Antarctica

<h2 id="etymology">Etymology</h2>

The name given to the continent <a href="/facts/Etymology/18QG6y67">originates</a> from the word antarctic, which comes from <a href="/facts/Middle_French/n07t1XrU">Middle French</a> antartique or antarctique ('opposite to the <a href="/facts/Arctic/bxbuUz7Q">Arctic</a>') and, in turn, the <a href="/facts/Latin/pM3Kge85">Latin</a> antarcticus ('opposite to the north'). Antarcticus is derived from the <a href="/facts/Greek_language/pzDd6eIz">Greek</a> ἀντι- ('anti-') and ἀρκτικός (arktikos, 'of the Bear [<a href="/facts/Ursa_Major/BFhHcvbW">Ursa Major</a>], northern').<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:3" href="#fn:3">3</a> The Greek philosopher <a href="/facts/Aristotle/U2bDlBFW">Aristotle</a> wrote in <a href="/facts/Meteorology_(Aristotle)/B9quWHQw">Meteorology</a> about an "Antarctic region" in c. 350 BCE.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:4" href="#fn:4">4</a> The Greek geographer <a href="/facts/Marinus_of_Tyre/VFDbWhvv">Marinus of Tyre</a> reportedly used the name in his world map from the second century CE, now lost. The <a href="/facts/Ancient_Rome/cGqIuxPd">Roman</a> authors <a href="/facts/Gaius_Julius_Hyginus/HJRTmcfI">Gaius Julius Hyginus</a> and <a href="/facts/Apuleius/uVqvP52s">Apuleius</a> used for the South Pole the <a href="/facts/Romanization/a4fl8fee">romanised</a> Greek name polus antarcticus,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5">5</a> from which derived the <a href="/facts/Old_French/QcRpPdAc">Old French</a> pole antartike (modern pôle antarctique) attested in 1270, and from there the <a href="/facts/Middle_English/dj1wHvwd">Middle English</a> pol antartik, found first in a <a href="/facts/Treatise/ED3heHjb">treatise</a> written by the English author <a href="/facts/Geoffrey_Chaucer/HR7rHQng">Geoffrey Chaucer</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6">6</a>
Belief by Europeans in the existence of a <a href="/facts/Terra_Australis/Y2vacCD1">Terra Australis</a>—a vast continent in the far south of the globe to balance the northern lands of Europe, Asia, and North Africa—had existed as an intellectual concept since <a href="/facts/Classical_antiquity/JBq8vEX9">classical antiquity</a>. The belief in such a land lasted until the European <a href="/facts/European_maritime_exploration_of_Australia/c61bc3Uo">discovery of Australia</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7">7</a>
During the early 19th century, explorer <a href="/facts/Matthew_Flinders/GmY2zpcS">Matthew Flinders</a> doubted the existence of a detached continent south of Australia (then called <a href="/facts/New_Holland_(Australia)/GRbrI1LP">New Holland</a>) and thus advocated for the "Terra Australis" name to be used for Australia instead.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8">8</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9">9</a> In 1824, the colonial authorities in <a href="/facts/Sydney/8TegRcwB">Sydney</a> officially renamed the continent of New Holland to Australia, leaving the term "Terra Australis" unavailable as a reference to Antarctica. Over the following decades, geographers used phrases such as "the Antarctic Continent". They searched for a more poetic replacement, suggesting names such as Ultima and Antipodea.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10">10</a> Antarctica was adopted in the 1890s, with the first use of the name being attributed to the Scottish <a href="/facts/Cartography/8YdDAAeX">cartographer</a> <a href="/facts/John_George_Bartholomew/4h8ss8so">John George Bartholomew</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11">11</a>
Antarctica has also been known by the moniker Great White South, after which British photographer <a href="/facts/Herbert_Ponting/MvRuWzJh">Herbert Ponting</a> named one of his books on Antarctic photography, possibly as a counterpart to the epithet Great White North for <a href="/facts/Canada/D5P9yqs6">Canada</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12">12</a>

<h2 id="geography">Geography</h2>
Main article: <a href="/facts/Geography_of_Antarctica/fokpYWpX">Geography of Antarctica</a>
See also: <a href="/facts/Extreme_points_of_Antarctica/n576hRCv">Extreme points of Antarctica</a>, <a href="/facts/List_of_mountains_in_Antarctica/j80qyphV">List of mountains in Antarctica</a>, <a href="/facts/List_of_ultras_of_Antarctica/j80qyphV">List of ultras of Antarctica</a>, and <a href="/facts/List_of_places_in_Antarctica/herdKta4">List of places in Antarctica</a>

Positioned asymmetrically around the South Pole and largely south of the <a href="/facts/Antarctic_Circle/8IRf9UHu">Antarctic Circle</a> (one of the five major <a href="/facts/Circle_of_latitude/0l4B20Iu">circles of latitude</a> that mark maps of the world), Antarctica is surrounded by the <a href="/facts/Southern_Ocean/F15W9ADT">Southern Ocean</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13">13</a> <a href="/facts/List_of_rivers_in_Antarctica/5wS1mvQn">Rivers</a> exist in Antarctica; the longest is the <a href="/facts/Onyx_River/TbGFeM8C">Onyx</a>. Antarctica covers more than 14.2 million km2 (5,500,000 sq mi), almost double the area of Australia, making it the fifth-largest continent, and comparable to the surface area of <a href="/facts/Pluto/egq7MBeR">Pluto</a>. Its coastline is almost 18,000 km (11,200 mi) long:<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14">14</a> as of 1983, of the four coastal types, 44% of the coast is floating ice in the form of an <a href="/facts/Ice_shelf/63806X2Y">ice shelf</a>, 38% consists of ice walls that rest on rock, 13% is <a href="/facts/Ice_stream/LYGaLsRR">ice streams</a> or the edge of glaciers, and the remaining 5% is exposed rock.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15">15</a>
The <a href="/facts/Lakes/YP0xxn0E">lakes</a> that lie at the base of the continental <a href="/facts/Ice_sheet/j3QpYSeK">ice sheet</a> occur mainly in the <a href="/facts/McMurdo_Dry_Valleys/z46JqpcQ">McMurdo Dry Valleys</a> or various <a href="/facts/Antarctic_oasis/FV67JPNW">oases</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16">16</a> <a href="/facts/Lake_Vostok/y87E9EIj">Lake Vostok</a>, discovered beneath Russia's <a href="/facts/Vostok_Station/dWYTPTur">Vostok Station</a>, is the largest <a href="/facts/Subglacial_lake/unJdI7jX">subglacial lake</a> globally and one of the largest lakes in the world. It was once believed that the lake had been sealed off for millions of years, but scientists now estimate its water is replaced by the slow melting and freezing of ice caps every 13,000 years.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17">17</a> During the summer, the ice at the edges of the lakes can melt, and liquid moats temporarily form. Antarctica has both <a href="/facts/Salt_lake/gEtjt4Rl">saline</a> and freshwater lakes.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18">18</a>
Antarctica is divided into <a href="/facts/West_Antarctica/eH1mUem3">West Antarctica</a> and <a href="/facts/East_Antarctica/Uh0yn6ox">East Antarctica</a> by the <a href="/facts/Transantarctic_Mountains/kPy1a2wh">Transantarctic Mountains</a>, which stretch from <a href="/facts/Victoria_Land/w9r0HLyD">Victoria Land</a> to the <a href="/facts/Ross_Sea/0s2Hw8Vf">Ross Sea</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19">19</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20">20</a> The vast majority of Antarctica is covered by the <a href="/facts/Antarctic_ice_sheet/wU3pFebh">Antarctic ice sheet</a>, which averages 1.9 km (1.2 mi) in thickness.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21">21</a> The ice sheet extends to all but a few <a href="/facts/Oasis/BT9IVsR7">oases</a>, which, with the exception of the McMurdo Dry Valleys, are located in coastal areas.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22">22</a> Several Antarctic ice streams flow to one of the many <a href="/facts/Ice_shelf/63806X2Y">Antarctic ice shelves</a>, a process described by <a href="/facts/Ice-sheet_dynamics/FgUv1pWv">ice-sheet dynamics</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23">23</a>

East Antarctica comprises <a href="/facts/Coats_Land/XYSI7VLU">Coats Land</a>, <a href="/facts/Queen_Maud_Land/calbMtF9">Queen Maud Land</a>, <a href="/facts/Enderby_Land/gCCz287e">Enderby Land</a>, <a href="/facts/Mac._Robertson_Land/YmJlRkLY">Mac. Robertson Land</a>, <a href="/facts/Wilkes_Land/CKVxSr49">Wilkes Land</a>, and Victoria Land. All but a small portion of the region lies within the <a href="/facts/Eastern_Hemisphere/gEgE4pYs">Eastern Hemisphere</a>. East Antarctica is largely covered by the <a href="/facts/East_Antarctic_Ice_Sheet/8WM0LB6R">East Antarctic Ice Sheet</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24">24</a> There are numerous <a href="/facts/List_of_Antarctic_and_subantarctic_islands/AhVD2MX8">islands</a> surrounding Antarctica, most of which are volcanic and very young by geological standards.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25">25</a> The most prominent exceptions to this are the islands of the <a href="/facts/Kerguelen_Plateau/NxlY0Uzt">Kerguelen Plateau</a>, the earliest of which formed around 40 <a href="/facts/Year/51V242hh">Ma</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26">26</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27">27</a>
<a href="/facts/Vinson_Massif/JXcADVPr">Vinson Massif</a>, in the <a href="/facts/Ellsworth_Mountains/lkeoJ6Hp">Ellsworth Mountains</a>, is the highest peak in Antarctica at 4,892 m (16,050 ft).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28">28</a> Mount Erebus on <a href="/facts/Ross_Island/p5T83Hyj">Ross Island</a> is the world's southernmost active <a href="/facts/Volcano/c2M5upml">volcano</a> and <a href="/facts/Types_of_volcanic_eruptions/AwqpzdaG">erupts</a> around 10 times each day. Ash from eruptions has been found 300 kilometres (190 mi) from the <a href="/facts/Volcanic_crater/7zad4bDT">volcanic crater</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29">29</a> There is evidence of a large number of volcanoes under the ice, which could pose a risk to the ice sheet if activity levels were to rise.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30">30</a> The ice dome known as <a href="/facts/Dome_Argus/NzjNHSF7">Dome Argus</a> in East Antarctica is the highest Antarctic ice feature, at 4,091 metres (13,422 ft). It is one of the world's coldest and driest places—temperatures there may reach as low as −90 °C (−130 °F), and the annual precipitation is 1–3 cm (0.39–1.18 in).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31">31</a>

<h2 id="geologic-history">Geologic history</h2>
Main article: <a href="/facts/Geology_of_Antarctica/hnQesIcU">Geology of Antarctica</a>Further information: <a href="/facts/Geology_of_the_Antarctic_Peninsula/Jv46d4pW">Geology of the Antarctic Peninsula</a>
From the end of the <a href="/facts/Neoproterozoic/89NsnsM1">Neoproterozoic</a> era to the <a href="/facts/Cretaceous/nwKtFtKx">Cretaceous</a>, Antarctica was part of the <a href="/facts/Supercontinent/amID2KQp">supercontinent</a> <a href="/facts/Gondwana/zqbAvsnY">Gondwana</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32">32</a> Modern Antarctica was formed as Gondwana gradually broke apart beginning around 183 Ma.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33">33</a> For a large proportion of the <a href="/facts/Phanerozoic/EKKuYnwl">Phanerozoic</a>, Antarctica had a <a href="/facts/Tropical_climate/LaAgIWtj">tropical</a> or <a href="/facts/Temperate_climate/6WPypCzC">temperate climate</a>, and it was covered in forests.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34">34</a>

<h3>Paleozoic era (540–250 Ma)</h3>

During the <a href="/facts/Cambrian/jIfzKtod">Cambrian period</a>, Gondwana had a mild climate.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35">35</a> West Antarctica was partially in the <a href="/facts/Northern_Hemisphere/EFwyqL25">Northern Hemisphere</a>, and during the time, large amounts of <a href="/facts/Sandstone/RP8B6fqL">sandstones</a>, <a href="/facts/Limestone/8ntvtFnR">limestones</a>, and <a href="/facts/Shale/bsIhqY5F">shales</a> were deposited. East Antarctica was at the <a href="/facts/Equator/CjaxbVaN">equator</a>, where seafloor <a href="/facts/Invertebrate/3CyqCVnN">invertebrates</a> and <a href="/facts/Trilobite/Tk8ppaKc">trilobites</a> flourished in the tropical seas. By the start of the <a href="/facts/Devonian/nWgakqzk">Devonian period</a> (416 <a href="/facts/Annum/51V242hh">Ma</a>), Gondwana was in more southern latitudes, and the climate was cooler, though fossils of land plants are known from then. Sand and <a href="/facts/Silt/HAxJkhDP">silts</a> were laid down in what is now the Ellsworth, <a href="/facts/Horlick_Mountains/kL6lxgAE">Horlick</a>, and <a href="/facts/Pensacola_Mountains/Jn19MeLv">Pensacola Mountains</a>.
Antarctica became glaciated during the <a href="/facts/Late_Paleozoic_icehouse/jhEJ7pHA">Late Paleozoic icehouse</a> beginning at the end of the Devonian period (360 Ma), though glaciation would substantially increase during the late <a href="/facts/Carboniferous/BRKlkYyd">Carboniferous</a>. It drifted closer to the South Pole, and the climate cooled, though <a href="/facts/Antarctic_flora/G0BtXDUA">flora</a> remained.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36">36</a> After deglaciation during the latter half of the Early <a href="/facts/Permian/CYgLgu5u">Permian</a>, the land became dominated by <a href="/facts/Glossopteridales/mjS6mCVV">glossopterids</a> (an extinct group of seed plants with no close living relatives), most prominently <a href="/facts/Glossopteris/AtaEvTvs">Glossopteris</a>, a tree interpreted as growing in waterlogged soils, which formed extensive <a href="/facts/Coal/83kV3qxg">coal</a> deposits. Other plants found in Antarctica during the Permian include <a href="/facts/Cordaitales/dxHNuoJE">Cordaitales</a>, <a href="/facts/Sphenopsid/vQvPSyYj">sphenopsids</a>, ferns, and <a href="/facts/Lycophyte/n3pgWJCH">lycophytes</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37">37</a> At the end of the Permian, the climate became drier and hotter over much of Gondwana, and the <a href="/facts/Glossopteridales/mjS6mCVV">glossopterid</a> forest ecosystems collapsed, as part of the <a href="/facts/End-Permian_mass_extinction/d8kI8Mfn">End-Permian mass extinction</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38">38</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39">39</a> There is no evidence of any <a href="/facts/Tetrapod/vWpAxzAW">tetrapods</a> having lived in Antarctica during the Paleozoic.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40">40</a>

