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Celtic languages
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<h2 id="living-languages">Living languages</h2> <p><a href="/facts/SIL_Ethnologue/0AanCzKS">SIL Ethnologue</a> lists six living Celtic languages, of which four have retained a substantial number of native speakers. These are: the <a href="/facts/Goidelic_languages/gJPUYXlc">Goidelic languages</a> (<a href="/facts/Irish_language/Kw97s2l4">Irish</a> and <a href="/facts/Scottish_Gaelic/KMI4MmzJ">Scottish Gaelic</a>, both descended from <a href="/facts/Middle_Irish/r3dtV2Mb">Middle Irish</a>) and the <a href="/facts/Brittonic_languages/9MPYrKUG">Brittonic languages</a> (<a href="/facts/Welsh_language/4Pz8r6yk">Welsh</a> and <a href="/facts/Breton_language/e0Rpgyvf">Breton</a>, descended from <a href="/facts/Common_Brittonic/YnFau4up">Common Brittonic</a>).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:4" href="#fn:4"><sup>4</sup></a> The other two, <a href="/facts/Cornish_language/DtPyMKHv">Cornish</a> (Brittonic) and <a href="/facts/Manx_language/lG7JMRr0">Manx</a> (Goidelic), died out in modern times<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5"><sup>5</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6"><sup>6</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7"><sup>7</sup></a> with their presumed last native speakers in <a href="/facts/Last_speaker_of_the_Cornish_language/6lHG3m5d">1777</a> and <a href="/facts/Ned_Maddrell/Am0X8bGo">1974</a> respectively. <a href="/facts/Language_revitalization/71shdxj2">Revitalisation</a> movements in the 2000s led to the reemergence of native speakers for both languages following their adoption by adults and children.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8"><sup>8</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9"><sup>9</sup></a> By the 21st century, there were roughly one million total speakers of Celtic languages,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10"><sup>10</sup></a> increasing to 1.4 million speakers by 2010.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11"><sup>11</sup></a> </p> <h3>Demographics</h3> <table><tbody><tr><th scope="col">Language</th><th scope="col">Native name</th><th scope="col">Grouping</th><th scope="col">Number of native speakers</th><th scope="col">Number of skilled speakers</th><th scope="col">Area of origin(still spoken)</th><th scope="col"><a href="/facts/List_of_language_regulators/3n3dLmfY">Regulated by/language body</a></th><th scope="col">Estimated number of speakers in major cities</th></tr><tr><td scope="row"><a href="/facts/Irish_language/Kw97s2l4">Irish</a></td><td><i>Gaeilge</i> / <i>Gaedhilg</i> /<p><i>Gaelainn</i> / <i>Gaeilig</i> / <i>Gaeilic</i></p></td><td><a href="/facts/Goidelic_languages/gJPUYXlc">Goidelic</a></td><td>40,000–80,000<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12"><sup>12</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13"><sup>13</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14"><sup>14</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15"><sup>15</sup></a>In the Republic of Ireland, 73,803 people use Irish daily outside the education system.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16"><sup>16</sup></a><p>Northern Ireland: 5,971 (2021)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17"><sup>17</sup></a></p><p>Canada: 530 (2021)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18"><sup>18</sup></a></p></td><td>Total speakers: 2,024,095<a href="/facts/Republic_of_Ireland/k8JzXVze">Republic of Ireland</a>: 1,774,437 (2011)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19"><sup>19</sup></a>1,873,997 (of which 788,927 (14.6% of the population) could speak it "well")(2022)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20"><sup>20</sup></a><p><a href="/facts/Northern_Ireland/Jmr0NRyl">Northern Ireland</a>: 126,743 (2021)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21"><sup>21</sup></a><a href="/facts/United_States/P0sCdLe5">United States</a>: 18,000</p><p><a href="/facts/Canada/D5P9yqs6">Canada</a>: 5,355 (2021)</p></td><td><i><a href="/facts/Gaeltacht/wozyHTVj">Gaeltacht</a></i> of <a href="/facts/Ireland/35vYxXdP">Ireland</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Foras_na_Gaeilge/HARr7Crm">Foras na Gaeilge</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Dublin/Fv8ezm8a">Dublin</a>: 184,140<a href="/facts/Galway/7fJ5vqJW">Galway</a>: 37,614<a href="/facts/Cork_(city)/MQKCwx4l">Cork</a>: 57,318<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22"><sup>22</sup></a><a href="/facts/Belfast/GIhSKnIv">Belfast</a>: 14,086<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23"><sup>23</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td scope="row"><a href="/facts/Welsh_language/4Pz8r6yk">Welsh</a></td><td><i>Cymraeg</i> / <i>Y Gymraeg</i></td><td><a href="/facts/Brittonic_languages/9MPYrKUG">Brittonic</a></td><td>538,000 (17.8% of the population of Wales) claim that they "can speak Welsh" (2021)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24"><sup>24</sup></a><p>Canada: 820 (2021)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25"><sup>25</sup></a></p></td><td>Total speakers: ≈ 947,700 (2011) <a href="/facts/Wales/xa3W6PHH">Wales</a>: 788,000 speakers (26.7% of the population)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26"><sup>26</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27"><sup>27</sup></a> <a href="/facts/England/U9mE5bGL">England</a>: 150,000<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28"><sup>28</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Chubut_Province/lPCBDh9F">Chubut Province</a>, <a href="/facts/Argentina/aFSA5bAk">Argentina</a>: 5,000<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29"><sup>29</sup></a> <a href="/facts/United_States/P0sCdLe5">United States</a>: 2,500<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30"><sup>30</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Canada/D5P9yqs6">Canada</a>: 2,200<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31"><sup>31</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32"><sup>32</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Wales/xa3W6PHH">Wales</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Welsh_Language_Commissioner/v4sl1DRo">Welsh Language Commissioner</a>The <a href="/facts/Welsh_Government/WkRLquvy">Welsh Government</a>(previously the <a href="/facts/Welsh_Language_Board/7RedVP9l">Welsh Language Board</a>, <i>Bwrdd yr Iaith Gymraeg</i>)</td><td><a href="/facts/Cardiff/AHpRtKKg">Cardiff</a>: 54,504<a href="/facts/Swansea/E3hh0Yko">Swansea</a>: 45,085<a href="/facts/Newport%2c_Wales/JEVSdlAq">Newport</a>: 18,490<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33"><sup>33</sup></a><a href="/facts/Bangor%2c_Gwynedd/d1HLh93X">Bangor</a>: 7,190</td></tr><tr><td scope="row"><a href="/facts/Breton_language/e0Rpgyvf">Breton</a></td><td><i>Brezhoneg</i></td><td><a href="/facts/Brittonic_languages/9MPYrKUG">Brittonic</a></td><td>206,000</td><td>356,000<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34"><sup>34</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Brittany/XvquwmIg">Brittany</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Ofis_Publik_ar_Brezhoneg/WUJLNCAI">Ofis Publik ar Brezhoneg</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Rennes/V89b3R3z">Rennes</a>: 7,000<a href="/facts/Brest%2c_France/GQyqB8nV">Brest</a>: 40,000<a href="/facts/Nantes/nFEAy6uk">Nantes</a>: 4,000<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35"><sup>35</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td