/reports/matriarchy-and-islam-post-911-a-report-from-indonesia/</a> <a href="#fnref:103" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:104">Sanday, Peggy Reeves (2004). Women at the Center: Life in a Modern Matriarchy. Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-8906-7. Parts of this book are available online at books.google.com <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:104" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:105">Fitzsimmons, Caitlin (21Oct09). http://www.roamingtales.com/2009/10/21/a-matrilineal-islamic-society-in-sumatra/, "A matrilineal, Islamic society in Sumatra". Archived https://archive.today/20130202004556/http://www.roamingtales.com/2009/10/21/a-matrilineal-islamic-society-in-sumatra/ on 2 February 2013. <a href="http://www.roamingtales.com/2009/10/21/a-matrilineal-islamic-society-in-sumatra/" target="_blank">http://www.roamingtales.com/2009/10/21/a-matrilineal-islamic-society-in-sumatra/</a> <a href="#fnref:105" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:106">Sanday 2004, p.67 <a href="#fnref:106" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:107">Sanday 2004, p.241 <a href="#fnref:107" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:108">Sanday, Peggy Reeves (December 2002). "Commentary: Matriarchy and Islam Post-9/11: A Report from Indonesia". Anthropology News. 43 (9): 7. doi:10.1111/an.2002.43.9.7. <a href="https://web.sas.upenn.edu/psanday/reports/matriarchy-and-islam-post-911-a-report-from-indonesia/" target="_blank">https://web.sas.upenn.edu/psanday/reports/matriarchy-and-islam-post-911-a-report-from-indonesia/</a> <a href="#fnref:108" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:109">Sanday, Peggy Reeves (December 2002). "Commentary: Matriarchy and Islam Post-9/11: A Report from Indonesia". Anthropology News. 43 (9): 7. doi:10.1111/an.2002.43.9.7. <a href="https://web.sas.upenn.edu/psanday/reports/matriarchy-and-islam-post-911-a-report-from-indonesia/" target="_blank">https://web.sas.upenn.edu/psanday/reports/matriarchy-and-islam-post-911-a-report-from-indonesia/</a> <a href="#fnref:109" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:110">Peletz, Michael G. (2005). "The King Is Dead; Long Live the Queen!". American Ethnologist. 32 (1): 39–41. doi:10.1525/ae.2005.32.1.39. JSTOR 3805147. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:110" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:111">Kevin McKiernan (7 March 2006). The Kurds. St. Martin's Press. ISBN 9780312325466. <a href="9780312325466" target="_blank">9780312325466</a> <a href="#fnref:111" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:112">Minorsky, V. (1957). "Mongol Place-Names in Mukri Kurdistan". Mongolica. 19 (1): 75. JSTOR 609632. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:112" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:113">Abdurrahman Sharafkandi. Çêştî Micêvir. <a href="#fnref:113" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:114">"Negeri Sembilan – History and Culture". Archived from the original on 28 July 2018. Retrieved 4 March 2017. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180728154442/http://go2travelmalaysia.com/tour_malaysia/ns_historical.htm" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20180728154442/http://go2travelmalaysia.com/tour_malaysia/ns_historical.htm</a> <a href="#fnref:114" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:115">"The Minangkabau of Negeri Sembilan". 4 April 2016. <a href="https://museumvolunteersjmm.com/2016/04/04/the-minangkabau-of-negeri-sembilan/" target="_blank">https://museumvolunteersjmm.com/2016/04/04/the-minangkabau-of-negeri-sembilan/</a> <a href="#fnref:115" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:116">Ruwanpura, Kanchana N. (2006). Matrilineal Communities, Patriarchal Realities: A Feminist Nirvana Uncovered. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, paperback (ISBN 978-0-472-06977-4)(fieldwork in 1998–'99 during the Sri Lankan civil war, per p. 45); see p. 51. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:116" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:117">This page 51 of the Ruwanpura book is accessible online via Google Books (books.google.com). The book's TOC and pages 1–11 and 50–62 are currently accessible. <a href="#fnref:117" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:118">McGilvray, Dennis B. (1989). "Households in Akkaraipattu: Dowry and Domestic Organization among Matrilineal Tamils and Moors of Sri Lanka," in J. N. Gray and D. J. Mearns (eds.) Society From the Inside Out: Anthropological Perspectives on the South Asian Household, pp. 192–235. London: Sage Publications. <a href="/wiki/Dennis_B._McGilvray" target="_blank">/wiki/Dennis_B._McGilvray</a> <a href="#fnref:118" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:119">Humphries, Jane (1993). "Gender Inequality and Economic Development," in Dieter Bos (ed) Economics in a Changing World, Volume 3: Public Policy and Economic Organization. New York: St. Martin's Press; pp. 218–33. <a href="#fnref:119" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:120">Agarwal, Bina (1996). A Field of One's Own: Gender and Land Rights in South Asia. New Delhi: Cambridge University Press. (First edition was 1994.) <a href="#fnref:120" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:121">Ruwanpura, 2006, p. 1. Accessible online as above. <a href="#fnref:121" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:122">Ruwanpura, 2006, p. 53. Accessible online as above. <a href="#fnref:122" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:123">McGilvray, 1989, pp. 