Symmetrical voice

<h2 id="terminology">Terminology</h2>
The term Austronesian focus was widely used in early literature, but more scholars turn to the term voice recently because of the arguments against the term 'focus'.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:4" href="#fn:4">4</a> On the other hand, Starosta argued that neither voice nor focus is correct and that it is a lexical derivation.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5">5</a>
Schachter (1987) proposed the word 'trigger', which has seen widespread use. As one source summarized, 'focus' and 'topic' do not mean what they mean in discourse (the essential piece of new information, and what is being talked about, respectively), but rather 'focus' is a kind of agreement, and the 'topic' is a noun phrase that agrees with the focus-marked verb. Thus using those terms for Austronesian/Philippine alignment is "misleading" and "it seems better to refer to this argument expression as the trigger, a term that reflects the fact that the semantic role of the argument in question triggers the choice of a verbal affix."<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6">6</a>

<h2 id="studies">Studies</h2>
A number of studies focused on the typological perspective of Austronesian voice system.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7">7</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8">8</a>
Some explored the <a href="/facts/Semantics/1L4WwLAP">semantic</a> or <a href="/facts/Pragmatics/KkK08yyI">pragmatic</a> properties of Austronesian voice system.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9">9</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10">10</a>
Others contributed to the <a href="/facts/Valency_(linguistics)/YzPnRwVz">valence</a>-changing morphology.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11">11</a>

<h2 id="properties">Properties</h2>
<h3>Agreement with the semantic role of the subject</h3>
In languages that exhibit symmetrical voice, the voice affix on the main verb within the clause marks <a href="/facts/Agreement_(linguistics)/MxF9ErBV">agreement</a> with "the <a href="/facts/Thematic_relation/T57IHVuS">semantic role</a> of the [subject]".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12">12</a> 
For example, the Actor Voice affix may agree only with agent nominal phrases. (The asterisk means that the sentence is ungrammatical for the intended meaning.)

Kapampangan
a.Actor VoiceS‹um›ulat‹AV›will.writeya=ng3SG.DIR=ACCpoesiapoemingDIRlalakiboykingOBLpisara.blackboardS‹um›ulat ya=ng poesia ing lalaki king pisara.‹AV›will.write 3SG.DIR=ACC poem DIR boy OBL blackboard"The boy will write a poem on the blackboard."

b.*Sumulatyanglalakiingpoesiakingpisara.* Sumulat yang lalaki ing poesia king pisara.Intended: "The boy will write a poem on the blackboard."
(Grammatical for: "The poem will write a boy on the blackboard.")

c.*Sumulatyangpoesiaingpisarakinglalaki.* Sumulat yang poesia ing pisara king lalaki.Intended: "The boy will write a poem on the blackboard."
(Grammatical for: "The blackboard will write a poem on the boy.")

Tagalog
a.Actor VoiceB‹um›ilí‹ASP.AV›buyngINDmanggámangosaOBLpalengkemarketangDIRlalaki.manB‹um›ilí ng manggá sa palengke ang lalaki.‹ASP.AV›buy IND mango OBL market DIR man"The man bought a mango at the market."

b.*Bumilínglalakisapalengkeangmanggá.* Bumilí ng lalaki sa palengke ang manggá.Intended: "The man bought a mango at the market."
(Grammatical for: "The mango bought a man at the market.")

c.*Bumilíngmanggásalalakiangpalengke.* Bumilí ng manggá sa lalaki ang palengke.Intended: "The man bought a mango at the market."
(Grammatical for: "The market bought a mango from the man.")
 
The sentences in (b) are ungrammatical because the patient nominal phrase is marked as the subject, even though the verb bears the Actor Voice infix. The sentences in (c) are ungrammatical because, instead of the agent nominal phrase, the location nominal phrase is marked as the subject.
The patient voice affix may agree only with patient nominal phrases.

Kapampangan
a.Patient VoiceI-sulatPV-will.writen=e3SG.ERG=3SG.DIRningERGlalakiboyingDIRpoesiapoemkingOBLpisara.blackboardI-sulat n=e ning lalaki ing poesia king pisara.PV-will.write 3SG.ERG=3SG.DIR ERG boy DIR poem OBL blackboard"The poem will be written by the boy on the blackboard."

b.*Isulatneningpoesiainglalakikingpisara.* Isulat ne ning poesia ing lalaki king pisara.Intended: "The poem will be written by the boy on the blackboard."
(Grammatical for: "The boy will be written by the poem on the blackboard.")

c.*Isulatneninglalakiingpisarakingpoesia.* Isulat ne ning lalaki ing pisara king poesia.Intended: "The poem will be written by the boy on the blackboard."
(Grammatical for: "The blackboard will be written by the boy on the poem.")