scope="row"><a href="/facts/Scottish_Gaelic/KMI4MmzJ">Scottish Gaelic</a></td><td><i>Gàidhlig</i></td><td><a href="/facts/Goidelic_languages/gJPUYXlc">Goidelic</a></td><td>Scotland: 57,375 (2011)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36"><sup>36</sup></a><p>Canada: 385 (2021)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37"><sup>37</sup></a></p></td><td>Scotland: 87,056 (2011),<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38"><sup>38</sup></a> (1.7% of the population)<p>130,156 (2022)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39"><sup>39</sup></a>(2.5% of the population)</p><p>Canada: 2,170 (of which 630 in <a href="/facts/Nova_Scotia/RcmIvd1A">Nova Scotia</a>) (2021)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40"><sup>40</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:41" href="#fn:41"><sup>41</sup></a></p></td><td><a href="/facts/Scotland/VGwbbxB2">Scotland</a></td><td><a href="/facts/B%25C3%25B2rd_na_G%25C3%25A0idhlig/5SSpyp13">Bòrd na Gàidhlig</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Glasgow/hHUX44Ra">Glasgow</a>: 5,726<a href="/facts/Edinburgh/PcsoaK9h">Edinburgh</a>: 3,220<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:42" href="#fn:42"><sup>42</sup></a><a href="/facts/Aberdeen/yoH7QeAK">Aberdeen</a>: 1,397<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:43" href="#fn:43"><sup>43</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td scope="row"><a href="/facts/Cornish_language/DtPyMKHv">Cornish</a></td><td><i>Kernowek / Kernewek</i></td><td><a href="/facts/Brittonic_languages/9MPYrKUG">Brittonic</a></td><td>563<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:44" href="#fn:44"><sup>44</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:45" href="#fn:45"><sup>45</sup></a></td><td>2,000<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:46" href="#fn:46"><sup>46</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Cornwall/9A3TftFP">Cornwall</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Akademi_Kernewek/WzJvTBt9">Akademi Kernewek</a><a href="/facts/Cornish_Language_Partnership/efBTXwbe">Cornish Language Partnership</a> (<i>Keskowethyans an Taves Kernewek</i>)</td><td><a href="/facts/Truro/aX7uAwpK">Truro</a>: 118<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:47" href="#fn:47"><sup>47</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td scope="row"><a href="/facts/Manx_language/lG7JMRr0">Manx</a></td><td><i>Gaelg</i> / <i>Gailck</i></td><td><a href="/facts/Goidelic_languages/gJPUYXlc">Goidelic</a></td><td>100+,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:48" href="#fn:48"><sup>48</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:49" href="#fn:49"><sup>49</sup></a> including a small number of children who are new native speakers<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:50" href="#fn:50"><sup>50</sup></a></td><td>2,223 have some skills in Manx, of which 2,023 could speak it (2021)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:51" href="#fn:51"><sup>51</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Isle_of_Man/HG7bYyA8">Isle of Man</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Coonceil_ny_Gaelgey/j7906hXV">Coonceil ny Gaelgey</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Douglas%2c_Isle_of_Man/IYwEChtf">Douglas</a>: 507<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:52" href="#fn:52"><sup>52</sup></a></td></tr></tbody></table> <h3>Mixed languages</h3> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Beurla_Reagaird/ozQbwNA2">Beurla Reagaird</a>, Highland travellers' language</li> <li><a href="/facts/Shelta/GdcQBCwK">Shelta</a>, based largely on <a href="/facts/Irish_language/Kw97s2l4">Irish</a> and <a href="/facts/Hiberno-English/1RhpyNrx">Hiberno-English</a> (some 86,000 speakers in 2009).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:53" href="#fn:53"><sup>53</sup></a></li></ul> <h2 id="classification">Classification</h2> <p>Celtic is divided into various branches: </p> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Lepontic_language/4nSv4bXC">Lepontic</a>, the oldest attested Celtic language (from the 6th century BC).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:54" href="#fn:54"><sup>54</sup></a> Anciently spoken in <a href="/facts/Switzerland/LcGuxeTe">Switzerland</a> and in Northern-Central <a href="/facts/Italy/tUf0PDYF">Italy</a>. Coins with Lepontic inscriptions have been found in <a href="/facts/Noricum/MnALHP7d">Noricum</a> and <a href="/facts/Gallia_Narbonensis/gwEh60NN">Gallia Narbonensis</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:55" href="#fn:55"><sup>55</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:56" href="#fn:56"><sup>56</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:57" href="#fn:57"><sup>57</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:58" href="#fn:58"><sup>58</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Celtiberian_language/wvfcvTLH">Celtiberian</a>, also called Eastern or Northeastern Hispano-Celtic, spoken in the ancient <a href="/facts/Iberian_Peninsula/ztFXI8zt">Iberian Peninsula</a>, in the eastern part of <a href="/facts/Old_Castile/9037WBdH">Old Castile</a> and south of <a href="/facts/Aragon/IfEzbqzI">Aragon</a>. Modern provinces: Segovia, Burgos, Soria, Guadalajara, Cuenca, Zaragoza and Teruel. The relationship of Celtiberian with <a href="/facts/Gallaecian_language/eYyhEYUt">Gallaecian</a>, in northwest Iberia, is uncertain.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:59" href="#fn:59"><sup>59</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:60" href="#fn:60"><sup>60</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Gallaecian_language/eYyhEYUt">Gallaecian</a>, also known as Western or Northwestern Hispano-Celtic, anciently spoken in the northwest of the peninsula (modern <a href="/facts/Northern_Portugal/j1n4M6dd">Northern Portugal</a>, and the Spanish regions of <a href="/facts/Galicia_(Spain)/9gQqlueg">Galicia</a>, <a href="/facts/Asturias/KHVsQe5T">Asturias</a> and northwestern <a href="/facts/Castile_and_Le%25C3%25B3n/obAbeAC6">Castile and León</a>).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:61" href="#fn:61"><sup>61</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Gaulish/CAQo48pc">Gaulish</a> languages, including <a href="/facts/Galatian_language/aSLQjvrp">Galatian</a> and possibly <a href="/facts/Noric_language/MtS8tPvf">Noric</a>. These were once spoken in a wide arc from <a href="/facts/Belgium/YKuMXP5j">Belgium</a> to <a href="/facts/Turkey/KIYAWAs0">Turkey</a>. They are now all extinct.</li> <li><a href="/facts/Brittonic_languages/9MPYrKUG">Brittonic</a>, spoken in <a href="/facts/Great_Britain/TNgGQRPj">Great Britain</a> and <a href="/facts/Brittany/XvquwmIg">Brittany</a>. Including the living languages <a href="/facts/Breton_language/e0Rpgyvf">Breton</a>, <a href="/facts/Cornish_language/DtPyMKHv">Cornish</a>, and <a href="/facts/Welsh_language/4Pz8r6yk">Welsh</a>, and the lost <a href="/facts/Cumbric/unDG8K3c">Cumbric</a> and <a href="/facts/Pictish_language/PM5zpEkM">Pictish</a>, though Pictish may be a sister language rather than a daughter of <a href="/facts/Common_Brittonic/YnFau4up">Common Brittonic</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:62" href="#fn:62"><sup>62</sup></a> Before the arrival of Scotti on the Isle of Man in the 9th century, there may have been a Brittonic language there. The theory of a Brittonic <a href="/facts/Iverni/w46MKvS2">Ivernic language</a> predating Goidelic speech in Ireland has been suggested, but is not widely accepted.