<h3>Mesozoic era (250–66 Ma)</h3>

The continued warming dried out much of Gondwana. During the <a href="/facts/Triassic/r6CNxKXC">Triassic</a> period, Antarctica was dominated by <a href="/facts/Seed_fern/Rq1MDjea">seed ferns</a> (pteridosperms) belonging to the genus <a href="/facts/Dicroidium/fW0sDDNH">Dicroidium</a>, which grew as trees. Other associated Triassic flora included <a href="/facts/Ginkgophyte/mVmToE16">ginkgophytes</a>, <a href="/facts/Cycad/Kc2JDExr">cycadophytes</a>, <a href="/facts/Conifer/vDUgqxCx">conifers</a>, and sphenopsids.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:41" href="#fn:41">41</a> <a href="/facts/Tetrapod/vWpAxzAW">Tetrapods</a> first appeared in Antarctica during the <a href="/facts/Early_Triassic/oBgudq2V">Early Triassic</a> <a href="/facts/Epoch/ow9RnUFC">epoch</a>, with the earliest known fossils found in the <a href="/facts/Fremouw_Formation/vYeSPLWQ">Fremouw Formation</a> of the Transantarctic Mountains.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:42" href="#fn:42">42</a> <a href="/facts/Synapsid/uzYVtB0F">Synapsids</a> (also known as "mammal-like reptiles") included species such as <a href="/facts/Lystrosaurus/7xtR5wJx">Lystrosaurus</a>, and were common during the <a href="/facts/Early_Triassic/oBgudq2V">Early Triassic</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:43" href="#fn:43">43</a>
The <a href="/facts/Antarctic_Peninsula/vpdK27WC">Antarctic Peninsula</a> began to form during the <a href="/facts/Jurassic/o5Cy4KzX">Jurassic</a> period (<a href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=206–146">206 to 146</a> million years ago).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:44" href="#fn:44">44</a> Africa separated from Antarctica in the Jurassic around 160 Ma, followed by the <a href="/facts/Indian_subcontinent/0XUWGXpx">Indian subcontinent</a> in the early Cretaceous (about 125 Ma).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:45" href="#fn:45">45</a> <a href="/facts/Ginkgo/4b2c7GeQ">Ginkgo</a> trees, conifers, <a href="/facts/Bennettitales/U2QvsBrD">Bennettitales</a>, <a href="/facts/Equisetum/mkQoSHEz">horsetails</a>, ferns and cycads were plentiful during the time.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:46" href="#fn:46">46</a> About 80 million years ago, flowering plants became the most diverse groups of plants on the continent.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:47" href="#fn:47">47</a> In West Antarctica, coniferous forests dominated throughout the <a href="/facts/Cretaceous/nwKtFtKx">Cretaceous</a> period (146–66 Ma), though southern beech trees (<a href="/facts/Nothofagus/QsjDxQ9a">Nothofagus</a>) became prominent towards the end of the Cretaceous.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:48" href="#fn:48">48</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:49" href="#fn:49">49</a> <a href="/facts/Ammonite/cRCH9GVd">Ammonites</a> were common in the seas around Antarctica, and dinosaurs were also present, though only a few Antarctic dinosaur <a href="/facts/Genera/m8EFjSms">genera</a> (<a href="/facts/Cryolophosaurus/BC3ApJfl">Cryolophosaurus</a> and <a href="/facts/Glacialisaurus/rYXblVsH">Glacialisaurus</a>, from the Early Jurassic <a href="/facts/Hanson_Formation/nLvF492E">Hanson Formation</a> of the Transantarctic Mountains,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:50" href="#fn:50">50</a> and <a href="/facts/Antarctopelta/SnXE0k60">Antarctopelta</a>, <a href="/facts/Trinisaura/S6VENkby">Trinisaura</a>, <a href="/facts/Morrosaurus/XMRUrYyA">Morrosaurus</a> and <a href="/facts/Imperobator/qE5V7Tlp">Imperobator</a> from Late Cretaceous of the Antarctic Peninsula) have been described.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:51" href="#fn:51">51</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:52" href="#fn:52">52</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:53" href="#fn:53">53</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:54" href="#fn:54">54</a>

<h3>Cenozoic era before present (66–10 Ma)</h3>

During the early <a href="/facts/Paleogene/CNsEpdA4">Paleogene</a>, the <a href="/facts/Antarctic_land_bridge/lyoANf7n">Antarctic land bridge</a> continued to connect Antarctica with South America as well as to southeastern Australia. Fauna from the <a href="/facts/La_Meseta_Formation/VAInFGKv">La Meseta Formation</a> in the Antarctic Peninsula, dating to the <a href="/facts/Eocene/EYgI8Uco">Eocene</a>, is very similar to equivalent South American faunas; with <a href="/facts/Marsupial/zN5s4bMq">marsupials</a>, <a href="/facts/Xenarthra/jEr4EcPD">xenarthrans</a>, <a href="/facts/Litopterna/VKH1B6pw">litoptern</a>, and <a href="/facts/Astrapotheria/9M8zaWRe">astrapotherian</a> <a href="/facts/Ungulate/NPtsoQmI">ungulates</a>, as well as <a href="/facts/Gondwanatheria/amBK0Vbl">gondwanatheres</a> and possibly <a href="/facts/Meridiolestida/G3Bx0mbL">meridiolestidans</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:55" href="#fn:55">55</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:56" href="#fn:56">56</a> Marsupials are thought to have dispersed into Australia from South America via Antarctica by the early Eocene.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:57" href="#fn:57">57</a>
Around 53 Ma, Australia-<a href="/facts/New_Guinea/qB0bzfSH">New Guinea</a> separated from Antarctica, opening the <a href="/facts/Tasmanian_Passage/AfPPFy4d">Tasmanian Passage</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:58" href="#fn:58">58</a> The <a href="/facts/Drake_Passage/jGoNwUQt">Drake Passage</a> opened between Antarctica and South America around 30 Ma, resulting in the creation of the <a href="/facts/Antarctic_Circumpolar_Current/ahv1m7k3">Antarctic Circumpolar Current</a> that completely isolated the continent.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:59" href="#fn:59">59</a> Models of Antarctic geography suggest that this current, as well as a <a href="/facts/Feedback_loop/XnuWH3zp">feedback loop</a> caused by lowering <a href="/facts/Carbon_dioxide/xGzpppEp">CO2</a> levels, caused the creation of small yet permanent polar ice caps. As CO2 levels declined further the ice began to spread rapidly, replacing the forests that until then had covered Antarctica.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:60" href="#fn:60">60</a> <a href="/facts/Tundra/BqC0AQ7u">Tundra</a> ecosystems continued to exist on Antarctica until around 14–10 million years ago, when further cooling lead to their extermination.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:61" href="#fn:61">61</a>

<h3>Present day</h3>

The <a href="/facts/Geology/WGvVRIYF">geology</a> of Antarctica, largely obscured by the continental ice sheet,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:62" href="#fn:62">62</a> is being revealed by techniques such as <a href="/facts/Remote_sensing/pj2crmGs">remote sensing</a>, <a href="/facts/Ground-penetrating_radar/5pUWHTfP">ground-penetrating radar</a>, and <a href="/facts/Satellite_imagery/V8LQh7jI">satellite imagery</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:63" href="#fn:63">63</a> Geologically, West Antarctica closely resembles the South American <a href="/facts/Andes/a4wlgG3e">Andes</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:64" href="#fn:64">64</a> The Antarctic Peninsula was formed by <a href="/facts/Orogeny/XrvRMpsw">geologic uplift</a> and the transformation of sea bed <a href="/facts/Sediment/zsIH1A6U">sediments</a> into <a href="/facts/Metamorphic_rock/JRp6dsCm">metamorphic rocks</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:65" href="#fn:65">65</a>
West Antarctica was formed by the merging of several <a href="/facts/Continental_plates/RtRG5lY4">continental plates</a>, which created a number of mountain ranges in the region, the most prominent being the Ellsworth Mountains. The presence of the <a href="/facts/West_Antarctic_Rift_System/k8r1XzKj">West Antarctic Rift System</a> has resulted in <a href="/facts/Volcanism/0s6p1eFJ">volcanism</a> along the border between West and East Antarctica, as well as the creation of the Transantarctic Mountains.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:66" href="#fn:66">66</a>
East Antarctica is geologically varied. Its formation began during the <a href="/facts/Archean/PHt8Sm8n">Archean</a> Eon (4,000 Ma–2,500 Ma), and stopped during the Cambrian Period.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:67" href="#fn:67">67</a> It is built on a <a href="/facts/Craton/fSuY37IC">craton</a> of rock, which is the basis of the Precambrian <a href="/facts/Shield_(geology)/kD6EN8Uq">Shield</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:68" href="#fn:68">68</a> On top of the base are coal and sandstones, limestones, and shales that were laid down during the Devonian and Jurassic periods to form the Transantarctic Mountains.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:69" href="#fn:69">69</a> In coastal areas such as the <a href="/facts/Shackleton_Range/2EtzY4Kt">Shackleton Range</a> and Victoria Land, some <a href="/facts/Fault_(geology)/0Fw2ladx">faulting</a> has occurred.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:70" href="#fn:70">70</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:71" href="#fn:71">71</a>
Coal was first recorded in Antarctica near the <a href="/facts/Beardmore_Glacier/mh1konCj">Beardmore Glacier</a> by <a href="/facts/Frank_Wild/wpzKtjqN">Frank Wild</a> on the <a href="/facts/Nimrod_Expedition/cj1FCXdq">Nimrod Expedition</a> in 1907, and low-grade coal is known to exist across many parts of the Transantarctic Mountains.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:72" href="#fn:72">72</a> The <a href="/facts/Prince_Charles_Mountains/Yg0tgI0E">Prince Charles Mountains</a> contain deposits of <a href="/facts/Iron_ore/rQMEvgMh">iron ore</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:73" href="#fn:73">73</a> There are <a href="/facts/Oil_field/wYoSQmGN">oil</a> and <a href="/facts/Natural_gas_field/wYoSQmGN">natural gas fields</a> in the Ross Sea.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:74" href="#fn:74">74</a>

<h2 id="climate">Climate</h2>
Main article: <a href="/facts/Climate_of_Antarctica/p1GVWrvV">Climate of Antarctica</a>

Antarctica is the coldest, windiest, and driest of Earth's continents.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:75" href="#fn:75">75</a>
Near the coast, the temperature can exceed 10 °C in summer and fall to below −40 °C in winter. Over the elevated inland, it can rise to about −30 °C in summer but fall below −80 °C in winter.
The lowest natural air temperature ever recorded on Earth was −89.2 °C (−128.6 °F) at the Russian Vostok Station in Antarctica on 21 July 1983.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:76" href="#fn:76">76</a> A lower air temperature of −94.7 °C (−138.5 °F) was recorded in 2010 by satellite—however, it may have been influenced by ground temperatures and was not recorded at a height of 2 m (7 ft) above the surface as required for official air temperature records.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:77" href="#fn:77">77</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:78" href="#fn:78">78</a> Antarctica is colder than the <a href="/facts/Arctic/bxbuUz7Q">Arctic</a> region, as much of Antarctica is over 3,000 m (9,800 ft) above sea level, where air temperatures are colder. The relative warmth of the <a href="/facts/Arctic_Ocean/l6HS3QyV">Arctic Ocean</a> is transferred through the <a href="/facts/Arctic_sea_ice/M1ACdwEX">Arctic sea ice</a> and moderates temperatures in the Arctic region.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:79" href="#fn:79">79</a>
Winds are strong and persistent.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:80" href="#fn:80">80</a>
Antarctica is a <a href="/facts/Polar_desert/z9475P95">polar desert</a> with little <a href="/facts/Precipitation/uq3nGQc8">precipitation</a>; the continent receives an average equivalent to about 150 mm (6 in) of water per year, mostly in the form of snow. The interior is dryer and receives less than 50 mm (2 in) per year, whereas the coastal regions typically receive more than 200 mm (8 in).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:81" href="#fn:81">81</a> In a few <a href="/facts/Blue-ice_area/LXELkbbP">blue-ice areas</a>, the wind and <a href="/facts/Sublimation_(phase_transition)/KDoKokMn">sublimation</a> remove more snow than is accumulated by precipitation.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:82" href="#fn:82">82</a> In the dry valleys, the same effect occurs over a rock base, leading to a barren and <a href="/facts/Desiccation/X6IUsM3R">desiccated</a> landscape.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:83" href="#fn:83">83</a>

<h3>Regional differences</h3>
East Antarctica is colder than its western counterpart because of its higher elevation. <a href="/facts/Weather_front/n4PXdp1f">Weather fronts</a> rarely penetrate far into the continent, leaving the centre cold and dry, with moderate wind speeds. Heavy snowfalls are common on the coastal portion of Antarctica, where snowfalls of up to 1.22 m (48 in) in 48 hours have been recorded. At the continent's edge, strong <a href="/facts/Katabatic_wind/3H6Ay619">katabatic winds</a> off the <a href="/facts/Polar_plateau/ymQ3J7qT">polar plateau</a> often blow at <a href="/facts/Storm/tgStaeS3">storm force</a>. During the summer, more <a href="/facts/Solar_radiation/SI26I7aD">solar radiation</a> reaches the surface at the South Pole than at the <a href="/facts/Equator/CjaxbVaN">equator</a> because of the 24 hours of sunlight received there each day.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:84" href="#fn:84">84</a>

<h2 id="climate-change">Climate change</h2>

This section is an excerpt from <a href="/facts/Climate_change_in_Antarctica/lMPVv8nJ">Climate change in Antarctica</a>.[<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Climate_change_in_Antarctica&action=edit">edit</a>]