Tagalog
a.Patient VoiceB‹in›ilí-∅‹ASP›buy-PVngINDlalakimansaOBLpalengkemarketangDIRmanggá.mangoB‹in›ilí-∅ ng lalaki sa palengke ang manggá.‹ASP›buy-PV IND man OBL market DIR mango"The mango was bought by the man at the market."

b.*Binilí-∅ngmanggásapalengkeanglalaki.* Binilí-∅ ng manggá sa palengke ang lalaki.Intended: "The mango was bought by the man at the market."
(Grammatical for: "The man was bought by the mango at the market.")

c.*Binilí-∅nglalakisamanggáangpalengke.* Binilí-∅ ng lalaki sa manggá ang palengke.Intended: "The mango was bought by the man at the market."
(Grammatical for: "The market was bought by the man at the mango.")

The sentences in (b) are ungrammatical because the agent nominal phrase is marked as the subject, even though the verb bears the patient voice affix. The sentences in (c) are ungrammatical because, instead of the patient nominal phrase, the location nominal phrase is marked as the subject.
The locative voice affix may agree only with location nominal phrases.

Kapampangan
a.Locative VoicePi-sulat-anLV-will.write-LVn=e=ng3SG.ERG=3SG.DIR=ACCpoesiapoemningERGlalakiboyingDIRpisara.blackboardPi-sulat-an n=e=ng poesia ning lalaki ing pisara.LV-will.write-LV 3SG.ERG=3SG.DIR=ACC poem ERG boy DIR blackboard"The blackboard will be written a poem on by the boy."

b.*Pisulatannengpoesianingpisarainglalaki.* Pisulatan neng poesia ning pisara ing lalaki.Intended: "The blackboard will be written a poem on by the boy."
(Grammatical for: "The boy will be written a poem on by the blackboard.")

c.*Pisulatannengpisaraninglalakiingpoesia.* Pisulatan neng pisara ning lalaki ing poesia.Intended: "The blackboard will be written a poem on by the boy."
(Grammatical for: "The poem will be written a blackboard on by the boy.")

Tagalog
a.Locative VoiceB‹in›ilh-án‹ASP›buy-LVngINDlalakimanngINDmanggámangoangDIRpalengke.marketB‹in›ilh-án ng lalaki ng manggá ang palengke.‹ASP›buy-LV IND man IND mango DIR market"The market was bought a mango at by the man."

b.*Binilhánngpalengkengmanggáanglalaki.* Binilhán ng palengke ng manggá ang lalaki.Intended: "The market was bought a mango at by the man."
(Grammatical for: "The man was bought a mango from by the market.")

c.*Binilhánnglalakingpalengkeangmanggá.* Binilhán ng lalaki ng palengke ang manggá.Intended: "The market was bought a mango at by the man."
(Grammatical for: "The mango was bought a market at by the man.")

The sentences in (b) are ungrammatical because the agent nominal phrase is marked as the subject, even though the verb bears the locative voice affix. The sentences in (c) are ungrammatical because, instead of the location nominal phrase, the patient nominal phrase is marked as the subject.

<h3>Types of semantic roles</h3>
Across languages, the most common <a href="/facts/Thematic_relation/T57IHVuS">semantic roles</a> with which the voice affixes may agree are agent, patient, location, instrument, and benefactee. In some languages, the voice affixes may also agree with semantic roles such as theme, goal, reason, and time. The set of semantic roles that may be borne by subjects in each language varies, and some affixes can agree with more than one semantic role.

<h3>Promotion direct to subject</h3>
Languages that have symmetrical voice do not have a process that promotes an <a href="/facts/Argument_(linguistics)/U0y7yQXG">oblique argument</a> to <a href="/facts/Object_(grammar)/wybTVzna">direct object</a>. Oblique arguments are promoted directly to <a href="/facts/Subject_(grammar)/h5M1cQJ2">subject</a>.

Tagalog
1)Actor Voice NagpadaláM-n-pag-padaláAV-ASP-¿?-sendAGENTang DIR mama manTHEMEng IND pera moneyGOALsa OBL anák child niyá. 3SG.GEN{} AGENT {} THEME {} GOAL {} {}Nagpadalá ang mama ng pera sa anák niyá.M-n-pag-padalá {} {} {} {} {} {} {}AV-ASP-¿?-send DIR man IND money OBL child 3SG.GEN"The man sent money to his child."