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:63" href="#fn:63"><sup>63</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Goidelic_languages/gJPUYXlc">Goidelic</a>, including the extant <a href="/facts/Irish_language/Kw97s2l4">Irish</a>, <a href="/facts/Manx_language/lG7JMRr0">Manx</a>, and <a href="/facts/Scottish_Gaelic/KMI4MmzJ">Scottish Gaelic</a>.</li></ul> <h3>Continental/Insular Celtic and P/Q-Celtic hypotheses</h3> <p>Scholarly handling of Celtic languages has been contentious owing to scarceness of primary source data. Some scholars (such as Cowgill 1975; McCone 1991, 1992; and Schrijver 1995) posit that the primary distinction is between <a href="/facts/Continental_Celtic_languages/nw58apFS">Continental Celtic</a> and <a href="/facts/Insular_Celtic_languages/GxWCv26A">Insular Celtic</a>, arguing that the differences between the Goidelic and Brittonic languages arose after these split off from the Continental Celtic languages.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:64" href="#fn:64"><sup>64</sup></a> Other scholars (such as Schmidt 1988) make the primary distinction between P-Celtic and Q-Celtic languages based on the replacement of initial Q by initial P in some words. Most of the Gallic and Brittonic languages are P-Celtic, while the Goidelic and Hispano-Celtic (or Celtiberian) languages are Q-Celtic. The P-Celtic languages (also called <a href="/facts/Gallo-Brittonic_languages/oQd99jtB">Gallo-Brittonic</a>) are sometimes seen (for example by Koch 1992) as a central innovating area as opposed to the more conservative peripheral Q-Celtic languages. According to <a href="/facts/Ranko_Matasovi%25C4%2587/mn8JfIym">Ranko Matasović</a> in the introduction to his 2009 <i>Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Celtic</i>: "Celtiberian ... is almost certainly an independent branch on the Celtic genealogical tree, one that became separated from the others very early."<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:65" href="#fn:65"><sup>65</sup></a> </p><p>The Breton language is Brittonic, not Gaulish, though there may be some input from the latter,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:66" href="#fn:66"><sup>66</sup></a> having been introduced from Southwestern regions of Britain in the post-Roman era. In the P/Q classification schema, the first language to split off from Proto-Celtic was Gaelic. It has characteristics that some scholars see as archaic, but others see as also being in the Brittonic languages (see Schmidt). In the Insular/Continental classification schema, the split of the former into Gaelic and Brittonic is seen as being late. </p><p>The distinction of Celtic into these four sub-families most likely occurred about 900 BC according to Gray & Atkinson<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:67" href="#fn:67"><sup>67</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:68" href="#fn:68"><sup>68</sup></a> but, because of estimation uncertainty, it could be any time between 1200 and 800 BC. However, they only considered Gaelic and Brythonic. A controversial paper by Forster & Toth<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:69" href="#fn:69"><sup>69</sup></a> included Gaulish and put the break-up much earlier at 3200 BC ± 1500 years. They support the Insular Celtic hypothesis. The early Celts were commonly associated with the archaeological <a href="/facts/Urnfield_culture/BUxYt9Sw">Urnfield culture</a>, the <a href="/facts/Hallstatt_culture/brpJ6dWw">Hallstatt culture</a>, and the <a href="/facts/La_T%25C3%25A8ne_culture/gsSxxffn">La Tène culture</a>, though the earlier assumption of association between language and culture is now considered to be less strong.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:70" href="#fn:70"><sup>70</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:71" href="#fn:71"><sup>71</sup></a> </p><p>There are legitimate scholarly arguments for both the Insular Celtic hypothesis and the P-/Q-Celtic hypothesis. Proponents of each schema dispute the accuracy and usefulness of the other's categories. However, since the 1970s the division into Insular and Continental Celtic has become the more widely held view (Cowgill 1975; McCone 1991, 1992; Schrijver 1995), but in the middle of the 1980s, the P-/Q-Celtic theory found new supporters (Lambert 1994), because of the inscription on the Larzac piece of lead (1983), the analysis of which reveals another common phonetical innovation <i>-nm-</i> > <i>-nu</i> (Gaelic <i>ainm</i> / Gaulish <i>anuana</i>, Old Welsh <i>enuein</i> 'names'), that is less accidental than only one. The discovery of a third common innovation would allow the specialists to come to the conclusion of a <a href="/facts/Gallo-Brittonic_languages/oQd99jtB">Gallo-Brittonic</a> dialect (Schmidt 1986; Fleuriot 1986). </p><p>The interpretation of this and further evidence is still quite contested, and the main argument for Insular Celtic is connected with the development of verbal morphology and the syntax in Irish and British Celtic, which Schumacher regards as convincing, while he considers the P-Celtic/Q-Celtic division unimportant and treats Gallo-Brittonic as an outdated theory.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:72" href="#fn:72"><sup>72</sup></a> Stifter affirms that the Gallo-Brittonic view is "out of favour" in the scholarly community as of 2008 and the Insular Celtic hypothesis "widely accepted".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:73" href="#fn:73"><sup>73</sup></a> </p><p>When referring only to the modern Celtic languages, since no Continental Celtic language has living descendants, "Q-Celtic" is equivalent to "Goidelic" and "P-Celtic" is equivalent to "Brittonic". </p><p>How the family tree of the Celtic languages is ordered depends on which hypothesis is used: </p> <table><tbody><tr><td><p>"Insular Celtic hypothesis"</p><ul><li><a href="/facts/Proto-Celtic_language/RLla8fIB">Proto-Celtic</a><ul><li><a href="/facts/Continental_Celtic_languages/nw58apFS">Continental Celtic</a> †<ul><li><a href="/facts/Celtiberian_language/wvfcvTLH">Celtiberian</a> †</li><li><a href="/facts/Gallaecian_language/eYyhEYUt">Gallaecian</a> †</li><li><a href="/facts/Gaulish/CAQo48pc">Gaulish</a> †</li></ul></li><li><a href="/facts/Insular_Celtic_languages/GxWCv26A">Insular Celtic</a><ul><li><a href="/facts/Brittonic_languages/9MPYrKUG">Brittonic</a></li><li><a href="/facts/Goidelic_languages/gJPUYXlc">Goidelic</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></td><td><p>"P/Q-Celtic hypothesis"</p><ul><li><a href="/facts/Proto-Celtic_language/RLla8fIB">Proto-Celtic</a><ul><li>Q-Celtic<ul><li><a href="/facts/Celtiberian_language/wvfcvTLH">Celtiberian</a> †</li><li><a href="/facts/Gallaecian_language/eYyhEYUt">Gallaecian</a> †</li><li><a href="/facts/Goidelic_languages/gJPUYXlc">Goidelic</a></li></ul></li><li><a href="/facts/Gallo-Brittonic_languages/oQd99jtB">P-Celtic</a><ul><li><a href="/facts/Gaulish/CAQo48pc">Gaulish</a> †</li><li><a href="/facts/Brittonic_languages/9MPYrKUG">Brittonic</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></td></tr></tbody></table> <h3>Eska (2010)</h3> <p>Eska<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:74" href="#fn:74"><sup>74</sup></a> evaluates the evidence as supporting the following tree, based on <a href="/facts/Comparative_method/VKJAa3zy">shared innovations</a>, though it is not always clear that the innovations are not <a href="/facts/Areal_feature/Qk3QT5oq">areal features</a>. It seems likely that Celtiberian split off before Cisalpine Celtic, but the evidence for this is not robust. On the