Despite its isolation, Antarctica has experienced <a href="/facts/Climate_change/rEN4BDE7">warming</a> and ice loss in recent decades<a href="/facts/Climate_change_in_Antarctica/lMPVv8nJ">,</a> driven by <a href="/facts/Greenhouse_gas_emissions/Cu9nXPHE">greenhouse gas emissions</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:85" href="#fn:85">85</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:86" href="#fn:86">86</a> <a href="/facts/West_Antarctica/eH1mUem3">West Antarctica</a> warmed by over 0.1 °C per decade from the 1950s to the 2000s, and the exposed <a href="/facts/Antarctic_Peninsula/vpdK27WC">Antarctic Peninsula</a> has warmed by 3 °C (5.4 °F) since the mid-20th century.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:87" href="#fn:87">87</a> The colder, stabler <a href="/facts/East_Antarctica/Uh0yn6ox">East Antarctica</a> did not show any warming until the 2000s.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:88" href="#fn:88">88</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:89" href="#fn:89">89</a> Around Antarctica, the <a href="/facts/Southern_Ocean/F15W9ADT">Southern Ocean</a> has absorbed more <a href="/facts/Ocean_heat_content/RDwuuFnm">oceanic heat</a> than any other ocean,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:90" href="#fn:90">90</a> and has seen strong warming at depths below 2,000 m (6,600 ft).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:91" href="#fn:91">91</a>: 1230  Around the West Antarctic, the ocean has warmed by 1 °C (1.8 °F) since 1955.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:92" href="#fn:92">92</a>
The warming of the Southern Ocean around Antarctica has caused the weakening or collapse of <a href="/facts/Ice_shelf/63806X2Y">ice shelves</a>, which float just offshore of <a href="/facts/Glacier/8GrKVUSS">glaciers</a> and stabilize them. Many coastal glaciers have been losing mass and retreating, causing net ice loss across Antarctica,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:93" href="#fn:93">93</a>: 1264  although the <a href="/facts/East_Antarctic_ice_sheet/8WM0LB6R">East Antarctic ice sheet</a> continues to gain ice inland. By 2100, net ice loss from Antarctica is expected to add about 11 cm (5 in) to global <a href="/facts/Sea_level_rise/Pb5MGJxb">sea-level rise</a>. <a href="/facts/Marine_ice_sheet_instability/de56fFo8">Marine ice sheet instability</a> may cause West Antarctica to contribute tens of centimeters more if it is triggered before 2100.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:94" href="#fn:94">94</a>: 1270  With higher warming, instability would be much more likely, and could double global, 21st-century sea-level rise.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:95" href="#fn:95">95</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:96" href="#fn:96">96</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:97" href="#fn:97">97</a>
The fresh <a href="/facts/Meltwater/SYU7KHgg">meltwater</a> from the ice dilutes the saline <a href="/facts/Antarctic_bottom_water/6JEhfPIc">Antarctic bottom water</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:98" href="#fn:98">98</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:99" href="#fn:99">99</a> weakening the lower cell of the <a href="/facts/Southern_Ocean_overturning_circulation/DEqB6Iwb">Southern Ocean overturning circulation</a> (SOOC).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:100" href="#fn:100">100</a>: 1240  According to some research, a full collapse of the SOOC may occur at between 1.7 °C (3.1 °F) and 3 °C (5.4 °F) of global warming,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:101" href="#fn:101">101</a> although the full effects are expected to occur over multiple centuries; these include less precipitation in the <a href="/facts/Southern_Hemisphere/QfJ4z9L5">Southern Hemisphere</a> but more in the <a href="/facts/Northern_Hemisphere/EFwyqL25">Northern Hemisphere</a>, an eventual decline of fisheries in the Southern Ocean and a potential <a href="/facts/Ecosystem_collapse/1ebBu35e">collapse</a> of certain <a href="/facts/Marine_ecosystem/thPh931d">marine ecosystems</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:102" href="#fn:102">102</a> While many Antarctic species remain undiscovered, there are documented increases in <a href="/facts/Antarctic_flora/G0BtXDUA">Antarctic flora</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:103" href="#fn:103">103</a> and large <a href="/facts/Wildlife_of_Antarctica/lH7xErIk">fauna</a> such as <a href="/facts/Penguin/RPoapfVx">penguins</a> are already having difficulty retaining suitable habitat. On ice-free land, <a href="/facts/Permafrost/SkFC7LMT">permafrost</a> thaws release <a href="/facts/Greenhouse_gas/HXaHqrT8">greenhouse gases</a> and formerly frozen pollution.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:104" href="#fn:104">104</a>

The West Antarctic ice sheet is likely to completely melt<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:105" href="#fn:105">105</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:106" href="#fn:106">106</a> unless temperatures are reduced by 2 °C (3.6 °F) below 2020 levels.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:107" href="#fn:107">107</a> The loss of this ice sheet would take between 500 and 13,000 years.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:108" href="#fn:108">108</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:109" href="#fn:109">109</a> A sea-level rise of 3.3 m (10 ft 10 in) would occur if the ice sheet collapses, leaving ice caps on the mountains, and 4.3 m (14 ft 1 in) if those ice caps also melt.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:110" href="#fn:110">110</a> The far-stabler East Antarctic ice sheet may only cause a sea-level rise of 0.5 m (1 ft 8 in) – 0.9 m (2 ft 11 in) from the current level of warming, a small fraction of the 53.3 m (175 ft) contained in the full ice sheet.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:111" href="#fn:111">111</a> With global warming of around 3 °C (5.4 °F), vulnerable areas like <a href="/facts/Wilkes_Basin/DE31lne4">Wilkes Basin</a> and <a href="/facts/Aurora_Basin/AxzYMkSx">Aurora Basin</a> may collapse over around 2,000 years,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:112" href="#fn:112">112</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:113" href="#fn:113">113</a> potentially adding up to 6.4 m (21 ft 0 in) to sea levels.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:114" href="#fn:114">114</a>
<h2 id="ozone-depletion">Ozone depletion</h2>
Main article: <a href="/facts/Ozone_hole/ssGWpcx3">Ozone hole</a>

Scientists have studied the <a href="/facts/Ozone_layer/v4KfjalC">ozone layer</a> in the <a href="/facts/Atmosphere/oUpLaGRF">atmosphere</a> above Antarctica since the 1970s. In 1985, British scientists, working on data they had gathered at <a href="/facts/Halley_Research_Station/DSRDqmJk">Halley Research Station</a> on the <a href="/facts/Brunt_Ice_Shelf/xLbkme88">Brunt Ice Shelf</a>, discovered a large area of low <a href="/facts/Ozone/o0E5gn2p">ozone</a> concentration over Antarctica.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:115" href="#fn:115">115</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:116" href="#fn:116">116</a> The 'ozone hole' covers almost the whole continent and was at its largest in September 2006;<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:117" href="#fn:117">117</a> the longest-lasting event occurred in 2020.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:118" href="#fn:118">118</a> The depletion is caused by the <a href="/facts/Atmospheric_emissions/zmk9Dy7S">emission</a> of <a href="/facts/Chlorofluorocarbon/uLApxm7K">chlorofluorocarbons</a> and halons into the atmosphere, which causes ozone to break down into other gases.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:119" href="#fn:119">119</a> The extreme cold conditions of Antarctica allow <a href="/facts/Polar_stratospheric_cloud/wpQfDlBI">polar stratospheric clouds</a> to form. The clouds act as <a href="/facts/Catalysis/LPBS7TQC">catalysts</a> for chemical reactions, which eventually lead to the destruction of ozone.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:120" href="#fn:120">120</a> The 1987 <a href="/facts/Montreal_Protocol/Hmf70BQK">Montreal Protocol</a> has restricted the emissions of ozone-depleting substances. The ozone hole above Antarctica is predicted to slowly disappear; by the 2060s, levels of ozone are expected to have returned to values last recorded in the 1980s.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:121" href="#fn:121">121</a>
The ozone depletion can cause a cooling of around 6 °C (11 °F) in the <a href="/facts/Stratosphere/taBra67V">stratosphere</a>. The cooling strengthens the <a href="/facts/Polar_vortex/RM34TWNk">polar vortex</a> and so prevents the outflow of the cold air near the South Pole, which in turn cools the continental mass of the East Antarctic ice sheet. The peripheral areas of Antarctica, especially the Antarctic Peninsula, are then subjected to higher temperatures, which accelerate the melting of the ice.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:122" href="#fn:122">122</a> Models suggest that ozone depletion and the enhanced polar vortex effect may also account for the period of increasing sea ice extent, lasting from when observation started in the late 1970s until 2014. Since then, the coverage of Antarctic sea ice has decreased rapidly.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:123" href="#fn:123">123</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:124" href="#fn:124">124</a>

<h2 id="biodiversity">Biodiversity</h2>
See also: <a href="/facts/Antarctic_realm/47KK4mBF">Antarctic realm</a>, <a href="/facts/Antarctic_microorganism/gsKjyf6p">Antarctic microorganism</a>, and <a href="/facts/Wildlife_of_Antarctica/lH7xErIk">Wildlife of Antarctica</a>
Most species in Antarctica seem to be the descendants of species that lived there millions of years ago. As such, they must have survived multiple <a href="/facts/Glacial_cycle/agSMvAgX">glacial cycles</a>. The species survived the periods of extremely cold climate in <a href="/facts/Refugium_(population_biology)/PQwFn7en">isolated warmer areas</a>, such as those with <a href="/facts/Geothermal_energy/ClKR9sTL">geothermal heat</a> or areas that remained ice-free throughout the colder climate.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:125" href="#fn:125">125</a>

<h3>Animals</h3>

Invertebrate life of Antarctica includes species of microscopic <a href="/facts/Mite/M52qFjlE">mites</a> such as <a href="/facts/Alaskozetes_antarcticus/EvpU5Rlj">Alaskozetes antarcticus</a>, <a href="/facts/Lice/xuKMIK5M">lice</a>, <a href="/facts/Flea/hFLUFK24">fleas</a> (Glaciopsyllus antarcticus),<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:126" href="#fn:126">126</a> <a href="/facts/Roundworm/yLMJ43Eu">nematodes</a>, <a href="/facts/Tardigrade/WQUg0IS9">tardigrades</a>, <a href="/facts/Rotifer/Gy8DKrFd">rotifers</a>, <a href="/facts/Krill/q11notjt">krill</a> and <a href="/facts/Springtail/Cm0Q6PT1">springtails</a>. The flightless <a href="/facts/Midge/Bn1wEUVk">midge</a> <a href="/facts/Belgica_antarctica/7th251BA">Belgica antarctica</a>, the largest purely terrestrial animal in Antarctica, reaches 6 mm (1⁄4 in) in size.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:127" href="#fn:127">127</a>
<a href="/facts/Antarctic_krill/k8mwdXbn">Antarctic krill</a>, which congregates in large <a href="/facts/Shoaling_and_schooling/vFAw9F75">schools</a>, is the <a href="/facts/Keystone_species/JE5sSY3X">keystone species</a> of the <a href="/facts/Ecosystem/kVE8mSmR">ecosystem</a> of the Southern Ocean, being an important food organism for whales, seals, <a href="/facts/Leopard_seal/EfMS9g1g">leopard seals</a>, fur seals, <a href="/facts/Squid/2FEvJ5wG">squid</a>, <a href="/facts/Notothenioidei/fm5lga3R">icefish</a>, and many bird species, such as penguins and <a href="/facts/Albatross/k7RUk0Ef">albatrosses</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:128" href="#fn:128">128</a> Some species of marine animals exist and rely, directly or indirectly, on <a href="/facts/Phytoplankton/tK5MUIkA">phytoplankton</a>. Antarctic sea life includes <a href="/facts/Penguin/RPoapfVx">penguins</a>, <a href="/facts/Blue_whale/CSlRTeCf">blue whales</a>, <a href="/facts/Orca/AaDEqz8T">orcas</a>, <a href="/facts/Colossal_squid/RIRss7u1">colossal squids</a> and <a href="/facts/Fur_seal/0wr4enjM">fur seals</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:129" href="#fn:129">129</a> The <a href="/facts/Antarctic_fur_seal/gEpShAFb">Antarctic fur seal</a> was very heavily hunted in the 18th and 19th centuries for its <a href="/facts/Fur/4hVxpDQ0">pelt</a> by <a href="/facts/Seal_hunting/ppCsCypW">seal hunters</a> from the United States and the United Kingdom.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:130" href="#fn:130">130</a> Leopard seals are <a href="/facts/Apex_predator/dl0Jyy8Q">apex predators</a> in the Antarctic ecosystem and migrate across the Southern Ocean in search of food.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:131" href="#fn:131">131</a>
There are approximately 40 bird species that breed on or close to Antarctica, including species of <a href="/facts/Petrel/dBhuUDUS">petrels</a>, <a href="/facts/Penguins/RPoapfVx">penguins</a>, <a href="/facts/Cormorants/82RPsdeT">cormorants</a>, and <a href="/facts/Gulls/ob8yUNmo">gulls</a>. Various other bird species visit the ocean around Antarctica, including some that normally reside in the Arctic.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:132" href="#fn:132">132</a> The <a href="/facts/Emperor_penguin/1l9aAH64">emperor penguin</a> is the only penguin that breeds during the winter in Antarctica; it and the <a href="/facts/Ad%25C3%25A9lie_penguin/hD6MJrwl">Adélie penguin</a> breed farther south than any other penguin.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:133" href="#fn:133">133</a>
A <a href="/facts/Census_of_Marine_Life/LEQY2L5D">Census of Marine Life</a> by some 500 researchers during the <a href="/facts/International_Polar_Year/WeHy51ja">International Polar Year</a> was released in 2010. The research found that more than 235 marine organisms live in both polar regions, having bridged the gap of 12,000 km (7,456 mi). Large animals such as some <a href="/facts/Cetacean/rtC33h63">cetaceans</a> and birds make the round trip annually. Smaller forms of life, such as <a href="/facts/Sea_cucumbers/1ruJ7ePx">sea cucumbers</a> and <a href="/facts/Pteropoda/0oCEUtPy">free-swimming snails</a>, are also found in both polar oceans. Factors that may aid in their distribution include temperature differences between the deep ocean at the poles and the equator of no more than 5 °C (9 °F) and the major current systems or marine conveyor belts which are able to transport eggs and <a href="/facts/Larva/GKo2FIew">larva</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:134" href="#fn:134">134</a>

<h3>Fungi</h3>

About 1,150 species of <a href="/facts/Fungus/BHo5DP59">fungi</a> have been recorded in the Antarctic region, of which about 750 are non-<a href="/facts/Lichen/lUrd6Sn7">lichen</a>-forming.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:135" href="#fn:135">135</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:136" href="#fn:136">136</a> Some of the species, having evolved under extreme conditions, have <a href="/facts/Endolith/eRaLeboR">colonised structural cavities within porous rocks</a> and have contributed to shaping the rock formations of the McMurdo Dry Valleys and surrounding mountain ridges.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:137" href="#fn:137">137</a>
The simplified <a href="/facts/Morphology_(biology)/Nl3B0myy">morphology</a> of such fungi, along with their similar <a href="/facts/Structure/xQDPtqDQ">biological structures</a>, <a href="/facts/Metabolism_system/WxDrm8k5">metabolism systems</a> capable of remaining active at very low temperatures, and reduced life cycles, make them well suited to such environments. Their thick-walled and strongly <a href="/facts/Melanin/QtGsXAm4">melanised</a> cells make them resistant to <a href="/facts/Ultraviolet/kncBUqn5">UV</a> radiation.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:138" href="#fn:138">138</a> An Antarctic <a href="/facts/Endemism/xt4IpIsl">endemic</a> species, the <a href="/facts/Crustose_lichen/BxYbkuPC">crust-like</a> lichen <a href="/facts/Buellia_frigida/aoSCLWgW">Buellia frigida</a>, has been used as a <a href="/facts/Model_organism/vNv6q4yb">model organism</a> in <a href="/facts/Astrobiology/GS1tFhrf">astrobiology</a> research.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:139" href="#fn:139">139</a>
The same features can be observed in algae and <a href="/facts/Cyanobacteria/S8bKxIU9">cyanobacteria</a>, suggesting that they are <a href="/facts/Adaptation/5K2gNpDB">adaptations</a> to the conditions prevailing in Antarctica. This has led to speculation that <a href="/facts/Life_on_Mars/A14ye2It">life on Mars</a> might have been similar to Antarctic fungi, such as <a href="/facts/Cryomyces_antarcticus/A1Cj0mNy">Cryomyces antarcticus</a> and <a href="/facts/Cryomyces_minteri/hbwxfQfs">Cryomyces minteri</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:140" href="#fn:140">140</a> Some of the species of fungi, which are apparently endemic to Antarctica, live in bird dung, and have evolved so they can grow inside extremely cold dung, but can also pass through the intestines of warm-blooded animals.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:141" href="#fn:141">141</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:142" href="#fn:142">142</a>

<h3>Plants</h3>
Main article: <a href="/facts/Flora_of_Antarctica/bEM5Lem5">Flora of Antarctica</a>
Further information: <a href="/facts/Flora_Antarctica/jazMtkgS">Flora Antarctica</a>