201–2. <a href="#fnref:123" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:124">Ruwanpura, 2006, pp. 3–4(accessible online as above) and p. 39. <a href="#fnref:124" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:125">Ruwanpura, 2006, p. 72. <a href="#fnref:125" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:126">Yalman, Nur (1971). Under the Bo Tree: Studies in Caste, Kinship, and Marriage in the Interior of Ceylon. Berkeley: University of California Press. <a href="#fnref:126" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:127">Agarwal, Bina (1996). A Field of One's Own: Gender and Land Rights in South Asia. New Delhi: Cambridge University Press. (First edition was 1994.) <a href="#fnref:127" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:128">Ruwanpura, 2006, p. 71. <a href="#fnref:128" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:129">Ruwanpura, 2006, pp. 3–4. Accessible online as above. <a href="#fnref:129" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:130">Ruwanpura, 2006, p. 39. <a href="#fnref:130" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:131">Ruwanpura, (2006), p.1. Accessible online as above. <a href="#fnref:131" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:132">Humphries, 1993, p. 228. <a href="#fnref:132" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:133">Ruwanpura, 2006, p. 3. Accessible online as above. <a href="#fnref:133" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:134">Ruwanpura, 2006, p. 10 and see p. 6 ("prevalence of patriarchal structures and ideologies"). Accessible online as above. <a href="#fnref:134" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:135">Ruwanpura, 2006, pp. 4–5. Accessible online as above. <a href="#fnref:135" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:136">Ruwanpura, 2006, p. 4. Accessible online as above. <a href="#fnref:136" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:137">Agarwal, Bina (1996). A Field of One's Own: Gender and Land Rights in South Asia. New Delhi: Cambridge University Press. (First edition was 1994.) <a href="#fnref:137" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:138">Ruwanpura, 2006, p. 182. <a href="#fnref:138" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:139">Ruwanpura, 2006, p. 182 (both quotations). <a href="#fnref:139" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:140">Ruwanpura, 2006, pp. 145–146. <a href="#fnref:140" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:141">Ruwanpura, 2006, p. 142 (both quotations). <a href="#fnref:141" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:142">Feminist consciousness raising, a means of raising awareness of a feminist perspective or subject <a href="/wiki/Consciousness_raising" target="_blank">/wiki/Consciousness_raising</a> <a href="#fnref:142" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:143">Ruwanpura, 2006, p. 37. <a href="#fnref:143" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:144">Ruwanpura, 2006, p. 76 n. 7. <a href="#fnref:144" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:145">Refugees, United Nations High Commissioner for. "UNHCR – Document Not Found". UNHCR. <a href="https://www.unhcr.org/refworld/topic,463af2212,469f2f9a2,49749c7e16,0.html" target="_blank">https://www.unhcr.org/refworld/topic,463af2212,469f2f9a2,49749c7e16,0.html</a> <a href="#fnref:145" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:146">Chiricosta, Alessandra, Following the Trail of the Fairy-Bird: The Search For a Uniquely Vietnamese Women's Movement, in Roces, Mina, & Louise P. Edwards, eds., Women's Movements in Asia: Feminisms and Transnational Activism (London or Oxon: Routledge, pbk. 2010 (ISBN 978-0-415-48703-0)), p. 125 and see p. 126 (single quotation marks so in original) (author Chiricosta philosopher & historian of religions, esp. intercultural philosophy, religious & cultural dialogue, gender, & anthropology, & taught at La Sapienza (univ.), Urbaniana (univ.), & Roma Tre (univ.), all in Italy, School of Oriental & African Studies, & Univ. of Ha Noi). <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:146" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:147">Patrilineal, belonging to the father's lineage, generally for inheritance <a href="/wiki/Patrilineality" target="_blank">/wiki/Patrilineality</a> <a href="#fnref:147" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:148">Archived at Ghostarchive and the Wayback Machine: Historia Civilis. "The Constitution of the Spartans" – via YouTube. <a href="https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/ppGCbh8ggUs" target="_blank">https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/ppGCbh8ggUs</a> <a href="#fnref:148" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:149">"Picts". World History Encyclopedia. <a href="https://www.worldhistory.org/picts/" target="_blank">https://www.worldhistory.org/picts/</a> <a href="#fnref:149" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:150">Malinowski, Bronisław. Argonauts Of The Western Pacific, esp. or only chaps. I, II, & VI. <a href="https://archive.org/stream/argonautsofthewe032976mbp/argonautsofthewe032976mbp_djvu.txt" target="_blank">https://archive.org/stream/argonautsofthewe032976mbp/argonautsofthewe032976mbp_djvu.txt</a> <a href="#fnref:150" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:151">The Palauan culture <a href="http://www.everyculture.com/No-Sa/Palau.html" target="_blank">http://www.everyculture.com/No-Sa/Palau.html</a> <a href="#fnref:151" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:152">The Yapese kinship <a href="http://www.everyculture.com/Oceania/Yap-Kinship.html" target="_blank">http://www.everyculture.com/Oceania/Yap-Kinship.html</a> <a href="#fnref:152" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:153">Hogbin, H. Ian (1950). "Studies in the Anthropology of Bougainville, Solomon Islands. Douglas L. Oliver". American Anthropologist. 