other hand, the unity of Gaulish, Goidelic, and Brittonic is reasonably secure. Schumacher (2004, p. 86) had already cautiously considered this grouping to be likely genetic, based, among others, on the shared reformation of the sentence-initial, fully inflecting relative pronoun <i>*i̯os, *i̯ā, *i̯od</i> into an uninflected enclitic particle. Eska sees <a href="/facts/Cisalpine_Gaulish/f0tMUarW">Cisalpine Gaulish</a> as more akin to Lepontic than to Transalpine Gaulish. </p> <ul><li>Celtic <ul><li><a href="/facts/Hispano-Celtic_languages/TB2766UJ">Hispano-Celtic</a> † <ul><li><a href="/facts/Celtiberian_language/wvfcvTLH">Celtiberian</a> †</li> <li><a href="/facts/Gallaecian_language/eYyhEYUt">Gallaecian</a> †</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/facts/Nuclear_Celtic_languages/LFHt6mSJ">Nuclear Celtic</a> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Cisalpine_Celtic/enkIaGg1">Cisalpine Celtic</a>: <a href="/facts/Lepontic_language/4nSv4bXC">Lepontic</a> → <a href="/facts/Cisalpine_Gaulish/f0tMUarW">Cisalpine Gaulish</a> †</li> <li>Core Celtic (secure) <ul><li><a href="/facts/Transalpine_Gaulish/CAQo48pc">Transalpine Gaulish</a> † ("Transalpine Celtic")</li> <li><a href="/facts/Insular_Celtic_languages/GxWCv26A">Insular Celtic</a> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Goidelic_languages/gJPUYXlc">Goidelic</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Brittonic_languages/9MPYrKUG">Brittonic</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> <p>Eska considers a division of Transalpine–Goidelic–Brittonic into Transalpine and Insular Celtic to be most probable because of the greater number of innovations in Insular Celtic than in P-Celtic, and because the Insular Celtic languages were probably not in great enough contact for those innovations to spread as part of a <a href="/facts/Sprachbund/e96F1Sd8">sprachbund</a>. However, if they have another explanation (such as an <a href="/facts/Subject%25E2%2580%2593verb%25E2%2580%2593object/N0DS8deK">SOV</a> <a href="/facts/Stratum_(linguistics)/L73fjNSr">substratum</a> language), then it is possible that P-Celtic is a valid clade, and the top branching would be: </p> <ul><li>Core Celtic (P-Celtic hypothesis) <ul><li><a href="/facts/Goidelic_languages/gJPUYXlc">Goidelic</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Gallo-Brittonic_languages/oQd99jtB">Gallo-Brittonic</a> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Transalpine_Gaulish/CAQo48pc">Transalpine Gaulish</a> ("Transalpine Celtic") †</li> <li><a href="/facts/Brittonic_languages/9MPYrKUG">Brittonic</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> <h3>Italo-Celtic</h3> <p>Within the <a href="/facts/Indo-European_languages/L34TfgSr">Indo-European</a> family, the Celtic languages have sometimes been placed with the <a href="/facts/Italic_languages/82W676n0">Italic languages</a> in a common <a href="/facts/Italo-Celtic/gU6JsBN9">Italo-Celtic</a> subfamily. This hypothesis fell somewhat out of favour after reexamination by American linguist <a href="/facts/Calvert_Watkins/kKg8LMth">Calvert Watkins</a> in 1966.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:75" href="#fn:75"><sup>75</sup></a> Irrespectively, some scholars such as Ringe, Warnow and Taylor and many others have argued in favour of an Italo-Celtic grouping in 21st century theses.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:76" href="#fn:76"><sup>76</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="characteristics">Characteristics</h2> <p>Although there are many differences between the individual Celtic languages, they do show many family resemblances. </p> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Consonant_mutation/8nkhym6h">consonant mutations</a> (Insular Celtic only)</li> <li><a href="/facts/Inflected_preposition/5xMnnTR2">inflected prepositions</a> (Insular Celtic only)</li> <li>two <a href="/facts/Grammatical_gender/2hEshpnP">grammatical genders</a> (modern Insular Celtic only; Old Irish and the Continental languages had three genders, although Gaulish may have merged the neuter and masculine in its later forms)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:77" href="#fn:77"><sup>77</sup></a></li> <li>a <a href="/facts/Vigesimal/zvzFVBsL">vigesimal</a> number system (counting by twenties) <ul><li>Cornish <i>hwetek ha dew ugens</i> "fifty-six" (literally "sixteen and two twenty")</li></ul></li> <li>verb–subject–object (VSO) word order (probably Insular Celtic only)</li> <li>an interplay between the subjunctive, future, imperfect, and habitual, to the point that some tenses and moods have ousted others</li> <li>an impersonal or autonomous verb form serving as a <a href="/facts/Passive_voice/9lpHvV33">passive</a> or <a href="/facts/Intransitive_verb/W4TRD0n5">intransitive</a> <ul><li>Welsh <i>dysgaf</i> "I teach" vs. <i>dysgir</i> "is taught, one teaches"</li> <li>Irish <i>múinim</i> "I teach" vs. <i>múintear</i> "is taught, one teaches"</li></ul></li> <li>no <a href="/facts/Infinitive/yhBoXDsQ">infinitives</a>, replaced by a quasi-nominal verb form called the verbal noun or <a href="/facts/Verbnoun/v6taJNTX">verbnoun</a></li> <li>frequent use of vowel mutation as a morphological device, e.g. formation of plurals, verbal stems, etc.</li> <li>use of preverbal particles to signal either subordination or illocutionary force of the following clause <ul><li>mutation-distinguished subordinators/relativisers</li> <li><a href="/facts/Grammatical_particle/Da0LIXEc">particles</a> for <a href="/facts/Affirmation_and_negation/JMkpne01">negation</a>, interrogation, and occasionally for affirmative declarations</li></ul></li> <li>pronouns positioned between particles and verbs</li> <li>lack of simple verb for the <a href="/facts/Imperfective_aspect/PX3wkfcb">imperfective</a> "have" process, with possession conveyed by a composite structure, usually BE + preposition <ul><li>Cornish <i>Yma kath dhymm</i> "I have a cat", literally "there is a cat to me"</li> <li>Welsh <i>Mae cath gyda fi</i> "I have a cat", literally "a cat is with me"</li> <li>Irish <i>Tá cat agam</i> "I have a cat", literally "there is a cat at me"</li></ul></li> <li>use of <a href="/facts/Periphrasis/7kwxhz1R">periphrastic</a> constructions to express verbal tense, voice, or <a href="/facts/Grammatical_aspect/zX9gFXn9">aspectual</a> distinctions</li> <li>distinction by function of the two versions of BE verbs traditionally labelled substantive (or existential) and <a href="/facts/Copula_(linguistics)/nFkAhQhL">copula</a></li> <li>bifurcated <a href="/facts/Demonstrative/XAM9dxwK">demonstrative</a> structure</li> <li>suffixed pronominal supplements, called confirming or supplementary pronouns</li> <li>use of singulars or special forms of counted nouns, and use of a singulative suffix to make singular forms from plurals, where older singulars have disappeared</li></ul> <p>Examples: </p> <a href="/facts/Irish_language/Kw97s2l4">Irish</a>: <i>Ná bac le mac an bhacaigh is ní bhacfaidh mac an bhacaigh leat.</i> (Literal translation) <i>Do not bother with son the beggar's and not will-bother son the beggar's with-you.</i> <ul><li><i>bhacaigh</i> is the genitive of <i>bacach</i>. The <i>igh</i> the result of <a href="/facts/Affection_(linguistics)/HTq5QJwI">affection</a>; the ⟨bh⟩ is the <a href="/facts/Irish_initial_consonant_mutations/Ux3x9acP">lenited</a> form of ⟨b⟩.</li> <li><i>leat</i> is the second person singular inflected form of the preposition <i>le</i>.</li> <li>The order is verb–subject–object (VSO) in the second half. Compare this to English or French (and possibly Continental Celtic) which are normally subject–verb–object in word order.