Throughout its history, Antarctica has seen a wide variety of plant life. In the <a href="/facts/Cretaceous/nwKtFtKx">Cretaceous</a>, it was dominated by a fern-<a href="/facts/Conifer/vDUgqxCx">conifer</a> ecosystem, which changed into a temperate <a href="/facts/Rainforest/IEY5TMEc">rainforest</a> by the end of that period. During the colder <a href="/facts/Neogene/zUJxvjuH">Neogene</a> (17–2.5 Ma), a <a href="/facts/Tundra/BqC0AQ7u">tundra</a> ecosystem replaced the rainforests. The climate of present-day Antarctica does not allow extensive vegetation to form.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:143" href="#fn:143">143</a> A combination of freezing temperatures, poor <a href="/facts/Soil_quality/2mDaaCxb">soil quality</a>, and a lack of moisture and sunlight inhibit plant growth, causing low <a href="/facts/Species_diversity/jgUGx4UC">species diversity</a> and limited distribution. The <a href="/facts/Flora/2xkcTn2d">flora</a> largely consists of <a href="/facts/Bryophyte/DWXKNQ1h">bryophytes</a> (25 species of <a href="/facts/Marchantiophyta/2lmpEV4A">liverworts</a> and 100 species of <a href="/facts/Moss/YF8Rbf8y">mosses</a>). There are three species of <a href="/facts/Flowering_plant/E5eGYIvY">flowering plants</a>, all of which are found in the Antarctic Peninsula: <a href="/facts/Deschampsia_antarctica/jshUynUt">Deschampsia antarctica</a> (Antarctic hair grass), <a href="/facts/Colobanthus_quitensis/L8pP4Uu1">Colobanthus quitensis</a> (Antarctic pearlwort) and the non-native <a href="/facts/Poa_annua/BAltqHL9">Poa annua</a> (annual bluegrass).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:144" href="#fn:144">144</a>

<h3>Other organisms</h3>
Of the 700 species of algae in Antarctica, around half are marine <a href="/facts/Phytoplankton/tK5MUIkA">phytoplankton</a>. Multicoloured <a href="/facts/Snow_algae/9oJvSINh">snow algae</a> are especially abundant in the coastal regions during the summer.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:145" href="#fn:145">145</a> Even <a href="/facts/Sea_ice/tgTbCYwg">sea ice</a> can harbour unique ecological communities, as it expels all salt from the water when it freezes, which accumulates into pockets of <a href="/facts/Brine/xsN2GcLF">brine</a> that also harbour dormant microorganisms. When the ice begins to melt, brine pockets expand and can combine to form brine channels, and the <a href="/facts/Algae/U1ftVKU3">algae</a> inside the pockets can reawaken and thrive until the next freeze.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:146" href="#fn:146">146</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:147" href="#fn:147">147</a> Bacteria have also been found as deep as 800 m (0.50 mi) under the ice.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:148" href="#fn:148">148</a> It is thought to be likely that there exists a native bacterial community within the subterranean water body of <a href="/facts/Lake_Vostok/y87E9EIj">Lake Vostok</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:149" href="#fn:149">149</a> The existence of life there is thought to strengthen the argument for the possibility of life on <a href="/facts/Jupiter/95m7XjMT">Jupiter</a>'s moon <a href="/facts/Europa_(moon)/2A9nleK3">Europa</a>, which may have water beneath its water-ice crust.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:150" href="#fn:150">150</a> There exists a community of <a href="/facts/Extremophile/JGk1eYCk">extremophile</a> bacteria in the highly <a href="/facts/Alkali/s6NqPGSP">alkaline</a> waters of <a href="/facts/Lake_Untersee/CYWKhMzc">Lake Untersee</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:151" href="#fn:151">151</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:152" href="#fn:152">152</a> The prevalence of highly resilient creatures in such inhospitable areas could further bolster the argument for <a href="/facts/Extraterrestrial_life/arxCPFTQ">extraterrestrial life</a> in cold, <a href="/facts/Methane/kBHneYnh">methane</a>-rich environments.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:153" href="#fn:153">153</a>

<h3>Conservation and environmental protection</h3>

The <a href="/facts/Agreed_Measures_for_the_Conservation_of_Antarctic_Fauna_and_Flora/VygQ7c8g">first international agreement to protect Antarctica's biodiversity</a> was adopted in 1964.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:154" href="#fn:154">154</a> The <a href="/facts/Overfishing/fAxN80Jo">overfishing</a> of <a href="/facts/Krill/q11notjt">krill</a> (an animal that plays a large role in the Antarctic ecosystem) led officials to enact regulations on fishing. The <a href="/facts/Convention_for_the_Conservation_of_Antarctic_Marine_Living_Resources/MgPXQaE5">Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources</a>, an international treaty that came into force in 1980, regulates fisheries, aiming to preserve ecological relationships.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:155" href="#fn:155">155</a> Despite these regulations, <a href="/facts/Illegal%2c_unreported_and_unregulated_fishing/FhpMlqJN">illegal fishing</a>—particularly of the highly prized <a href="/facts/Patagonian_toothfish/9URbTa9g">Patagonian toothfish</a> which is marketed as Chilean sea bass in the U.S.—remains a problem.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:156" href="#fn:156">156</a>
In analogy to the 1980 treaty on <a href="/facts/Sustainable_fishery/RmlY9rbd">sustainable fishing</a>, countries led by New Zealand and the United States negotiated a treaty on mining. This <a href="/facts/Convention_on_the_Regulation_of_Antarctic_Mineral_Resources/Y9Mogq3T">Convention on the Regulation of Antarctic Mineral Resource Activities</a> was adopted in 1988. After a strong campaign from environmental organisations, first Australia and then France decided not to ratify the treaty.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:157" href="#fn:157">157</a> Instead, countries adopted the <a href="/facts/Protocol_on_Environmental_Protection_to_the_Antarctic_Treaty/qfjouhmF">Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty</a> (the Madrid Protocol), which entered into force in 1998.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:158" href="#fn:158">158</a> The Madrid Protocol bans all mining, designating the continent as a "natural reserve devoted to peace and science".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:159" href="#fn:159">159</a>

The pressure group <a href="/facts/Greenpeace/nB8x6RJL">Greenpeace</a> established <a href="/facts/World_Park_Base/TJMV3lB9">a base on Ross Island</a> from 1987 to 1992 as part of its attempt to establish the continent as a <a href="/facts/Transboundary_protected_area/Q3uTA4LU">World Park</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:160" href="#fn:160">160</a> The <a href="/facts/Southern_Ocean_Whale_Sanctuary/RaVc5nar">Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary</a> was established in 1994 by the <a href="/facts/International_Whaling_Commission/LVQv5Ldy">International Whaling Commission</a>. It covers 50 million km2 (19 million sq mi) and completely surrounds the Antarctic continent. All <a href="/facts/Commercial_whaling/rvUqYp0E">commercial whaling</a> is banned in the zone, though Japan has continued to hunt whales in the area, ostensibly for research purposes.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:161" href="#fn:161">161</a>
Despite these protections, the biodiversity in Antarctica is still at risk from human activities. <a href="/facts/Antarctic_Specially_Protected_Area/p8GrTa1G">Specially protected areas</a> cover less than 2% of the area and provide better protection for <a href="/facts/Charismatic_species/3VVr8kAX">animals with popular appeal</a> than for less visible animals.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:162" href="#fn:162">162</a> There are more terrestrial protected areas than <a href="/facts/Marine_protected_area/opJ0gavz">marine protected areas</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:163" href="#fn:163">163</a> Ecosystems are impacted by local and global threats, notably <a href="/facts/Pollution/JRagxumQ">pollution</a>, the <a href="/facts/Invasive_species/Ya1v6RGx">invasion of non-native species</a>, and the various <a href="/facts/Climate_change_in_Antarctica/lMPVv8nJ">effects of climate change</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:164" href="#fn:164">164</a>

<h2 id="history-of-exploration">History of exploration</h2>
Main articles: <a href="/facts/History_of_Antarctica/XFG7usAf">History of Antarctica</a>, <a href="/facts/Colonization_of_Antarctica/eCCKSBfv">Colonization of Antarctica</a>, and <a href="/facts/Farthest_south/Cn9XxQBp">Farthest south</a>
See also: <a href="/facts/List_of_Antarctic_expeditions/kgI520XM">List of Antarctic expeditions</a>, <a href="/facts/Women_in_Antarctica/MuhXyRjp">Women in Antarctica</a>, and <a href="/facts/List_of_polar_explorers/jprLGuSW">List of polar explorers</a>

Early world maps, like the <a href="/facts/Piri_Reis_map/PkrLAdXp">1513 Piri Reis map</a>, feature the hypothetical continent <a href="/facts/Terra_Australis/Y2vacCD1">Terra Australis</a>. Much larger than and unrelated to Antarctica, Terra Australis was a landmass that <a href="/facts/Classical_antiquity/JBq8vEX9">classical</a> scholars presumed necessary to balance the known lands in the northern hemisphere.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:165" href="#fn:165">165</a>
<a href="/facts/James_Cook/wy3cXCXp">Captain James Cook</a>'s ships, <a href="/facts/HMS_Resolution_(1771)/mCzRcUzd">HMS Resolution</a> and <a href="/facts/HMS_Adventure_(1771)/25kNUBKq">Adventure</a>, crossed the Antarctic Circle on 17 January 1773, in December 1773, and again in January 1774.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:166" href="#fn:166">166</a> Cook came within about 120 km (75 mi) of the Antarctic coast before retreating in the face of <a href="/facts/Field_ice/tgTbCYwg">field ice</a> in January 1773.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:167" href="#fn:167">167</a> In 1775, he called the existence of a polar continent "probable", and in another copy of his <a href="/facts/General_journal/pdM4UmvD">journal</a> he wrote: "[I] firmly believe it and it's more than probable that we have seen a part of it".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:168" href="#fn:168">168</a>

<h3>19th century</h3>

<a href="/facts/Seal_hunting/ppCsCypW">Sealers</a> were among the earliest to go closer to the Antarctic landmass, perhaps in the earlier part of the 19th century. The oldest known human remains in the Antarctic region was a skull, dated from 1819 to 1825, that belonged to a young woman on <a href="/facts/Yamana_Beach/3D7Mrdbz">Yamana Beach</a> at the <a href="/facts/South_Shetland_Islands/rhqBBXEj">South Shetland Islands</a>. The woman, who was likely to have been part of a <a href="/facts/Seal_hunting/ppCsCypW">sealing</a> expedition, was found in 1985.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:169" href="#fn:169">169</a>
The first person to see Antarctica or its ice shelf was long thought to have been the British sailor <a href="/facts/Edward_Bransfield/uKB3lRTJ">Edward Bransfield</a>, a captain in the <a href="/facts/Royal_Navy/Xdy8YCH7">Royal Navy</a>, who discovered the tip of the Antarctic peninsula on 30 January 1820. However, a captain in the <a href="/facts/Imperial_Russian_Navy/YHC9HrnF">Imperial Russian Navy</a>, <a href="/facts/Fabian_Gottlieb_von_Bellingshausen/4tQGY90s">Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen</a>, recorded seeing an ice shelf on 27 January.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:170" href="#fn:170">170</a> The American sealer <a href="/facts/Nathaniel_Palmer/NoVVBR4y">Nathaniel Palmer</a>, whose sealing ship was in the region at this time, may also have been the first to sight the Antarctic Peninsula.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:171" href="#fn:171">171</a>
The <a href="/facts/First_Russian_Antarctic_Expedition/frzjNdr7">First Russian Antarctic Expedition</a>, led by Bellingshausen and <a href="/facts/Mikhail_Lazarev/UxHah240">Mikhail Lazarev</a> on the 985-ton <a href="/facts/Sloop-of-war/LKXBvGkw">sloop-of-war</a> <a href="/facts/Vostok_(sloop-of-war)/QXHYg4V9">Vostok</a> and the 530-ton support vessel <a href="/facts/Mirny_(sloop-of-war)/Ge1v6IlG">Mirny</a>, reached a point within 32 km (20 mi) of <a href="/facts/Queen_Maud%2527s_Land/calbMtF9">Queen Maud Land</a> and recorded sighting an ice shelf at <a href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Antarctica¶ms=69_21_28_S_2_14_50_W_">69°21′28″S 2°14′50″W / 69.35778°S 2.24722°W / -69.35778; -2.24722</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:172" href="#fn:172">172</a> on 27 January 1820.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:173" href="#fn:173">173</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:174" href="#fn:174">174</a> The sighting happened three days before Bransfield sighted the land of the <a href="/facts/Trinity_Peninsula/Fa5s1qsr">Trinity Peninsula</a> of Antarctica, as opposed to the ice of an ice shelf, and 10 months before Palmer did so in November 1820. The first documented landing on Antarctica was by the English-born American sealer <a href="/facts/John_Davis_(sealer)/tQ0KG84n">John Davis</a>, apparently at <a href="/facts/Hughes_Bay/Q8cDs4T4">Hughes Bay</a> on 7 February 1821, although some historians dispute this claim, as there is no evidence Davis landed on the Antarctic continent rather than an offshore island.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:175" href="#fn:175">175</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:176" href="#fn:176">176</a>
On 22 January 1840, two days after the discovery of the coast west of the <a href="/facts/Balleny_Islands/vVCe67Yr">Balleny Islands</a>, some members of the crew of the 1837–1840 expedition of the French explorer <a href="/facts/Jules_Dumont_d%2527Urville/YbWuHpAw">Jules Dumont d'Urville</a> disembarked on the <a href="/facts/Dumoulin_Islands/LgJn7Tr0">Dumoulin Islands</a>, off the coast of Adélie Land, where they took some mineral, algae, and animal samples, erected the French flag, and claimed French <a href="/facts/Territorial_claims_in_Antarctica/8TdQfqRB">sovereignty over the territory</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:177" href="#fn:177">177</a> The American captain <a href="/facts/Charles_Wilkes/ufXUzQmK">Charles Wilkes</a> led an expedition in 1838–1839 and was the first to claim he had discovered the continent.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:178" href="#fn:178">178</a> The British naval officer <a href="/facts/James_Clark_Ross/oybMx7Yd">James Clark Ross</a> failed to realise that what he referred to as "the various patches of land recently discovered by the American, French and English navigators on the verge of the Antarctic Circle" were connected to form a single continent.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:179" href="#fn:179">179</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:180" href="#fn:180">180</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:181" href="#fn:181">181</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:182" href="#fn:182">182</a> The American explorer <a href="/facts/Mercator_Cooper/PMFaFSx1">Mercator Cooper</a> landed on East Antarctica on 26 January 1853.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:183" href="#fn:183">183</a>
The first confirmed landing on the continental mass of Antarctica occurred in 1895 when the Norwegian-Swedish <a href="/facts/Whaling/rvUqYp0E">whaling</a> ship <a href="/facts/Antarctic_(ship)/fCAIYTEy">Antarctic</a> reached <a href="/facts/Cape_Adare/13SLqI6a">Cape Adare</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:184" href="#fn:184">184</a>