52 (2): 250–251. doi:10.1525/aa.1950.52.2.02a00140. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:153" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:154">Reviewed by Louis Jacobs, [2] Originally published in Judaism 34.1 (Winter 1985), 55–59. <a href="/wiki/Louis_Jacobs" target="_blank">/wiki/Louis_Jacobs</a> <a href="#fnref:154" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:155">Numbers Rabbah 19:3 <a href="/wiki/Numbers_Rabbah" target="_blank">/wiki/Numbers_Rabbah</a> <a href="#fnref:155" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:156">Reviewed by Louis Jacobs, [2] Originally published in Judaism 34.1 (Winter 1985), 55–59. <a href="/wiki/Louis_Jacobs" target="_blank">/wiki/Louis_Jacobs</a> <a href="#fnref:156" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:157">See Rabbi Moses Feinstein's re-affirmation of matrilineal descent, Elberg, Rabbi S., September, 1984, HaPardes Rabbinical Journal, Hebrew, vol.59, Is.1, p. 21. <a href="#fnref:157" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:158">Reviewed by Louis Jacobs, [2] Originally published in Judaism 34.1 (Winter 1985), 55–59. <a href="/wiki/Louis_Jacobs" target="_blank">/wiki/Louis_Jacobs</a> <a href="#fnref:158" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:159">Rabbis Joel Roth and Akiba Lubow (1988). "A Standard of Rabbinic Practice Regarding Determinati·on of Jewish Identity" (PDF). rabbinicalassembly.org. The Rabbinical Assembly. Retrieved 25 March 2020. <a href="https://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/sites/default/files/assets/public/halakhah/teshuvot/20012004/31.pdf" target="_blank">https://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/sites/default/files/assets/public/halakhah/teshuvot/20012004/31.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:159" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:160">Staub, Jacob J. (2001). "A Reconstructionist View on Patrilineal Descent" (PDF). bjpa.org. <a href="https://www.bjpa.org/content/upload/bjpa/c__c/Staub-%20Reconstructionist%20view%20on%20patrlineal%20descent.pdf" target="_blank">https://www.bjpa.org/content/upload/bjpa/c__c/Staub-%20Reconstructionist%20view%20on%20patrlineal%20descent.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:160" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:161">"Reform Movement's Resolution on Patrilineal Descent (March 1983)". www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org. <a href="https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/reform-movement-s-resolution-on-patrilineal-descent-march-1983" target="_blank">https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/reform-movement-s-resolution-on-patrilineal-descent-march-1983</a> <a href="#fnref:161" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:162">Reform Judaism in Israel: Progress and Prospects Archived 4 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine <a href="http://www.ajc.org/site/apps/nl/content3.asp?c=ijITI2PHKoG&b=840313&ct=1051515" target="_blank">http://www.ajc.org/site/apps/nl/content3.asp?c=ijITI2PHKoG&b=840313&ct=1051515</a> <a href="#fnref:162" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:163">Herodotus, before 425 BCE. http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/History_of_Herodotus/Book_1, "History of Herodotus". Graves's notation is "i.173" meaning in Book 1 – Scroll down to paragraph 173 to find the (matrilineal) Lycians. <a href="/wiki/Herodotus" target="_blank">/wiki/Herodotus</a> <a href="#fnref:163" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:164">Graves, Robert (1955, 1960). The Greek Myths, Vol. 1. Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14-020508-X; p. 296 (myth #88, comment #2). <a href="/wiki/Graves,_Robert" target="_blank">/wiki/Graves,_Robert</a> <a href="#fnref:164" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:165">Graves 1955,1960; p. 256 (myth #75, comment #5). <a href="#fnref:165" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:166">http://www.historyfiles.co.uk/KingListsBritain/GaelsPictland.htm "thanks to the practise of matrilineal descent followed by the Picts, and a large number of eligible would-be kings" <a href="http://www.historyfiles.co.uk/KingListsBritain/GaelsPictland.htm" target="_blank">http://www.historyfiles.co.uk/KingListsBritain/GaelsPictland.htm</a> <a href="#fnref:166" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:167">http://www.historyfiles.co.uk/KingListsBritain/EnglandMercia.htm "the Picts are known as strong adherents to the concept of matrilineal descent" <a href="http://www.historyfiles.co.uk/KingListsBritain/EnglandMercia.htm" target="_blank">http://www.historyfiles.co.uk/KingListsBritain/EnglandMercia.htm</a> <a href="#fnref:167" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:168">Schlauch, Margaret (1969). Chaucer's Constance and Accused Queens. New York: Gordian Press. ISBN 0-87752-097-6; p. 43. <a href="/wiki/Margaret_Schlauch" target="_blank">/wiki/Margaret_Schlauch</a> <a href="#fnref:168" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:169">Schlauch 1969, p. 45. <a href="#fnref:169" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:170">Schlauch 1969, p. 34. <a href="#fnref:170" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
</ol>

Matrilineality open-in-new

Matrilineality