</li></ul> <a href="/facts/Welsh_language/4Pz8r6yk">Welsh</a>: <i>pedwar ar bymtheg a phedwar ugain</i> (Literally) <i>four on fifteen and four twenties</i> <ul><li><i>bymtheg</i> is a mutated form of <i>pymtheg</i>, which is <i>pump</i> ("five") plus <i>deg</i> ("ten"). Likewise, <i>phedwar</i> is a mutated form of <i>pedwar</i>.</li> <li>The multiples of ten are <i>deg, ugain, deg ar hugain, deugain, hanner cant, trigain, deg a thrigain, pedwar ugain, deg a phedwar ugain, cant</i>.</li></ul> <h3>Comparison table</h3> <p>The <a href="/facts/Lexical_similarity/DtLoDshV">lexical similarity</a> between the different Celtic languages is apparent in their <a href="/facts/Swadesh_list/f7vsCc2e">core vocabulary</a>, especially in terms of <a href="/facts/Phonetic_transcription/bfbFHWur">actual pronunciation</a>. Moreover, the <a href="/facts/Phonetics/ljAVT8fv">phonetic</a> <a href="/facts/Comparative_method/VKJAa3zy">differences between languages</a> are often the product of regular <a href="/facts/Sound_change/NU6EyI1u">sound change</a> (i.e. <a href="/facts/Lenition/htEV4TwT">lenition</a> of /b/ into /v/ or Ø). </p><p>The table below has words in the modern languages that were <a href="/facts/Historical_linguistics/nj5y6HDR">inherited direct</a> from <a href="/facts/Proto-Celtic_language/RLla8fIB">Proto-Celtic</a>, as well as a few old <a href="/facts/Loanword/PWGYczgY">borrowings</a> from <a href="/facts/Latin/pM3Kge85">Latin</a> that made their way into all the daughter languages. There is often a closer match between Welsh, Breton and Cornish on the one hand and Irish, Scottish Gaelic and Manx on the other. For a fuller list of comparisons, see the Swadesh list for Celtic. </p> <table><tbody><tr><th scope="col" rowspan="2">English</th><th scope="col" colspan="3">Brittonic</th><th scope="col" colspan="3">Goidelic</th></tr><tr><th scope="col">Welsh</th><th scope="col">Breton<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:78" href="#fn:78"><sup>78</sup></a></th><th scope="col">Cornish</th><th scope="col">Irish<p>Gaelic<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:79" href="#fn:79"><sup>79</sup></a></p></th><th>Scottish<p>Gaelic<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:80" href="#fn:80"><sup>80</sup></a></p></th><th>Manx</th></tr><tr><td scope="row">bee</td><td><i>gwenynen</i></td><td><i>gwenanenn</i></td><td><i>gwenenen</i></td><td><i>beach</i></td><td><i>seillean</i></td><td><i>shellan</i></td></tr><tr><td scope="row">big</td><td><i>mawr</i></td><td><i>meur</i></td><td><i>meur</i></td><td><i>mór</i></td><td><i>mòr</i></td><td><i>mooar</i></td></tr><tr><td scope="row">dog</td><td><i>ci</i></td><td><i>ki</i></td><td><i>ki</i></td><td><i>madra</i>, <i>gadhar</i> (<i>cú</i> "hound")</td><td><i>cù</i></td><td><i>coo</i></td></tr><tr><td scope="row">fish</td><td><i>pysgodyn</i>†</td><td><i>pesk</i>†</td><td><i>pysk</i>†</td><td><i>iasc</i></td><td><i>iasg</i></td><td><i>yeeast</i></td></tr><tr><td scope="row">full</td><td><i>llawn</i></td><td><i>leun</i></td><td><i>leun</i></td><td><i>lán</i></td><td><i>làn</i></td><td><i>lane</i></td></tr><tr><td scope="row">goat</td><td><i>gafr</i></td><td><i>gavr</i></td><td><i>gaver</i></td><td><i>gabhar</i></td><td><i>gobhar</i></td><td><i>goayr</i></td></tr><tr><td scope="row">house</td><td><i>tŷ</i></td><td><i>ti</i></td><td><i>chi</i></td><td><i>teach, tigh</i></td><td><i>taigh</i></td><td><i>thie</i></td></tr><tr><td scope="row">lip (anatomical)</td><td><i>gwefus</i></td><td><i>gweuz</i></td><td><i>gweus</i></td><td><i>liopa, beol</i></td><td><i>bile</i></td><td><i>meill</i></td></tr><tr><td scope="row">mouth of a river</td><td><i>aber</i></td><td><i>aber</i></td><td><i>aber</i></td><td><i>inbhear</i></td><td><i>inbhir</i></td><td><i>inver</i></td></tr><tr><td scope="row">four</td><td><i>pedwar</i></td><td><i>pevar</i></td><td><i>peswar</i></td><td><i>ceathair, cheithre</i></td><td><i>ceithir</i></td><td><i>kiare</i></td></tr><tr><td scope="row">night</td><td><i>nos</i></td><td><i>noz</i></td><td><i>nos</i></td><td><i>oíche</i></td><td><i>oidhche</i></td><td><i>oie</i></td></tr><tr><td scope="row">number†</td><td><i>rhif, nifer</i>†</td><td><i>niver</i>†</td><td><i>niver</i>†</td><td><i>uimhir</i></td><td><i>àireamh</i></td><td><i>earroo</i></td></tr><tr><td scope="row">three</td><td><i>tri</i></td><td><i>tri</i></td><td><i>tri</i></td><td><i>trí</i></td><td><i>trì</i></td><td><i>tree</i></td></tr><tr><td scope="row">milk</td><td><i>llaeth</i>†</td><td><i>laezh</i>†</td><td><i>leth</i>†</td><td><i>bainne, leacht</i></td><td><i>bainne, leachd</i></td><td><i>bainney</i></td></tr><tr><td scope="row">you (sg)</td><td><i>ti</i></td><td><i>te</i></td><td><i>ty</i></td><td><i>tú, thú</i></td><td><i>thu, tu</i></td><td><i>oo</i></td></tr><tr><td scope="row">star</td><td><i>seren</i></td><td><i>steredenn</i></td><td><i>steren</i></td><td><i>réalta</i></td><td><i>reult, rionnag</i></td><td><i>rollage</i></td></tr><tr><td scope="row">today</td><td><i>heddiw</i></td><td><i>hiziv</i></td><td><i>hedhyw</i></td><td><i>inniu</i></td><td><i>an-diugh</i></td><td><i>jiu</i></td></tr><tr><td scope="row">tooth</td><td><i>dant</i></td><td><i>dant</i></td><td><i>dans</i></td><td><i>fiacail</i>, <i>déad</i></td><td><i>fiacaill, deud</i></td><td><i>feeackle</i></td></tr><tr><td scope="row">(to) fall</td><td><i>cwympo</i></td><td><i>kouezhañ</i></td><td><i>kodha</i></td><td><i>tit(im)</i></td><td><i>tuit(eam)</i></td><td><i>tuitt(ym)</i></td></tr><tr><td scope="row">(to) smoke</td><td><i>ysmygu</i></td><td><i>mogediñ, butuniñ</i></td><td><i>megi</i></td><td><i>caith(eamh) tobac</i></td><td><i>smocadh</i></td><td><i>toghtaney, smookal</i></td></tr><tr><td scope="row">(to) whistle</td><td><i>chwibanu</i></td><td><i>c'hwibanat</i></td><td><i>hwibana</i></td><td><i>feadáil</i></td><td><i>fead</i></td><td><i>fed</i></td></tr><tr><td scope="row">time, weather</td><td><i>amser</i></td><td><i>amzer</i></td><td><i>amser</i> "time", <i>kewer</i> "weather"</td><td><i>aimsir</i></td><td><i>aimsir</i></td><td><i>emshyr</i></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>† Borrowings from Latin. </p> <h3>Examples</h3> <p>Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights: <i>All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.</i> </p> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Irish_language/Kw97s2l4">Irish</a>: <i>Saolaítear gach duine den chine daonna saor agus comhionann i ndínit agus i gcearta. Tá bua an réasúin agus an choinsiasa acu agus ba cheart dóibh gníomhú i dtreo a chéile i spiorad an bhráithreachais.</i></li> <li><a href="/facts/Manx_language/lG7JMRr0">Manx</a>: <i>Ta dagh ooilley pheiagh ruggit seyr as corrym ayns ard-cheim as kiartyn. Ren Jee feoiltaghey resoon as cooinsheanse orroo as by chair daue ymmyrkey ry cheilley myr braaraghyn.</i></li> <li><a href="/facts/Scottish_Gaelic_language/KMI4MmzJ">Scottish Gaelic</a>: <i>Tha gach uile dhuine air a bhreith saor agus co-ionnan ann an urram 's ann an còirichean. Tha iad air am breith le reusan is le cogais agus mar sin bu chòir dhaibh a bhith beò nam measg fhèin ann an spiorad bràthaireil.</i></li> <li><a href="/facts/Breton_language/e0Rpgyvf">Breton</a>: <i>Dieub ha par en o dellezegezh hag o gwirioù eo ganet an holl dud. Poell ha skiant zo dezho ha dleout a reont bevañ an eil gant egile en ur spered a genvreudeuriezh.</i></li> <li><a href="/facts/Cornish_language/DtPyMKHv">Cornish</a>: <i>Genys frank ha par yw oll tus an bys yn aga dynita hag yn aga gwiryow. Enduys yns gans reson ha kowses hag y tal dhedha omdhon an eyl orth y gila yn spyrys a vrederedh.