<h3>20th century</h3>

During the Nimrod Expedition led by the British explorer <a href="/facts/Ernest_Shackleton/VQ0hbGNA">Ernest Shackleton</a> in 1907, parties led by <a href="/facts/Edgeworth_David/ltHz99Mv">Edgeworth David</a> became the first to climb <a href="/facts/Mount_Erebus/dc5J641v">Mount Erebus</a> and to reach the <a href="/facts/South_Magnetic_Pole/E5VHpUqE">south magnetic pole</a>. <a href="/facts/Douglas_Mawson/rSIJp7Gp">Douglas Mawson</a>, who assumed the leadership of the Magnetic Pole party on their perilous return, retired in 1931.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:185" href="#fn:185">185</a> Between December 1908 and February 1909, Shackleton and three members of his expedition became the first humans to traverse the <a href="/facts/Ross_Ice_Shelf/4NCzC6Kp">Ross Ice Shelf</a>, the first to cross the Transantarctic Mountains (via the Beardmore Glacier), and the first to set foot on the <a href="/facts/South_Polar_Plateau/ymQ3J7qT">south Polar Plateau</a>. On 14 December 1911, <a href="/facts/Amundsen%2527s_South_Pole_expedition/hAFXn2e7">an expedition</a> led by Norwegian explorer <a href="/facts/Roald_Amundsen/0tt20la0">Roald Amundsen</a> from the ship <a href="/facts/Fram_(ship)/z5HnbtT9">Fram</a> became the first to reach the geographic South Pole, using a route from the <a href="/facts/Bay_of_Whales/Agy83c51">Bay of Whales</a> and up the <a href="/facts/Axel_Heiberg_Glacier/6FdmcyTF">Axel Heiberg Glacier</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:186" href="#fn:186">186</a> One month later, the doomed <a href="/facts/Terra_Nova_Expedition/BSH2gcXN">Terra Nova Expedition</a> reached the pole.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:187" href="#fn:187">187</a>
The American explorer <a href="/facts/Richard_E._Byrd/0Anhokww">Richard E. Byrd</a> led four expeditions to Antarctica during the 1920s, 1930s, and 1940s, using the first mechanised <a href="/facts/Transport_in_Antarctica/EILsclUo">tractors</a>. His expeditions conducted extensive geographical and scientific research, and he is credited with surveying a larger region of the continent than any other explorer.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:188" href="#fn:188">188</a> In 1937, <a href="/facts/Ingrid_Christensen/pRGkI55b">Ingrid Christensen</a> became the first woman to step onto the Antarctic mainland.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:189" href="#fn:189">189</a> <a href="/facts/Caroline_Mikkelsen/MV8bKRyy">Caroline Mikkelsen</a> had landed on an island of Antarctica, earlier in 1935.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:190" href="#fn:190">190</a>
The South Pole was next reached on 31 October 1956, when a U.S. Navy group led by Rear Admiral <a href="/facts/George_J._Dufek/yp99wcan">George J. Dufek</a> landed an aircraft there.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:191" href="#fn:191">191</a> Six women were flown to the South Pole as a publicity stunt in 1969.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:192" href="#fn:192">192</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:193" href="#fn:193">193</a> In the summer of 1996–1997, Norwegian explorer <a href="/facts/B%25C3%25B8rge_Ousland/HeEt956m">Børge Ousland</a> became the first person to cross Antarctica alone from coast to coast, helped by a kite on parts of the journey.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:194" href="#fn:194">194</a> Ousland holds the record for the fastest unsupported journey to the South Pole, taking 34 days.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:195" href="#fn:195">195</a>

<h2 id="demographics">Demographics</h2>
Main articles: <a href="/facts/Demographics_of_Antarctica/yFzvrmB5">Demographics of Antarctica</a> and <a href="/facts/Religion_in_Antarctica/Ewrjwy3n">Religion in Antarctica</a>

The first semi-permanent inhabitants of regions near Antarctica (areas situated south of the <a href="/facts/Antarctic_Convergence/kKdS1L0L">Antarctic Convergence</a>) were British and American sealers who used to spend a year or more on <a href="/facts/South_Georgia_and_the_South_Sandwich_Islands/6N4RScxK">South Georgia</a>, from 1786 onward. During the whaling era, which lasted until 1966, the population of the island varied from over 1,000 in the summer (over 2,000 in some years) to some 200 in the winter. Most of the whalers were Norwegian, with an increasing proportion from Britain.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:196" href="#fn:196">196</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:197" href="#fn:197">197</a>
Antarctica's population consists mostly of the staff of <a href="/facts/Research_stations_in_Antarctica/roUDxfuN">research stations</a> in Antarctica (which are continuously maintained despite the population decline in the winter), although there are 2 all-civilian bases in Antarctica: the <a href="/facts/Esperanza_Base/D2lUkl6a">Esperanza Base</a> and the <a href="/facts/Villa_Las_Estrellas/klXbaG3I">Villa Las Estrellas base</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:198" href="#fn:198">198</a> The number of people conducting and supporting scientific research and other work on the continent and its nearby islands varies from about 1,200 in winter to about 4,800 in the summer, with an additional 136 people in the winter to 266 people in the summer from the 2 civilian bases (as of 2017). Some of the <a href="/facts/Research_station/lHSkPMQz">research stations</a> are staffed year-round, the winter-over personnel typically arriving from their home countries for a one-year assignment. The <a href="/facts/Russian_Orthodox_Church/AHbnwM6p">Russian Orthodox</a> <a href="/facts/Trinity_Church_(Antarctica)/xDSIc9dq">Holy Trinity Church</a> at the <a href="/facts/Bellingshausen_Station/sdwn1yCv">Bellingshausen Station</a> on <a href="/facts/King_George_Island_(South_Shetland_Islands)/lhWkG0Dw">King George Island</a> opened in 2004; it is staffed year-round by one or two <a href="/facts/Priest/fDMmV2wN">priests</a>, who are similarly rotated every year.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:199" href="#fn:199">199</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:200" href="#fn:200">200</a>

The first child born in the southern polar region was a Norwegian girl, <a href="/facts/Solveig_Gunbj%25C3%25B8rg_Jacobsen/7mIDwmzS">Solveig Gunbjørg Jacobsen</a>, born in <a href="/facts/Grytviken/9JhVBldn">Grytviken</a> on 8 October 1913.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:201" href="#fn:201">201</a> <a href="/facts/Emilio_Marcos_Palma/XlBvy9qQ">Emilio Marcos Palma</a> was the first person born south of the <a href="/facts/60th_parallel_south/C8n4SV9h">60th parallel south</a> and the first to be born on the Antarctic mainland at the Esperanza Base of the Argentine Army, on 7 January 1978.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:202" href="#fn:202">202</a>
The <a href="/facts/Antarctic_Treaty_System/huNS5BLE">Antarctic Treaty</a> prohibits any <a href="/facts/Military_activity_in_the_Antarctic/Nab0c9dA">military activity in Antarctica</a>, including the establishment of military bases and fortifications, military manoeuvres, and weapons testing. Military personnel or equipment are permitted only for scientific research or other peaceful purposes.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:203" href="#fn:203">203</a> <a href="/facts/Operaci%25C3%25B3n_90/GMjMm1Jm">Operation 90</a> by the <a href="/facts/Military_of_Argentina/8828zvAV">Argentine military</a> in 1965 was conducted to strengthen Argentina's claim in Antarctica.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:204" href="#fn:204">204</a>[better source needed]
<a href="/facts/Antarctic_English/xTzgqXlm">Antarctic English</a>, a distinct variety of the <a href="/facts/English_language/tpkxGt7b">English language</a>, has been found to be spoken by people living on Antarctica and the <a href="/facts/Subantarctic_islands/AhVD2MX8">subantarctic islands</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:205" href="#fn:205">205</a>

<h2 id="politics">Politics</h2>

Antarctica's status is regulated by the 1959 <a href="/facts/Antarctic_Treaty/huNS5BLE">Antarctic Treaty</a> and other related agreements, collectively called the Antarctic Treaty System. Antarctica is defined as all land and ice shelves south of 60° S for the purposes of the Treaty System.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:206" href="#fn:206">206</a> The treaty was signed by twelve countries, including the <a href="/facts/Soviet_Union/m7wWsPto">Soviet Union</a>, the United Kingdom, Argentina, <a href="/facts/Chile/uEyTfEcx">Chile</a>, Australia, and the United States. Since 1959, a further 42 countries have <a href="/facts/Vienna_Convention_on_the_Law_of_Treaties/SVX8Azx6">acceded</a> to the treaty. Countries can participate in decision-making if they can demonstrate that they do significant research on Antarctica; as of 2022, 29 countries have this 'consultative status'.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:207" href="#fn:207">207</a> Decisions are based on <a href="/facts/Consensus_decision-making/z965PMKc">consensus</a>, instead of a <a href="/facts/Voting/jPVTljTJ">vote</a>. The treaty set aside Antarctica as a scientific preserve and established freedom of scientific investigation and environmental protection.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:208" href="#fn:208">208</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:209" href="#fn:209">209</a>

<h3>Territorial claims</h3>
Main article: <a href="/facts/Territorial_claims_in_Antarctica/8TdQfqRB">Territorial claims in Antarctica</a>

In 1539, the <a href="/facts/Monarchy_of_Spain/6raU7qTs">King of Spain</a>, <a href="/facts/Charles_V%2c_Holy_Roman_Emperor/QdqkWAeq">Charles V</a>, created the <a href="/facts/Governorate_of_Terra_Australis/WCaLhNg2">Governorate of Terra Australis</a>, which encompassed lands south of the <a href="/facts/Strait_of_Magellan/eYVjuvtF">Strait of Magellan</a> and thus theoretically Antarctica, the existence of which was only hypothesized at the time,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:210" href="#fn:210">210</a> granting this Governorate to <a href="/facts/Pedro_Sancho_de_la_Hoz/vvKhuBmq">Pedro Sancho de la Hoz</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:211" href="#fn:211">211</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:212" href="#fn:212">212</a> who in 1540 transferred the title to the conquistador <a href="/facts/Pedro_de_Valdivia/aF6QElFk">Pedro de Valdivia</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:213" href="#fn:213">213</a> Spain claimed all the territories to the south of the Strait of Magellan until the <a href="/facts/South_Pole/jBdpXTnh">South Pole</a>, with eastern and western borders to these claims specified in the <a href="/facts/Treaty_of_Tordesillas/X2n07CBa">Treaty of Tordesillas</a> and <a href="/facts/Treaty_of_Zaragoza/QuXPC66E">Zaragoza</a> respectively. In 1555 the claim was incorporated to <a href="/facts/Kingdom_of_Chile/4h8HkV94">Chile</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:214" href="#fn:214">214</a>
In the present, sovereignty over regions of Antarctica is claimed by seven different countries.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:215" href="#fn:215">215</a> While a few of these countries have mutually recognised each other's claims,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:216" href="#fn:216">216</a> the validity of the claims is not recognised universally.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:217" href="#fn:217">217</a> New claims on Antarctica have been suspended since 1959, although in 2015, Norway formally defined Queen Maud Land as including the unclaimed area between it and the South Pole.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:218" href="#fn:218">218</a>
The Argentine, British, and Chilean claims overlap and have caused friction. In 2012, after the British <a href="/facts/Foreign_%2526_Commonwealth_Office/QQqx2MwF">Foreign & Commonwealth Office</a> designated a previously unnamed area <a href="/facts/Queen_Elizabeth_Land/uhbKPt5b">Queen Elizabeth Land</a> in tribute to <a href="/facts/Elizabeth_II/os6eB47B">Queen Elizabeth II</a>'s <a href="/facts/Diamond_Jubilee_of_Elizabeth_II/KfjVNzUn">Diamond Jubilee</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:219" href="#fn:219">219</a> the Argentine government protested against the claim.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:220" href="#fn:220">220</a> The UK passed some of the areas it claimed to Australia and New Zealand after they achieved independence. The claims by Britain, Australia, New Zealand, France, and Norway do not overlap and are recognised by each other.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:221" href="#fn:221">221</a> Other member nations of the Antarctic Treaty do not recognise any claim, yet have shown some form of territorial interest in the past.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:222" href="#fn:222">222</a>

<ul><li> Brazil has a designated "<a href="/facts/Brazilian_Antarctica/lAXm2UEv">zone of interest</a>" that is not considered an actual claim.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:223" href="#fn:223">223</a></li>
<li> Peru formally reserved its right to make a claim.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:224" href="#fn:224">224</a></li>
<li> Russia inherited the Soviet Union's right to claim territory under the original Antarctic Treaty.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:225" href="#fn:225">225</a></li>
<li> South Africa formally reserved its right to make a claim.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:226" href="#fn:226">226</a></li>
<li> The United States reserved its right to make a claim in the original Antarctic Treaty.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:227" href="#fn:227">227</a></li></ul>
<table><tbody><tr><th scope="col">Date</th><th scope="col">Claimant</th><th scope="col">Territory</th><th scope="col">Claim limits</th><th scope="col">Map</th></tr><tr><td>1840</td><td> <a href="/facts/France/CxIeIKM3">France</a></td><td> <a href="/facts/Ad%25C3%25A9lie_Land/3KqLq28A">Adélie Land</a></td><td>Originally undefined; later specified to be 142°2′E to 136°11′E</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>1908</td><td><a href="/facts/United_Kingdom/kuPAILt2"></a> United Kingdom</td><td> <a href="/facts/British_Antarctic_Territory/ApPocBdf">British Antarctic Territory</a></td><td>80°0′W to 20°0′W<ul><li>80°0′W to 74°0′W claimed by Chile (1940)</li><li>74°0′W to 53°0′W claimed by Chile (1940) and Argentina (1943)</li><li>53°0′W to 25°0′W claimed by Argentina (1943)</li></ul></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>1923</td><td><a href="/facts/New_Zealand/4mpSlJdg"></a> <a href="/facts/Realm_of_New_Zealand/V48oWydA">New Zealand</a></td><td> <a href="/facts/Ross_Dependency/vw6Cet0U">Ross Dependency</a></td><td>160°0′E to 150°0′W</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>1931</td><td> <a href="/facts/Norway/wlDRKRTR">Norway</a></td><td> <a href="/facts/Peter_I_Island/yCSNhou9">Peter I Island</a></td><td><a href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Antarctica¶ms=68_50_S_90_35_W_type:isle&title=Peter+I+Island">68°50′S 90°35′W / 68.833°S 90.583°W / -68.833; -90.583 (Peter I Island)</a></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>1933</td><td> <a href="/facts/Australia/qLHpbppq">Australia</a></td><td> <a href="/facts/Australian_Antarctic_Territory/ShdvzznK">Australian Antarctic Territory</a></td><td>44°38′E to 136°11′E, and 142°2′E to 160°00′E</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>1939</td><td> <a href="/facts/Norway/wlDRKRTR">Norway</a></td><td> <a href="/facts/Queen_Maud_Land/calbMtF9">Queen Maud Land</a></td><td>20°00′W to 44°38′E</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>1940</td><td> <a href="/facts/Chile/uEyTfEcx">Chile</a></td><td> <a href="/facts/Chilean_Antarctic_Territory/p8QzGyz6">Chilean Antarctic Territory</a></td><td>90°0′W to 53°0′W<ul><li>80°00′W to 74°00′W claimed by the United Kingdom (1908)</li><li>74°00′W to 53°00′W claimed by the United Kingdom (1908) and Argentina (1943)</li></ul></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>1943</td><td> <a href="/facts/Argentina/aFSA5bAk">Argentina</a></td><td> <a href="/facts/Argentine_Antarctica/Emy2vlAU">Argentine Antarctica</a></td><td>74°0′W to 25°0′W<ul><li>74°0′W to 53°0′W claimed by the United Kingdom (1908) and Chile (1940)</li><li>53°0′W to 25°0′W claimed by the United Kingdom (1908)</li></ul></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>–</td><td><a href="/facts/Terra_nullius/bgHpP6Lf">(Unclaimed territory)</a></td><td> <a href="/facts/Marie_Byrd_Land/STJBTFNe">Marie Byrd Land</a></td><td>150°0′W to 90°0′W (except <a href="/facts/Peter_I_Island/yCSNhou9">Peter I Island</a>)</td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>
<h2 id="economy-and-tourism">Economy and tourism</h2>
Main article: <a href="/facts/Tourism_in_Antarctica/dqspfkry">Tourism in Antarctica</a>
See also: <a href="/facts/Telecommunications_in_Antarctica/CkY8cmfs">Telecommunications in Antarctica</a>, <a href="/facts/Transport_in_Antarctica/EILsclUo">Transport in Antarctica</a>, and <a href="/facts/Crime_in_Antarctica/JuJwPchw">Crime in Antarctica</a>

Deposits of coal, <a href="/facts/Hydrocarbon/Dcg95Ju5">hydrocarbons</a>, iron ore, <a href="/facts/Platinum/qJC6lQf7">platinum</a>, <a href="/facts/Copper/I8PEE8oX">copper</a>, <a href="/facts/Chromium/6sVk6Uu7">chromium</a>, <a href="/facts/Nickel/KwMCHYRP">nickel</a>, <a href="/facts/Gold/1znknojp">gold</a>, and other minerals have been found in Antarctica, but not in large enough quantities to extract.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:228" href="#fn:228">228</a> The Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty, which came into effect in 1998 and is due to be reviewed in 2048, restricts the exploitation of Antarctic resources, including minerals.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:229" href="#fn:229">229</a>
<a href="/facts/Tourism/x47vNhHj">Tourists</a> have been <a href="/facts/Tourism_in_Antarctica/dqspfkry">visiting Antarctica</a> since 1957.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:230" href="#fn:230">230</a> Tourism is subject to the provisions of the Antarctic Treaty and Environmental Protocol;<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:231" href="#fn:231">231</a> the self-regulatory body for the industry is the <a href="/facts/International_Association_of_Antarctica_Tour_Operators/N9SvqVh6">International Association of Antarctica Tour Operators</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:232" href="#fn:232">232</a> Tourists arrive by small or medium ship at specific scenic locations with accessible concentrations of iconic wildlife.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:233" href="#fn:233">233</a> Over 74,000 tourists visited the region during the 2019–2020 season, of which 18,500 travelled on cruise ships but did not leave them to explore on land.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:234" href="#fn:234">234</a> The numbers of tourists fell rapidly after the start of the <a href="/facts/COVID-19_pandemic/0xTsh7Ut">COVID-19 pandemic</a>. Some nature conservation groups have expressed concern over the potential adverse effects caused by the influx of visitors and have called for limits on the size of visiting <a href="/facts/Cruise_ship/PzQCcICA">cruise ships</a> and a tourism quota.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:235" href="#fn:235">235</a> The primary response by Antarctic Treaty parties has been to develop guidelines that set landing limits and closed or restricted zones on the more frequently visited sites.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:236" href="#fn:236">236</a>
Tourism in Antarctica is, in part, ecologically focused with expeditions being offered for bird watching tours due to the high numbers of <a href="/facts/Ad%25C3%25A9lie_penguin/hD6MJrwl">Adélie</a>, <a href="/facts/King_penguin/uvllh12L">King</a>, and <a href="/facts/Gentoo_penguin/y7URdf7e">Gentoo penguins</a> – among other species. One site in particular – McDonald Beach – is known to be a high-traffic area for tourists watching the Adélie penguins who number more than 40,000.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:237" href="#fn:237">237</a>
Overland sightseeing flights operated out of Australia and New Zealand until the <a href="/facts/Mount_Erebus_disaster/6YJAoMzC">Mount Erebus disaster</a> in 1979, when an <a href="/facts/Air_New_Zealand/myFfWE64">Air New Zealand</a> plane crashed into Mount Erebus, killing all of the 257 people on board. <a href="/facts/Qantas/uvsa55x8">Qantas</a> resumed commercial overflights to Antarctica from Australia in the mid-1990s.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:238" href="#fn:238">238</a> There are many <a href="/facts/List_of_airports_in_Antarctica/MB2P5JYf">airports</a> in Antarctica.

<h2 id="research">Research</h2>
Main article: <a href="/facts/Research_stations_in_Antarctica/roUDxfuN">Research stations in Antarctica</a>

In 2017, there were more than 4,400 scientists undertaking research in Antarctica, a number that fell to just over 1,100 in the winter.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:239" href="#fn:239">239</a> There are over 70 permanent and seasonal research stations on the continent; the largest, United States' <a href="/facts/McMurdo_Station/WFgwNaqk">McMurdo Station</a>, is capable of housing more than 1,000 people.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:240" href="#fn:240">240</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:241" href="#fn:241">241</a> The <a href="/facts/British_Antarctic_Survey/l79Qeqau">British Antarctic Survey</a> has five major research stations on Antarctica, one of which is completely portable. The Belgian <a href="/facts/Princess_Elisabeth_Antarctica/w5xQkuTh">Princess Elisabeth station</a> is one of the most modern stations and the first to be <a href="/facts/Carbon_neutrality/llsAknfI">carbon-neutral</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:242" href="#fn:242">242</a> Argentina, Australia, Chile, and Russia also have a large scientific presence on Antarctica.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:243" href="#fn:243">243</a>
<a href="/facts/Geologist/vGc0tBHB">Geologists</a> primarily study <a href="/facts/Plate_tectonics/RtRG5lY4">plate tectonics</a>, <a href="/facts/Meteorite/NsmHlBlX">meteorites</a>, and the breakup of Gondwana. <a href="/facts/Glaciologist/dSElvpIj">Glaciologists</a> study the history and dynamics of floating ice, seasonal <a href="/facts/Snow/HEFKcgIB">snow</a>, glaciers, and ice sheets. <a href="/facts/Biologist/yJJGXyKR">Biologists</a>, in addition to researching wildlife, are interested in how low temperatures and the presence of humans affect adaptation and survival strategies in organisms.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:244" href="#fn:244">244</a> <a href="/facts/Biomedical_scientist/JvCPAtmn">Biomedical scientists</a> have made discoveries concerning the spreading of <a href="/facts/Virus/mf88Bcbl">viruses</a> and the body's response to extreme seasonal temperatures.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:245" href="#fn:245">245</a>
The view of space from Earth is improved by a thinner atmosphere at higher elevations and a lack of water vapour in the atmosphere caused by freezing temperatures.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:246" href="#fn:246">246</a> <a href="/facts/Astrophysics/krFPRWLA">Astrophysicists</a> at the <a href="/facts/Amundsen%25E2%2580%2593Scott_South_Pole_Station/7lMvgr6r">Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station</a> study <a href="/facts/Cosmic_microwave_background_radiation/ThB2HkLS">cosmic microwave background radiation</a> and <a href="/facts/Neutrino/yGWVfSg2">neutrinos</a> from space.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:247" href="#fn:247">247</a>
The largest <a href="/facts/Neutrino_detector/LwtyrVAc">neutrino detector</a> in the world, the <a href="/facts/IceCube_Neutrino_Observatory/N8Q2cCYF">IceCube Neutrino Observatory</a>, is at the Amundsen-Scott Station. It consists of around 5,500 <a href="/facts/Optical_module/RP1Xk3Cx">digital optical modules</a>, some of which reach a depth of 2,450 m (8,040 ft), that are held in 1 km3 (0.24 cu mi) of ice.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:248" href="#fn:248">248</a> Scientists also observed higher radiation dose rates around the coast of Antarctica compared with the global average: this is attributed to cosmic rays going through the thinner atmosphere compared to equatorial latitudes.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:249" href="#fn:249">249</a>

Antarctica provides a unique environment for the study of meteorites: the dry polar desert preserves them well, and meteorites older than a million years have been found. They are relatively easy to find, as the dark stone meteorites stand out in a landscape of ice and snow, and the flow of ice accumulates them in certain areas.
The <a href="/facts/Adelie_Land_meteorite/Ffznl1jc">Adelie Land meteorite</a>, discovered in 1912, was the first to be found. Meteorites contain clues about the composition of the <a href="/facts/Solar_System/QIcLSazQ">Solar System</a> and its early development.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:250" href="#fn:250">250</a> Most meteorites come from asteroids, but a few meteorites found in Antarctica came from the Moon and Mars.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:251" href="#fn:251">251</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:252" href="#fn:252">252</a>
Major scientific organizations in Antarctica have released strategy and action plans focused on advancing national interests and objectives in Antarctica, supporting cutting-edge research to understand the interactions between the Antarctic region and climate systems. The <a href="/facts/British_Antarctic_Survey/l79Qeqau">British Antarctic Survey</a> (BAS) released a 10-year (2023–2033) strategy report to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and to focus on creating sustainable living on <a href="/facts/Earth/HLLmDfj0">Earth</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:253" href="#fn:253">253</a> Environmental sustainability is named as one of the top focus areas by the BAS strategy, highlighting the main challenge and priority to embed environmental sustainability into everything.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:254" href="#fn:254">254</a>
In 2022, the <a href="/facts/Australian_Antarctic_Program/ys5smY6B">Australian Antarctic Program</a> (AAP) released a new Strategy and 20-year Action Plan (2022–2036) to modernize its Antarctic program. The global climate system was highlighted as one of the main priorities that will be supported and studied through the AAP Strategy Plan. It emphasizes the importance of understanding the vital role of Antarctica and the Southern Ocean in climate and weather to improve current knowledge and inform management responses.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:255" href="#fn:255">255</a>
In 2021, the <a href="/facts/United_States_Antarctic_Program/E9g0E5rh">United States Antarctic Program</a> (USAP) released a Midterm Assessment on the 2015 Strategic Vision for Antarctic and Southern Ocean Research, stressing the prominent role of the Southern Ocean in the global carbon cycle and sea level rise.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:256" href="#fn:256">256</a> The USAP outlines the Changing Antarctic Ice Sheets Initiative as a top priority to enhance understanding of why ice sheets are changing now, and how they will change in the future.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:257" href="#fn:257">257</a>

<a href="/facts/Antarctic_ice_sheets/wU3pFebh">Antarctic ice sheets</a> are a central focus of contemporary climate research due to urgent questions about their stability and reaction to global warming. <a href="/facts/Satellite/PTX8c68t">Satellite</a> technology enables researchers to study the ice sheets both through on-site fieldwork and <a href="/facts/Remote_sensing/pj2crmGs">remote sensing</a>, facilitating detailed analyses of ice dynamics to predict future changes in a warming world.
The INStabilities & Thresholds in ANTarctica (INSTANT) Scientific Research Programme proposes three research themes, investigating the complex interactions between the <a href="/facts/Atmosphere/oUpLaGRF">atmosphere</a>, <a href="/facts/Ocean/8W8lYgjD">ocean</a>, and solid <a href="/facts/Earth/HLLmDfj0">Earth</a> in Antarctica. Its aims include improving the understanding and predictions of these processes to aid decision makers in risk assessment, management, and mitigation related to Antarctic climate change.
The Australian-led ICECAP project utilized advanced aerogeophysical techniques to map deep subglacial basins and <a href="/facts/Channel_(geography)/zanMS2Ek">channels</a> that connect the ice sheet to the ocean.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:258" href="#fn:258">258</a> This mapping improves predictions of ice sheet stability, the impacts of <a href="/facts/Climate_change/rEN4BDE7">climate change</a> on the ice sheets, and their potential contributions to global <a href="/facts/Sea_level_rise/Pb5MGJxb">sea level rise</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:259" href="#fn:259">259</a>

<h2 id="culture">Culture</h2>
<h3>Music and film</h3>
The southernmost music festival in the world, <a href="/facts/Icestock/aayjzeDV">Icestock</a>, has been held at McMurdo Station since 1989. The organizers, performers, and attendees of Icestock are all personnel working at McMurdo or nearby <a href="/facts/Scott_Base/7VyWAryW">Scott Base</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:260" href="#fn:260">260</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:261" href="#fn:261">261</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:262" href="#fn:262">262</a> The Antarctic Film Festival is held annually between bases, with 48 stations registered to participate as of 2022. The festival is designed for <a href="/facts/Short_film/PUW6IRku">short films</a> of 5 minutes or less.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:263" href="#fn:263">263</a>
In 2011, Australian classical <a href="/facts/Harpist/FhRqeCDf">harpist</a> <a href="/facts/Alice_Giles/G0QNzXXQ">Alice Giles</a> became the first professional musician to perform in Antarctica.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:264" href="#fn:264">264</a> The first full-length fictional film to be shot in Antarctica was <a href="/facts/South_of_Sanity/7oVm6Jhs">South of Sanity</a>, a 2012 low budget British <a href="/facts/Horror_film/SYz7Le6p">horror film</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:265" href="#fn:265">265</a> An upcoming film directed by <a href="/facts/Nick_Cassavetes/Deyakh50">Nick Cassavetes</a> and starring <a href="/facts/Anthony_Hopkins/so2JA69C">Anthony Hopkins</a>, Bruno Penguin and the Staten Island Princess, will be the first major <a href="/facts/Cinema_of_the_United_States/1HpkUBfd">Hollywood</a> production to shoot in Antarctica.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:266" href="#fn:266">266</a>

<h3>Sport</h3>
Sporting events held on Antarctica include the <a href="/facts/Antarctic_Ice_Marathon_%2526_100k_ultra_race/Yy1ACysk">Antarctic Ice Marathon & 100k ultra race</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:267" href="#fn:267">267</a> <a href="/facts/Antarctica_Marathon/JNepH110">Antarctica Marathon</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:268" href="#fn:268">268</a> and <a href="/facts/Antarctica_Cup_Yacht_Race/KFXUDP6Y">Antarctica Cup Yacht Race</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:269" href="#fn:269">269</a> <a href="/facts/Football_in_Antarctica/HH3ac5nW">Association football</a> has been played since the early twentieth century, with teams representing bases or visiting ships.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:270" href="#fn:270">270</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:271" href="#fn:271">271</a>

<h3>Holidays</h3>
There are two principal holidays celebrated across Antarctica: <a href="/facts/Midwinter_Day/FCpIc2D5">Midwinter Day</a> on the day of the southern <a href="/facts/Winter_solstice/D18JPu6z">winter solstice</a> (June 20 or 21) and <a href="/facts/Antarctica_Day/jGvV0FEB">Antarctica Day</a> on December 1, which commemorates the signing of the Antarctic Treaty in 1959.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:272" href="#fn:272">272</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:273" href="#fn:273">273</a>

<h2 id="see-also">See also</h2>
<ul><li><a href="/facts/Index_of_Antarctica-related_articles/8lqPfrKX">Index of Antarctica-related articles</a></li></ul>
<h2 id="notes">Notes</h2>

<h2 id="bibliography">Bibliography</h2>
Main article: <a href="/facts/Bibliography_of_Antarctica/NBL0ftgC">Bibliography of Antarctica</a>