</i></li> <li><a href="/facts/Welsh_language/4Pz8r6yk">Welsh</a>: <i>Genir pawb yn rhydd ac yn gydradd â'i gilydd mewn urddas a hawliau. Fe'u cynysgaeddir â rheswm a chydwybod, a dylai pawb ymddwyn y naill at y llall mewn ysbryd cymodlon.</i></li></ul> <h2 id="possible-members-of-the-family">Possible members of the family</h2> <p>Several poorly-documented languages may have been Celtic. </p> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Ancient_Belgian_language/qsKTpf7Q">Ancient Belgian</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Camunic_language/AdJzcbyn">Camunic</a> is an extinct language spoken in the first millennium BC in the <a href="/facts/Val_Camonica/N94SQmMx">Val Camonica</a> and <a href="/facts/Valtellina/H5U9Jgd8">Valtellina</a> valleys of the <a href="/facts/Central_Alps/HgltcBrC">Central Alps</a>. It has recently been proposed that it was a Celtic language.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:81" href="#fn:81"><sup>81</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Iverni/w46MKvS2">Ivernic</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Ligurian_(ancient_language)/AJKe49JC">Ligurian</a>, on the Northern Mediterranean Coast straddling the southeast French and northwest Italian coasts, including parts of <a href="/facts/Tuscany/Ivw1ogrE">Tuscany</a>, <a href="/facts/Elba/BlY5Jby6">Elba</a> and <a href="/facts/Corsica/6xJ6aREr">Corsica</a>. Xavier Delamarre argues that Ligurian was a Celtic language similar to Gaulish.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:82" href="#fn:82"><sup>82</sup></a> The Ligurian-Celtic question is also discussed by Barruol (1999). Ancient Ligurian is listed as either Celtic (epigraphic),<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:83" href="#fn:83"><sup>83</sup></a> or Para-Celtic (onomastic).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:84" href="#fn:84"><sup>84</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Lusitanian_language/l4Sg6BQK">Lusitanian</a>, spoken in the area between the Douro and Tagus rivers of western <a href="/facts/Iberian_Peninsula/ztFXI8zt">Iberia</a> (a region straddling the present border of <a href="/facts/Portugal/lYzwDQ63">Portugal</a> and <a href="/facts/Spain/bIyrB8EY">Spain</a>). Known from only five inscriptions and various place names.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:85" href="#fn:85"><sup>85</sup></a> It is an Indo-European language and some scholars have proposed that it may be a para-Celtic language that evolved alongside Celtic or formed a <a href="/facts/Dialect_continuum/0QAuqxp3">dialect continuum</a> or <a href="/facts/Sprachbund/e96F1Sd8">sprachbund</a> with Tartessian and Gallaecian. This is tied to a theory of an Iberian origin for the Celtic languages.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:86" href="#fn:86"><sup>86</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:87" href="#fn:87"><sup>87</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:88" href="#fn:88"><sup>88</sup></a> It is also possible that the Q-Celtic languages alone, including Goidelic, originated in western Iberia (a theory that was first put forward by <a href="/facts/Edward_Lhuyd/a3FUtsQH">Edward Lhuyd</a> in 1707) or shared a common linguistic ancestor with Lusitanian.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:89" href="#fn:89"><sup>89</sup></a> Secondary evidence for this hypothesis has been found in research by biological scientists, who have identified (1) deep-rooted similarities in human DNA found precisely in both the former <a href="/facts/Lusitania/oF5tx1MN">Lusitania</a> and <a href="/facts/Ireland/35vYxXdP">Ireland</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:90" href="#fn:90"><sup>90</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:91" href="#fn:91"><sup>91</sup></a> and; (2) the so-called "<a href="/facts/Disjunct_distribution/0o9QkxNE">Lusitanian distribution</a>" of animals and plants unique to western Iberia and Ireland. Both phenomena are now generally thought to have resulted from human emigration from Iberia to Ireland, in the late <a href="/facts/Paleolithic/I48SMHo5">Paleolithic</a> or early <a href="/facts/Mesolithic/XTNS0x3r">Mesolithic</a> eras.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:92" href="#fn:92"><sup>92</sup></a> Other scholars see greater linguistic affinities between Lusitanian, <a href="/facts/Old_Gallo-Italic_language/uehbT6HV">Old Gallo-Italic</a> (particularly with <a href="/facts/Ligurian_(ancient_language)/AJKe49JC">Ligurian</a>) and <a href="/facts/Old_European_hydronymy/XVdv1sML">Old European</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:93" href="#fn:93"><sup>93</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:94" href="#fn:94"><sup>94</sup></a> Prominent modern linguists such as <a href="/facts/Ellis_Evans/jbkYYmuR">Ellis Evans</a>, believe <a href="/facts/Gallaecian/eYyhEYUt">Gallaecian</a>-Lusitanian was in fact one same language (not separate languages) of the "P" Celtic variant.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:95" href="#fn:95"><sup>95</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:96" href="#fn:96"><sup>96</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Rhaetic/7D2kVtya">Rhaetic</a>, spoken in central <a href="/facts/Switzerland/LcGuxeTe">Switzerland</a>, <a href="/facts/Tyrol_(state)/SdP1Y8WM">Tyrol</a> in <a href="/facts/Austria/4qWIMIyc">Austria</a>, and the Alpine regions of northeast <a href="/facts/Italy/tUf0PDYF">Italy</a>. Documented by a limited number of short inscriptions (found through Northern Italy and Western Austria) in two variants of the <a href="/facts/Etruscan_alphabet/vSu8y2RQ">Etruscan alphabet</a>. Its linguistic categorisation is not clearly established, and it presents a confusing mixture of what appear to be <a href="/facts/Etruscan_language/WjW6Ff0T">Etruscan</a>, <a href="/facts/Indo-European_languages/L34TfgSr">Indo-European</a>, and uncertain other elements. <a href="/facts/Howard_Hayes_Scullard/8Ibws5hS">Howard Hayes Scullard</a> argues that Rhaetian was also a Celtic language.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:97" href="#fn:97"><sup>97</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Tartessian_language/K6p1v8YS">Tartessian</a>, spoken in the southwest of the Iberia Peninsula (mainly southern <a href="/facts/Portugal/lYzwDQ63">Portugal</a> and southwest Spain).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:98" href="#fn:98"><sup>98</sup></a> Tartessian is known by 95 inscriptions, with the longest having 82 readable signs.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:99" href="#fn:99"><sup>99</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:100" href="#fn:100"><sup>100</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:101" href="#fn:101"><sup>101</sup></a> <a href="/facts/John_T._Koch/41MCFlc3">John T. Koch</a> argues that Tartessian was also a Celtic language.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:102" href="#fn:102"><sup>102</sup></a></li></ul> <h2 id="see-also">See also</h2> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Ogham/5xPwd2Ju">Ogham</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Celts/eMCVYAFz">Celts</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Celts_(modern)/TNlNCFkX">Celts (modern)</a></li> <li>A Swadesh list of the modern Celtic languages</li> <li><a href="/facts/Celtic_Congress/Eu1Kvwtq">Celtic Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Celtic_League/tnBR16RY">Celtic League</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Continental_Celtic_languages/nw58apFS">Continental Celtic languages</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Italo-Celtic/gU6JsBN9">Italo-Celtic</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Language_family/IpJv9o5S">Language family</a></li></ul> <h2 id="notes">Notes</h2> <ul><li>Ball, Martin J. & James Fife (ed.) (1993). <i>The Celtic Languages</i>. London: Routledge. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 0-415-01035-7.</li> <li>Borsley, Robert D. & Ian Roberts (ed.) (1996). <i>The Syntax of the Celtic Languages: A Comparative Perspective</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 0521481600.</li> <li><a href="/facts/Warren_Cowgill/CYKq9Uqx">Cowgill, Warren</a> (1975). "The origins of the Insular Celtic conjunct and absolute verbal endings". In H. Rix (ed.). <i>Flexion und Wortbildung: Akten der V. Fachtagung der Indogermanischen Gesellschaft, Regensburg, 9.–14. September 1973</i>. Wiesbaden: Reichert. pp. 40–70. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 3-920153-40-5.</li> <li><i>Celtic Linguistics, 1700–1850</i> (2000). London; New York: Routledge. 8 vols comprising 15 texts originally published between 1706 and 1844.</li> <li>Forster, Peter; Toth, Alfred (July 2003). <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC166441">"Toward a phylogenetic chronology of ancient Gaulish, Celtic, and Indo-European"</a>. <i>Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA</i>. 100 (15): 9079–84. <a href="/facts/Bibcode_(identifier)/9HtdQSGB">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003PNAS..100.9079F">2003PNAS..100.9079F</a>. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.1331158100">10.1073/pnas.1331158100</a>. <a href="/facts/PMC_(identifier)/dX1zMt71">PMC</a> <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC166441">166441</a>. <a href="/facts/PMID_(identifier)/JlHAvMHt">PMID</a> <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12837934">12837934</a>.</li> <li>Gray, Russell D.; Atkinson, Quentin D. (November 2003). <a href="https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:d6aef57c-ce30-40fb-8786-f64c4a70afd1">"Language-tree divergence times support the Anatolian theory of Indo-European origin"</a>. <i>Nature</i>. 426 (6965): 435–39. <a href="/facts/Bibcode_(identifier)/9HtdQSGB">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003Natur.426..435G">2003Natur.426..435G</a>. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature02029">10.1038/nature02029</a>. <a href="/facts/PMID_(identifier)/JlHAvMHt">PMID</a> <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14647380">14647380</a>. <a href="/facts/S2CID_(identifier)/ldJsHa2Y">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:42340">42340</a>.</li> <li>Hindley, Reg (1990). <i>The Death of the Irish Language: A Qualified Obituary</i>. Routledge. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 0-415-04339-5.</li> <li>Lewis, Henry & <a href="/facts/Holger_Pedersen_(linguist)/8x5UKDvd">Holger Pedersen</a> (1989). <i>A Concise Comparative Celtic Grammar</i>. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 3-525-26102-0.</li> <li>McCone, Kim (1991). "The PIE stops and syllabic nasals in Celtic". <i>Studia Celtica Japonica</i>. 4: 37–69.</li> <li>McCone, Kim (1992). "Relative Chronologie: Keltisch". In R. Beekes; A. Lubotsky; J. Weitenberg (eds.). <i>Rekonstruktion und relative Chronologie: Akten Der VIII. Fachtagung Der Indogermanischen Gesellschaft, Leiden, 31 August – 4 September 1987</i>. Institut für Sprachwissenschaft der Universität Innsbruck. pp. 12–39. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 3-85124-613-6.</li> <li>McCone, Kim (1996). <i>Towards a Relative Chronology of Ancient and Medieval Celtic Sound Change</i>. Maynooth: Department of Old and Middle Irish, St. Patrick's College. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 0-901519-40-5.</li> <li>Russell, Paul (1995). <i>An Introduction to the Celtic Languages</i>. Longman. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 0582100828.</li> <li>Schmidt, K. H. (1988). "On the reconstruction of Proto-Celtic". In G. W. MacLennan (ed.). <i>Proceedings of the First North American Congress of Celtic Studies, Ottawa 1986</i>. Ottawa: Chair of Celtic Studies. pp. 231–48. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 0-09-693260-0.</li> <li><a href="/facts/Peter_Schrijver/DdQkVrmA">Schrijver, Peter</a> (1995). <i>Studies in British Celtic historical phonology</i>. Amsterdam: Rodopi. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 90-5183-820-4.</li> <li>Schumacher, Stefan; Schulze-Thulin, Britta; aan de Wiel, Caroline (2004). <i>Die keltischen Primärverben. Ein vergleichendes, etymologisches und morphologisches Lexikon</i> (in German). Innsbruck: Institut für Sprachen und Kulturen der Universität Innsbruck. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 3-85124-692-6.</li></ul> <h2 id="further-reading">Further reading</h2> <ul><li>Markey, Thomas L. (2006). <a href="https://doi.org/10.4312%2Flinguistica.46.1.145-172">"Early Celticity in Slovenia and at Rhaetic Magrè (Schio)"</a>. <i>Linguistica</i>. 46 (1): 145–72. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.4312%2Flinguistica.46.1.145-172">10.4312/linguistica.46.1.145-172</a>..</li> <li>Sims-Williams, Patrick (2020). <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0959774320000098">"An Alternative to 'Celtic from the East' and 'Celtic from the West'"</a>. <i>Cambridge Archaeological Journal</i>. 30 (3): 511–29. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0959774320000098">10.1017/S0959774320000098</a>. <a href="/facts/Hdl_(identifier)/rdebSxmC">hdl</a>:<a href="https://hdl.handle.net/2160%2F317fdc72-f7ad-4a66-8335-db8f5d911437">2160/317fdc72-f7ad-4a66-8335-db8f5d911437</a>. <a href="/facts/S2CID_(identifier)/ldJsHa2Y">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:216484936">216484936</a>..</li> <li>Stifter, David (April 2020). <a href="http://mural.maynoothuniversity.ie/12914/1/Stifter">"The early Celtic epigraphic evidence and early literacy in Germanic languages"</a>. <i>NOWELE: North-Western European Language Evolution</i>. 73 (1): 123–152. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1075%2Fnowele.00037.sti">10.1075/nowele.00037.sti</a>. <a href="/facts/ISSN_(identifier)/DPAflDvU">ISSN</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0108-8416">0108-8416</a>. <a href="/facts/S2CID_(identifier)/ldJsHa2Y">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:219024967">219024967</a>.</li></ul> <h2 id="external-links">External links</h2> <ul><li><a href="http://www.abdn.ac.uk/celtic">Aberdeen University Celtic Department</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081208012252/http://www.abdn.ac.uk/celtic">Archived</a> 8 December 2008 at the <a href="/facts/Wayback_Machine/nmQ3a6JC">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a href="http://www.summerlands.com/crossroads/celticlanguage/labara1.html">"Labara: An Introduction to the Celtic Languages", by Meredith Richard</a></li> <li><a href="http://www.breizh.net/icdbl/saozg/Celtic_Languages.pdf">Celts and Celtic Languages</a> (PDF)</li></ul> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>"The Celtic languages: An Overview", Donald MacAulay, The Celtic Languages, ed. Donald MacAulay, Cambridge University Press, 1992, 3. <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>Cunliffe, Barry W. 2003. The Celts: a very short introduction. pg.48 <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>Alice Roberts, The Celts (Heron Books 2015) <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:4"><p>"Celtic Branch". About World Languages. Archived from the original on 25 September 2017. Retrieved 18 September 2017. <a href="http://aboutworldlanguages.com/celtic-branch" target="_blank">http://aboutworldlanguages.com/celtic-branch</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:5"><p>Koch, John T. (2006). Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. pp. 34, 365–366, 529, 973, 1053. ISBN 9781851094400. Archived from the original on 31 December 2015. <a href="9781851094400" target="_blank">9781851094400</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:6"><p>"A brief history of the Cornish language". Maga Kernow. Archived from the original on 25 December 2008. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081225172227/http://www.magakernow.org.uk/index.aspx?articleid=38590#Revival" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20081225172227/http://www.magakernow.org.uk/index.aspx?articleid=38590#Revival</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:7"><p>Beresford Ellis, Peter (2005) [1990]. The Story of the Cornish Language. Tor Mark Press. pp. 20–22. ISBN 0-85025-371-3. <a href="0-85025-371-3" target="_blank">0-85025-371-3</a> <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:8"><p>"Fockle ny ghaa: schoolchildren take charge". Iomtoday.co.im. Archived from the original on 4 July 2009. Retrieved 18 August 2011. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090704115241/http://www.iomtoday.co.im/manx-language/Fockle-ny-ghaa-schoolchildren-take.3901786.jp" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20090704115241/http://www.iomtoday.co.im/manx-language/Fockle-ny-ghaa-schoolchildren-take.3901786.jp</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:9"><p>"South West". TeachingEnglish.org.uk. BBC / British Council. 2010. Archived from the original on 8 January 2010. Retrieved 9 February 2010. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100108190250/http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/uk-languages/south-west" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20100108190250/http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/uk-languages/south-west</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:10"><p>"Celtic Languages". Ethnologue. Archived from the original on 16 July 2011. Retrieved 9 March 2010. <a href="http://www.ethnologue.com/show_family.asp?subid=1164-16" target="_blank">http://www.ethnologue.com/show_family.asp?subid=1164-16</a> <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:11"><p>Crystal, David (2010). The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-73650-3. <a href="978-0-521-73650-3" target="_blank">978-0-521-73650-3</a> <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:12"><p>"Irish Examiner - 2004/11/24: EU grants Irish official language status". Irish Examiner. Archives.tcm.ie. 24 November 2004. Archived from the original on 19 January 2005. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050119114400/http://archives.tcm.ie/irishexaminer/2004/11/24/story517225942.asp" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20050119114400/http://archives.tcm.ie/irishexaminer/2004/11/24/story517225942.asp</a> <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:13"><p>Christina Bratt Paulston (24 March 1994). Linguistic Minorities in Multilingual Settings: Implications for Language Policies. J. Benjamins Pub. Co. p. 81. ISBN 1-55619-347-5. <a href="1-55619-347-5" target="_blank">1-55619-347-5</a> <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:14"><p>Pierce, David (2000). Irish Writing in the Twentieth Century. Cork University Press. p. 1140. ISBN 1-85918-208-9. <a href="1-85918-208-9" target="_blank">1-85918-208-9</a> <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:15"><p>Ó hÉallaithe, Donncha (1999), Cuisle <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:16"><p>"Just 6.3% of Gaeilgeoirí speak Irish on a weekly basis". TheJournal.ie. 23 November 2017. Retrieved 14 April 2020. <a href="https://www.thejournal.ie/census-irish-education-3712741-Nov2017/" target="_blank">https://www.thejournal.ie/census-irish-education-3712741-Nov2017/</a> <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:17"><p>"Main language - full detail MS-B13". Archived from the original on 13 February 2025. <a href="https://www.nisra.gov.uk/system/files/statistics/census-2021-ms-b13.xlsx" target="_blank">https://www.nisra.gov.uk/system/files/statistics/census-2021-ms-b13.xlsx</a> <a href="#fnref:17" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:18"><p>"Knowledge of languages by generation status, mother tongue, age and gender: Canada, provinces and territories and economic regions". Statistics Canada. 4 December 2024. Retrieved 31 March 2025. <a href="https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/cv!recreate.action?pid=9810061901&selectedNodeIds=1D9,4D99,4D100,4D101,4D102,4D103&checkedLevels=0D1,1D1,2D1,4D1,5D1&refPeriods=20210101,20210101&dimensionLayouts=layout3,layout2,layout2,layout2,layout2,layout2,layout2&vectorDisplay=false" target="_blank">https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/cv!recreate.action?pid=9810061901&selectedNodeIds=1D9,4D99,4D100,4D101,4D102,4D103&checkedLevels=0D1,1D1,2D1,4D1,5D1&refPeriods=20210101,20210101&dimensionLayouts=layout3,layout2,layout2,layout2,layout2,layout2,layout2&vectorDisplay=false</a> <a href="#fnref:18" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:19"><p>"cso.ie Central Statistics Office, Census 2011 – This is Ireland – see table 33a" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 May 2013. 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(2002). Lenguas y religiones prerromanas del occidente de la península ibérica. Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca. pp. 422–27. ISBN 84-7800-818-7. <a href="84-7800-818-7" target="_blank">84-7800-818-7</a> <a href="#fnref:59" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:60"><p>Villar F., B. M. Prósper. (2005). Vascos, Celtas e Indoeuropeos: genes y lenguas. Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca. pgs. 333–350. ISBN 84-7800-530-7. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:60" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:61"><p>"In the northwest of the Iberian Peninsula, and more specifically between the west and north Atlantic coasts and an imaginary line running north-south and linking Oviedo and Merida, there is a corpus of Latin inscriptions with particular characteristics of its own. This corpus contains some linguistic features that are clearly Celtic and others that in our opinion are not Celtic. The former we shall group, for the moment, under the label northwestern Hispano-Celtic. The latter are the same features found in well-documented contemporary inscriptions in the region occupied by the Lusitanians, and therefore belonging to the variety known as LUSITANIAN, or more broadly as GALLO-LUSITANIAN. As we have already said, we do not consider this variety to belong to the Celtic language family." Jordán Colera 2007: p.750 <a href="#fnref:61" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:62"><p>Kenneth H. Jackson suggested that there were two Pictish languages, a pre-Indo-European one and a Pritenic Celtic one. This has been challenged by some scholars. See Katherine Forsyth's "Language in Pictland: the case against 'non-Indo-European Pictish'" "Etext" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 19 February 2006. Retrieved 20 January 2006. (27.8 MB). See also the introduction by James & Taylor to the "Index of Celtic and Other Elements in W. J. 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