<ul><li>Ainsworth, William Harrison, ed. (1847). "The Antarctic Voyage of Discovery". <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NTUaAQAAIAAJ">The New Monthly Magazine and Humourist</a>. London: <a href="/facts/Chapman_%2526_Hall/roCcaakR">Chapman & Hall</a>.</li>
<li>Anderson, John B. (2010). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=f9YqF73oe4IC">Antarctic Marine Geology</a>. Cambridge: <a href="/facts/Cambridge_University_Press/fgEBSSRq">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-05211-3-168-1.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/T._H._Baughman/LW805Y2S">Baughmann, T. H.</a> (1994). <a href="https://archive.org/details/beforeheroescame0000baug/page/n5/mode/2up">Before the Heroes Came</a>. Lincoln, Nebraska: <a href="/facts/University_of_Nebraska_Press/pUx1cI4q">University of Nebraska Press</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-8032-1228-2.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/John_Beaglehole/XcNR8WB5">Beaglehole, John C.</a> (1968). The Journals of Captain James Cook on his Voyages of Discovery. Vol. 2. Cambridge: <a href="/facts/Hakluyt_Society/5fevYKJB">Hakluyt Society</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-4724-5324-2.</li>
<li>Cameron-Ash, Margaret (2018). Lying for the Admiralty. Sydney: Rosenberg Publishing. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-06480-4-396-6.</li>
<li>Campbell, I.B.; Claridge, G.G.C., eds. (1987). <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0166248108701508">"Chapter 2 the Geology and Geomorphology of Antarctica"</a>. Antarctica: Soils, Weathering Processes and Environment. Developments in Soil Science. Vol. 16. Amsterdam: <a href="/facts/Elsevier/jkPSAEmR">Elsevier</a>. pp. 7–42. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0166-2481%2808%2970150-8">10.1016/S0166-2481(08)70150-8</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-444-42784-7. <a href="/facts/ISSN_(identifier)/DPAflDvU">ISSN</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0166-2481">0166-2481</a>.</li>
<li>Cantrill, David J.; Poole, Imogen (2012). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sOGH4xaioRUC">The Vegetation of Antarctica through Geological Time</a>. Cambridge: <a href="/facts/Cambridge_University_Press/fgEBSSRq">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-139-56028-3.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Michael_Carroll_(space_artist)/bh0x3Lto">Carroll, Michael</a>; <a href="/facts/Rosaly_Lopes/HRDYQIo3">Lopes, Rosaly</a> (2019). Antarctica : Earth's Own Ice World. Cham, Switzerland: Springer Praxis Books. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-3-319-74623-4.</li>
<li>Cawley, Charles (2015). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TXnWCgAAQBAJ">Colonies in Conflict: The History of the British Overseas Territories</a>. Newcastle: <a href="/facts/Cambridge_Scholars_Publishing/tMl5b2ru">Cambridge Scholars Publishing</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-14438-8-128-9.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/David_Crystal/ew2ef0G9">Crystal, David</a> (2006). <a href="https://archive.org/details/fightforenglishh00crys/page/172">The Fight for English</a>. Oxford: <a href="/facts/Oxford_University_Press/CYyTzzWG">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-19-920764-0.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/David_Day_(historian)/82KxyPq2">Day, David</a> (2013). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=maNBDJD2OfQC">Antarctica: A Biography</a>. Oxford: <a href="/facts/Oxford_University_Press/CYyTzzWG">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-19-967055-0.</li>
<li>Day, David (2019). Antarctica. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fwentk%2F9780190641320.001.0001">10.1093/wentk/9780190641320.001.0001</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-19-064132-0.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Thomas_Defler/SQu0WC0D">Defler, Thomas</a> (2019). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-HWADwAAQBAJ">History of Terrestrial Mammals in South America</a>. Topics in Geobiology. Cham: <a href="/facts/Springer_International_Publishing/TpTgApAh">Springer International Publishing</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-3-319-98448-3.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/David_Drewry/wgfuJNac">Drewry, D.J.</a>, ed. (1983). Antarctica: Glaciological and Geophysical Folio. Cambridge: <a href="/facts/Scott_Polar_Research_Institute/3jpvmQeV">Scott Polar Research Institute, University of Cambridge</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-901021-04-5.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Philip_Edwards_(academic)/Jn0a3cUj">Edwards, Philip</a>, ed. (1999). <a href="https://archive.org/details/journalsofcaptai00jame/page/n3/mode/2up">The Journals of James Cook</a>. London: <a href="/facts/Penguin_Books/Q2ETlwbp">Penguin Books</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-14-192808-1.</li>
<li>Headland, Robert (1984). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lZ04AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA238">The Island of South Georgia</a>. Cambridge: <a href="/facts/Cambridge_University_Press/fgEBSSRq">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-521-25274-4.</li>
<li>de Hoog, G.S. (2005). <a href="https://www.studiesinmycology.org/sim/Sim51/SIM_51_Preface.pdf">"Fungi of the Antarctic: evolution under extreme conditions"</a> (PDF). <a href="/facts/Studies_in_Mycology/QUyLt4Bg">Studies in Mycology</a>. 51. <a href="/facts/Elsevier/jkPSAEmR">Elsevier</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 9789070351557.</li>
<li>Hund, Andrew J., ed. (2014). <a href="https://archive.org/details/antarctica-and-the-arctic-circle-2-volumes-a-geographic-encyclopedia-of-the-earths-polar-regions/page/n3/mode/2up?q=">Antarctica And The Arctic Circle: A Geographic Encyclopedia of the Earth's Polar Regions</a>. Vol. 1. ABC-CLIO, LLC. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-61069-392-9.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Gaius_Julius_Hyginus/HJRTmcfI">Hyginus, Caius Julius</a> (1992) [1482]. Viré, Ghislaine (ed.). Hygini de astronomia (in Latin). Stuttgart: <a href="/facts/Bibliotheca_Teubneriana/L96LC0Su">Bibliotheca Teubneriana</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-35190-1-438-6.</li>
<li>Jasinoski, Sandra C.; et al. (2013). "Anatomical Plasticity in the Snout of Lystrosaurus". In Kammerer, Christian F.; Frobisch, Jörg; Angielczyk, Kenneth D. (eds.). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_RDHBAAAQBAJ">Early Evolutionary History of the Synapsida</a>. <a href="/facts/Springer_Netherlands/nAesf6nT">Springer Netherlands</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-94-007-6841-3.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Christopher_C._Joyner/NHqndf8T">Joyner, Christopher C.</a> (1992). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=y6JAr747H60C">Antarctica and the Law of the Sea</a>. Dordrecht: <a href="/facts/Martinus_Nijhoff_Publishers/sbUprkEn">Martinus Nijhoff Publishers</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-7923-1823-1.</li>
<li>Lettinck, Paul (2021). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lB0QKKodRzYC">Aristotle's Meteorology and Its Reception in the Arab World</a>. Leiden; Boston (Massachusetts): <a href="/facts/Brill_Publishers/UwYwgUu0">Brill Publishers</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-90-04-44917-6.</li>
<li>McCrone, David; McPherson, Gayle, eds. (2009). <a href="https://archive.org/details/nationaldayscons0000unse/page/n5/mode/2up">National Days: Constructing and Mobilising National Identity</a>. Basingstoke, UK: <a href="/facts/Palgrave_Macmillan/RsEUnRce">Palgrave Macmillan</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-02302-5-117-5.</li>
<li>Monteath, Colin (1997). Hall & Ball Kiwi Mountaineers: from Mount Cook to Everest. Christchurch: Cloudcap. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-938567-42-4.</li>
<li>Morris, Michael (1988). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OS-3VdihoooC">The Strait of Magellan</a>. Dordrecht; London: <a href="/facts/Brill_Publishers/UwYwgUu0">Martinus Nijhoff Publishers</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-7923-0181-3.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Stephen_J._Pyne/TrxbS6fb">Pyne, Stephen J.</a> (2017). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WnwzDAAAQBAJ">The Ice: A Journey to Antarctica</a>. <a href="/facts/University_of_Washington_Press/2H7KMe02">University of Washington Press</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-295-80523-8.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Beau_Riffenburgh/XqfCDjPI">Riffenburgh, Beau</a>, ed. (2007). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_mUPEAAAQBAJ">Encyclopedia of the Antarctic</a>. Vol. 1. New York: <a href="/facts/Routledge/aSwcES11">Routledge</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-1358-7866-5.</li>
<li>Rohli, Robert V.; Vega, Anthony J. (2018). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=umokDwAAQBAJ">Climatology</a> (4th ed.). Burlington, Massachusetts: <a href="/facts/Jones_%2526_Bartlett_Learning/Bz6vdDg8">Jones & Bartlett Learning</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-284-12656-3.</li>
<li>Russell, Alan (1986). <a href="/facts/Norris_McWhirter/mopjTj1y">McWhirter, Norris</a> (ed.). <a href="https://archive.org/details/1986guinnessbook00mcwh/page/n3/mode/2up">1986 Guinness Book of Records</a>. <a href="/facts/Sterling_Publishing/66RY23hh">Sterling Publishing</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-8069-4768-6.</li>
<li>Scott, Anne W.; Hiatt, Alfred; McIlroy, Claire, eds. (2012). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Z4Qe9vX4nbUC">European Perceptions of Terra Australis</a>. Farnham, UK: <a href="/facts/Ashgate_Publishing/NmuvtuCX">Ashgate Publishing</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-4094-3941-7.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Martin_Siegert/WNWgTDEq">Siegert, Martin</a>; Florindo, Fabio, eds. (2008). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yUu-x70CZEcC">Antarctic Climate Evolution</a>. Amsterdam: <a href="/facts/Elsevier_Science/jkPSAEmR">Elsevier Science</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-08-093161-6.</li>
<li>Stromberg, O.; et al. (1991). Nemoto, Takahisa; Mauchline, John (eds.). Marine Biology: Its Accomplishment and Future Prospect. <a href="/facts/Elsevier_Science/jkPSAEmR">Elsevier Science</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-444-98696-2.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Bernard_Stonehouse/Q0S9omN4">Stonehouse, Bernard</a>, ed. (2002). Encyclopedia of Antarctica and the Southern Oceans. Chichester: <a href="/facts/John_Wiley_%2526_Sons/53g3LqJc">John Wiley & Sons</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-471-98665-2.</li>
<li>Thomas, David Neville (2007). <a href="https://archive.org/details/survivingantarct0000thom/page/n1/mode/2up">Surviving Antarctica</a>. London: <a href="/facts/Natural_History_Museum%2c_London/SWrrNn0K">Natural History Museum</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-565-09217-7.</li>
<li>Von Tigerstrom, Barbara; Leane, Geoffrey W. G., eds. (2005). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0_dADwAAQBAJ">International Law Issues in the South Pacific</a>. Aldershot, UK; Burlington, Vermont: <a href="/facts/Ashgate_Publishing/NmuvtuCX">Ashgate Publishing</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-7546-4419-4.</li>
<li>Trewby, Mary, ed. (2002). <a href="https://archive.org/details/trent_0116404808481/page/n5/mode/2up">Antarctica: An Encyclopedia from Abbott Ice Shelf to Zooplankton</a>. Buffalo, New York: Firefly Books. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-55297-590-9.</li>
<li><a href="https://www.bas.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2024/03/2239182604BAS-Strategy-2024-2034-1.pdf">"British Antarctic Survey"</a> (PDF). bas.ac.uk. British Antarctic Survey. Retrieved 27 March 2024.</li>
<li><a href="https://www.antarctica.gov.au/site/assets/files/53908/australian-antarctic-science-strategic-plan.pdf">"Australian Antarctic Science Strategic Plan"</a> (PDF). Australian Antarctic Science Council. Retrieved 27 March 2024.</li>
<li><a href="https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/26338/mid-term-assessment-of-progress-on-the-2015-strategic-vision-for-antarctic-and-southern-ocean-research">Mid-Term Assessment of Progress on the 2015 Strategic Vision for Antarctic and Southern Ocean Research</a>. The National Academies Press. 2021. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.17226%2F26338">10.17226/26338</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-309-26818-9. Retrieved 27 March 2024.</li>
<li><a href="https://www.antarctica.gov.au/about-antarctica/weather-and-climate/climate-change/ice-sheets-and-sea-level-rise/">"ICE SHEETS AND SEA-LEVEL RISE"</a>. antarctica.gov.au. Australian Antarctic Program. 2 February 2014. Retrieved 27 March 2024.</li></ul>

<h2 id="further-reading">Further reading</h2>
<ul><li>De Pomereu, Jean; and McCahey, Daniella. Antarctica: A History in 100 Objects (Conway, 2022) <a href="http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=58558">online book review</a></li>
<li>Kleinschmidt, Georg (2021). <a href="https://www.schweizerbart.de/publications/detail/isbn/9783443110345/Kleinschmidt_ed_The_Geology_of_the_A">The geology of the Antarctic continent</a>. Stuttgart: Bornträger Science Publisher. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-3-443-11034-5.</li>
<li>Lucas, Mike (1996). <a href="https://archive.org/details/antarctica0000luca/page/n5/mode/2up">Antarctica</a>. <a href="/facts/New_Holland_Publishers/fSvmnPhr">New Holland Publishers</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-85368-743-3.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Austin_Mardon/4nk5HsFe">Mardon, Austin Albert</a>; <a href="/facts/Catherine_Mardon/jna4eRJ2">Mardon, Catherine</a> (2009). <a href="https://archive.org/details/useofgeographicr0000mard/page/n7/mode/2up?view=theater">The use of geographic remote sensing, mapping and aerial photography to aid in the recovery of blue ice surficial meteorites in Antarctica</a>. Edmonton: Golden Meteorite Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-18974-7-235-4 – via <a href="/facts/Internet_Archive/PHStU8Lo">Internet Archive</a>.</li>
<li>Stewart, John (2011). <a href="https://epdf.tips/antarctica-an-encyclopedia-2-volume-set-second-edition.html">Antarctica: An Encyclopedia</a>. Jefferson, N.C. and London: McFarland. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-7864-3590-6.</li>
<li>Ivanov, Lyubomir; Ivanova, Nusha (2022). The World of Antarctica. Generis Publishing. 241 pp. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 979-8-88676-403-1</li></ul>
<h2 id="external-links">External links</h2>

<ul><li><a href="http://www.ats.aq/">Official website</a> of the Antarctic Treaty Secretariat (de facto government)</li>
<li>High resolution map (2022) – <a href="https://rema.apps.pgc.umn.edu/">Reference Elevation Model of Antarctica</a> (<a href="/facts/Reference_Elevation_Model_of_Antarctica/bEM5Lem5">REMA</a>)</li>
<li><a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00ss2th">Antarctica.</a> on <a href="/facts/In_Our_Time_(radio_series)/UuCUdLfM">In Our Time</a> at the <a href="/facts/BBC/qFateIz8">BBC</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.antarctica.ac.uk/">British Antarctic Survey (BAS)</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.usap.gov/">U.S. Antarctic Program Portal</a></li></ul>

<h2 id="references">References</h2>

<ol>
<li id="fn:1">The word was originally pronounced with the first c silent in English, but the spelling pronunciation has become common and is often considered more correct. However, the pronunciation with a silent c, and even with the first t silent as well, is widespread and typical of many similar English words.[2] The c had ceased to be pronounced in Medieval Latin and was dropped from the spelling in Old French, but it was added back for etymological reasons in English in the 17th century and thereafter began to be pronounced, but (as with other spelling pronunciations) at first only by less educated people.[3] For those who pronounce the first t, there is also variation between the pronunciations Ant-ar(c)tica and An-tar(c)tica. <a href="/wiki/Spelling_pronunciation" target="_blank">/wiki/Spelling_pronunciation</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:2">Smith, Cynthia (21 September 2021). "Reaching the South Pole During the Heroic Age of Exploration | Worlds Revealed". The Library of Congress. Retrieved 17 April 2024. <a href="https://blogs.loc.gov/maps/2021/09/reaching-the-south-pole-during-the-heroic-age-of-exploration" target="_blank">https://blogs.loc.gov/maps/2021/09/reaching-the-south-pole-during-the-heroic-age-of-exploration</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:3">"Antarctic". Oxford English Dictionary (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. December 2021. Retrieved 17 January 2022. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.) <a href="https://www.oed.com/search/dictionary/?q=Antarctic" target="_blank">https://www.oed.com/search/dictionary/?q=Antarctic</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:4">Lettinck 2021, p. 158. - Lettinck, Paul (2021). Aristotle's Meteorology and Its Reception in the Arab World. Leiden; Boston (Massachusetts): Brill Publishers. ISBN 978-90-04-44917-6. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lB0QKKodRzYC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=lB0QKKodRzYC</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:5">Hyginus 1992, p. 176. - Hyginus, Caius Julius (1992) [1482]. Viré, Ghislaine (ed.). Hygini de astronomia (in Latin). Stuttgart: Bibliotheca Teubneriana. ISBN 978-35190-1-438-6. <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:6">"Antarctic". Oxford English Dictionary (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. December 2021. Retrieved 17 January 2022. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.) <a href="https://www.oed.com/search/dictionary/?q=Antarctic" target="_blank">https://www.oed.com/search/dictionary/?q=Antarctic</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:7">Scott, Hiatt & McIlroy 2012, pp. 2–3. - Scott, Anne W.; Hiatt, Alfred; McIlroy, Claire, eds. (2012). European Perceptions of Terra Australis. Farnham, UK: Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4094-3941-7. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Z4Qe9vX4nbUC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=Z4Qe9vX4nbUC</a> <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:8">Cawley 2015, p. 130. - Cawley, Charles (2015). Colonies in Conflict: The History of the British Overseas Territories. Newcastle: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. ISBN 978-14438-8-128-9. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TXnWCgAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=TXnWCgAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:9">McCrone & McPherson 2009, p. 75. - McCrone, David; McPherson, Gayle, eds. (2009). National Days: Constructing and Mobilising National Identity. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-02302-5-117-5. <a href="https://archive.org/details/nationaldayscons0000unse/page/n5/mode/2up" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/nationaldayscons0000unse/page/n5/mode/2up</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:10">Cameron-Ash 2018, p. 20. - Cameron-Ash, Margaret (2018). Lying for the Admiralty. Sydney: Rosenberg Publishing. ISBN 978-06480-4-396-6. <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:11">"Highlights from the Bartholomew Archive: The naming of Antarctica". The Bartholomew Archive. National Library of Scotland. Archived from the original on 18 February 2022. Retrieved 23 February 2022. <a href="https://digital.nls.uk/bartholomew/highlights/antarctica.html#:~:text=Edinburgh%20geographer%20and%20mapmaker%20John,since%20the%20first%20century%20AD." target="_blank">https://digital.nls.uk/bartholomew/highlights/antarctica.html#:~:text=Edinburgh%20geographer%20and%20mapmaker%20John,since%20the%20first%20century%20AD.</a> <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:12">"IN PERSON: Adventurer set to tackle the great white south". 16 June 2012. Retrieved 9 September 2024. <a href="https://www.sandiegouniontribune.com/2012/06/16/in-person-adventurer-set-to-tackle-the-great-white-south/" target="_blank">https://www.sandiegouniontribune.com/2012/06/16/in-person-adventurer-set-to-tackle-the-great-white-south/</a> <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:13">Before the Southern Ocean was recognised as a separate ocean, it was considered to be surrounded by the southern Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian Oceans.[14] <a href="/wiki/Southern_Ocean" target="_blank">/wiki/Southern_Ocean</a> <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:14">"Antarctica". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. 3 May 2022. Archived from the original on 9 May 2022. Retrieved 9 May 2022. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220509192134/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/antarctica/" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20220509192134/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/antarctica/</a> <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:15">Drewry 1983. - Drewry, D.J., ed. (1983). Antarctica: Glaciological and Geophysical Folio. Cambridge: Scott Polar Research Institute, University of Cambridge. ISBN 978-0-901021-04-5. <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:16">Trewby 2002, p. 115. - Trewby, Mary, ed. (2002). Antarctica: An Encyclopedia from Abbott Ice Shelf to Zooplankton. Buffalo, New York: Firefly Books. ISBN 978-1-55297-590-9. <a href="https://archive.org/details/trent_0116404808481/page/n5/mode/2up" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/trent_0116404808481/page/n5/mode/2up</a> <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:17">Day 2019, Is all of Antarctica snow-covered?. - Day, David (2019). Antarctica. doi:10.1093/wentk/9780190641320.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-064132-0. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fwentk%2F9780190641320.001.0001" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fwentk%2F9780190641320.001.0001</a> <a href="#fnref:17" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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<li id="fn:168">Beaglehole 1968, p. 643. - Beaglehole, John C. (1968). The Journals of Captain James Cook on his Voyages of Discovery. Vol. 2. Cambridge: Hakluyt Society. ISBN 978-1-4724-5324-2. <a href="#fnref:168" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:169">Henriques, Martha (22 October 2018). "The bones that could shape Antarctica's fate". BBC Future. Archived from the original on 22 July 2021. Retrieved 22 July 2021. <a href="https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20181019-the-bones-that-could-shape-antarcticas-future" target="_blank">https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20181019-the-bones-that-could-shape-antarcticas-future</a> <a href="#fnref:169" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:170">Trewby 2002, p. 39. - Trewby, Mary, ed. (2002). Antarctica: An Encyclopedia from Abbott Ice Shelf to Zooplankton. Buffalo, New York: Firefly Books. ISBN 978-1-55297-590-9. <a href="https://archive.org/details/trent_0116404808481/page/n5/mode/2up" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/trent_0116404808481/page/n5/mode/2up</a> <a href="#fnref:170" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:171">Trewby 2002, p. 139. - Trewby, Mary, ed. (2002). Antarctica: An Encyclopedia from Abbott Ice Shelf to Zooplankton. Buffalo, New York: Firefly Books. ISBN 978-1-55297-590-9. <a href="https://archive.org/details/trent_0116404808481/page/n5/mode/2up" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/trent_0116404808481/page/n5/mode/2up</a> <a href="#fnref:171" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:172">Tammiksaar, Erki (14 December 2013). "Punane Bellingshausen" [Red Bellingshausen]. Postimees (in Estonian). Archived from the original on 13 February 2022. Retrieved 13 February 2022. <a href="https://leht.postimees.ee/2631146/punane-bellingshausen" target="_blank">https://leht.postimees.ee/2631146/punane-bellingshausen</a> <a href="#fnref:172" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:173">Armstrong, Terence E. (September 1971). "Bellingshausen and the discovery of Antarctica". Polar Record. 15 (99): 887–889. Bibcode:1971PoRec..15..887A. doi:10.1017/S0032247400062112. S2CID 129664580. <a href="/wiki/Terence_Edward_Armstrong" target="_blank">/wiki/Terence_Edward_Armstrong</a> <a href="#fnref:173" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:174">The feature discovered by the Russians was the Fimbul ice shelf. <a href="/wiki/Fimbul_Ice_Shelf" target="_blank">/wiki/Fimbul_Ice_Shelf</a> <a href="#fnref:174" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:175">Baughmann 1994, p. 133 - Baughmann, T. H. (1994). Before the Heroes Came. Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 978-0-8032-1228-2. <a href="https://archive.org/details/beforeheroescame0000baug/page/n5/mode/2up" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/beforeheroescame0000baug/page/n5/mode/2up</a> <a href="#fnref:175" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:176">Joyner 1992, p. 5. - Joyner, Christopher C. (1992). Antarctica and the Law of the Sea. Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. ISBN 978-0-7923-1823-1. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=y6JAr747H60C" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=y6JAr747H60C</a> <a href="#fnref:176" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:177">Trewby 2002, p. 67. - Trewby, Mary, ed. (2002). Antarctica: An Encyclopedia from Abbott Ice Shelf to Zooplankton. Buffalo, New York: Firefly Books. ISBN 978-1-55297-590-9. <a href="https://archive.org/details/trent_0116404808481/page/n5/mode/2up" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/trent_0116404808481/page/n5/mode/2up</a> <a href="#fnref:177" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:178">Tammiksaar, E. (September 2016). "The Russian Antarctic Expedition under the command of Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen and its reception in Russia and the world". Polar Record. 52 (5): 578–600. Bibcode:2016PoRec..52..578T. doi:10.1017/S0032247416000449. S2CID 132425113. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:178" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:179">Cawley 2015, p. 131. - Cawley, Charles (2015). Colonies in Conflict: The History of the British Overseas Territories. Newcastle: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. ISBN 978-14438-8-128-9. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TXnWCgAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=TXnWCgAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:179" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:180">Ainsworth 1847, p. 479. - Ainsworth, William Harrison, ed. (1847). "The Antarctic Voyage of Discovery". The New Monthly Magazine and Humourist. London: Chapman & Hall. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NTUaAQAAIAAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=NTUaAQAAIAAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:180" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:181">Hobbs, William H. (October 1932). "Wilkes Land Rediscovered". Geographical Review. 22 (4): 640. Bibcode:1932GeoRv..22..632H. doi:10.2307/208819. JSTOR 208819. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:181" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:182">Ross passed through what is now known as the Ross Sea and discovered Ross Island (both of which were named after him) in 1841. He sailed along a huge wall of ice that was later named the Ross Ice Shelf.[164] Mount Erebus and Mount Terror are named after two ships from his expedition: HMS Erebus and Terror.[165] <a href="/wiki/Ross_Ice_Shelf" target="_blank">/wiki/Ross_Ice_Shelf</a> <a href="#fnref:182" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:183">Day 2013, p. 88. - Day, David (2013). Antarctica: A Biography. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-967055-0. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=maNBDJD2OfQC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=maNBDJD2OfQC</a> <a href="#fnref:183" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:184">Pyne 2017, p. 85 - Pyne, Stephen J. (2017). The Ice: A Journey to Antarctica. University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0-295-80523-8. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WnwzDAAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=WnwzDAAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:184" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:185">"Tannatt William Edgeworth David". Australian Antarctic Division. Archived from the original on 29 September 2010. Retrieved 27 September 2010. <a href="https://www.antarctica.gov.au/about-antarctica/history/people/tannatt-edgeworth-david/" target="_blank">https://www.antarctica.gov.au/about-antarctica/history/people/tannatt-edgeworth-david/</a> <a href="#fnref:185" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:186">Riffenburgh 2007, pp. 30–32. - Riffenburgh, Beau, ed. (2007). Encyclopedia of the Antarctic. Vol. 1. New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-1358-7866-5. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_mUPEAAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=_mUPEAAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:186" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:187">Trewby 2002, p. 159. - Trewby, Mary, ed. (2002). Antarctica: An Encyclopedia from Abbott Ice Shelf to Zooplankton. Buffalo, New York: Firefly Books. ISBN 978-1-55297-590-9. <a href="https://archive.org/details/trent_0116404808481/page/n5/mode/2up" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/trent_0116404808481/page/n5/mode/2up</a> <a href="#fnref:187" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:188">Trewby 2002, p. 44. - Trewby, Mary, ed. (2002). Antarctica: An Encyclopedia from Abbott Ice Shelf to Zooplankton. Buffalo, New York: Firefly Books. ISBN 978-1-55297-590-9. <a href="https://archive.org/details/trent_0116404808481/page/n5/mode/2up" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/trent_0116404808481/page/n5/mode/2up</a> <a href="#fnref:188" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:189">Blackadder, Jesse (December 2012). "The first woman in Antarctica". Australian Antarctic Program. Australian Antarctic Division. Archived from the original on 13 April 2020. Retrieved 27 June 2016. <a href="/wiki/Jesse_Blackadder" target="_blank">/wiki/Jesse_Blackadder</a> <a href="#fnref:189" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:190">Norman, F. I.; Gibson, J. A. E.; Burgess, J. S. (October 1998). "Klarius Mikkelsen's 1935 landing in the Vestfold Hills, East Antarctica: some fiction and some facts". Polar Record. 34 (191): 293–304. Bibcode:1998PoRec..34..293N. doi:10.1017/S0032247400025985. S2CID 131433193. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:190" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:191">"Dates in American Naval History: October". Naval History and Heritage Command. United States Navy. Archived from the original on 26 June 2004. Retrieved 12 February 2006. <a href="http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20040626080052/http://www.history.navy.mil/wars/datesoct.htm" target="_blank">http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20040626080052/http://www.history.navy.mil/wars/datesoct.htm</a> <a href="#fnref:191" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:192">"Pamela Young". Royal Society Te Apārangi. Archived from the original on 21 February 2022. Retrieved 21 February 2022. <a href="https://www.royalsociety.org.nz/150th-anniversary/150-women-in-150-words/1968-2017/pamela-young/" target="_blank">https://www.royalsociety.org.nz/150th-anniversary/150-women-in-150-words/1968-2017/pamela-young/</a> <a href="#fnref:192" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:193">The women were Pam Young, Jean Pearson, Lois Jones, Eileen McSaveney, Kay Lindsay and Terry Tickhill.[175] <a href="/wiki/Pam_Young" target="_blank">/wiki/Pam_Young</a> <a href="#fnref:193" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:194">Ousland, Børge (13 December 2013). "Børge Ousland: How I crossed Antarctica alone". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on 10 October 2019. Retrieved 30 December 2018. <a href="/wiki/B%C3%B8rge_Ousland" target="_blank">/wiki/B%C3%B8rge_Ousland</a> <a href="#fnref:194" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:195">"Fastest unsupported (kite assisted) journey to the South Pole taking just 34 days". Guinness World Records. Archived from the original on 25 February 2021. Retrieved 30 December 2018. <a href="http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/fastest-unsupported-%28kite-assisted%29-journey-to-the-south-pole" target="_blank">http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/fastest-unsupported-%28kite-assisted%29-journey-to-the-south-pole</a> <a href="#fnref:195" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:196">Headland 1984, p. 238. - Headland, Robert (1984). The Island of South Georgia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-25274-4. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lZ04AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA238" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=lZ04AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA238</a> <a href="#fnref:196" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:197">The first settlements included Grytviken, Leith Harbour, King Edward Point, Stromness, Husvik, Prince Olav Harbour, Ocean Harbour and Godthul. Managers and other senior officers of the whaling stations often lived together with their families. Among them was the founder of Grytviken, Captain Carl Anton Larsen, a prominent Norwegian whaler and explorer who, along with his family, adopted British citizenship in 1910.[178] <a href="/wiki/Grytviken" target="_blank">/wiki/Grytviken</a> <a href="#fnref:197" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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</ol>

Antarctica open-in-new

Antarctica