2)Locative Voice P‹in›adalh-án‹ASP›send-LVAGENTngIND mamamanTHEMEngIND peramoneyGOALangDIR anákchild niyá.3SG.GEN{} AGENT {} THEME {} GOAL {} {}P‹in›adalh-án ng mama ng pera ang anák niyá.‹ASP›send-LV IND man IND money DIR child 3SG.GEN"Hisi child was sent money by the mani."

3)(ungrammatical attempt to promote the indirect object to direct object) *   NagpadalhánM-n-pag-padalh-ánAV-ASP-¿?-send-LVAGENTang DIR mama manTHEMEng IND pera moneyGOALng IND anák child niyá. 3SG.GEN{} {} AGENT {} THEME {} GOAL {} {}* Nagpadalhán ang mama ng pera ng anák niyá.{} M-n-pag-padalh-án {} {} {} {} {} {} {}{} AV-ASP-¿?-send-LV DIR man IND money IND child 3SG.GENIntended: "The man sent his child money."

In the Tagalog examples above, the goal nominal phrase can either be an indirect object, as in (1), or a subject as in (2). However, it cannot become a direct object, or be marked with indirect case, as in (3). Verb forms, such as "nagpadalhan", which bear both an Actor Voice affix and a non-Actor Voice affix, do not exist in languages that have symmetrical voice.
The Tagalog examples contrast with the examples<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13">13</a> from <a href="/facts/Indonesian_language/J8Q78Ywb">Indonesian</a> below. Indonesian is an Austronesian language that does not have symmetrical voice.

Indonesian
4)Active VoiceAGENTAyah father mengirimmeN-kirimACTIVE VOICE-sendTHEMEuang moneyGOALkepada to saya. 1SGAGENT {} THEME GOAL {}Ayah mengirim uang kepada saya.{} meN-kirim {} {} {}father {ACTIVE VOICE}-send money to 1SG"Father sent money to me."

5)Passive Voice with an Applicative SuffixGOALSaya1SG di-kirim-iPASSIVE VOICE-send-APPLICATIVETHEMEuangmoneyAGENTolehby Ayah.fatherGOAL {} THEME AGENT {}Saya di-kirim-i uang oleh Ayah.1SG {PASSIVE VOICE}-send-APPLICATIVE money by father"I was sent money by Father."

6)Active Voice with an <a href="/facts/Applicative_voice/bl4wD61F">Applicative Suffix</a>AGENTAyah father mengirimimeN-kirim-iACTIVE VOICE-send-APPLICATIVEGOALsaya 1SGTHEMEuang. moneyAGENT {} GOAL THEMEAyah mengirimi saya uang.{} meN-kirim-i {} {}father {ACTIVE VOICE}-send-APPLICATIVE 1SG money"Father sent me money."

In the Indonesian examples, the goal nominal phrase can be the indirect object, as in (4), and the subject, as in (5). However, unlike in Tagalog, which has symmetrical voice, the goal nominal phrase in Indonesian can be a direct object, as in (6). The preposition kepada disappears in the presence of the applicative suffix -i, and the goal nominal phrase moves from sentence-final position to some verb-adjacent position. In addition, they can behave like regular direct objects and undergo processes such as <a href="/facts/Passive_voice/9lpHvV33">passivisation</a>, as in (5).

<h2 id="proto-austronesian-examples">Proto-Austronesian examples</h2>
The examples <a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14">14</a> below are in Proto-Austronesian. Asterisks indicate a <a href="/facts/Linguistic_reconstruction/pj96pL59">linguistic reconstruction</a>. The voice affix on the verb appears in red text, while the subject, which the affix <a href="/facts/Selection_(linguistics)/QRHCmEqa">selects</a>, appears in underlined bold italics. Four voices have been reconstructed for Proto-Austronesian: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, Locative Voice and Instrument Voice.

Proto-Austronesian
(1)Actor Voice* K‹um›aen‹AV›eatSemayriceCau.man* K‹um›aen Semay Cau.{} ‹AV›eat rice man"The man is eating some rice."

(2)Patient Voice* Kaen-eneat-PVnuERGCaumanSemay.rice* Kaen-en nu Cau Semay.{} eat-PV ERG man rice"A/the man is eating the rice." (or "The rice is being eaten by a/the man.")

(3)Locative Voice* Kaen-aneat-LVnuERGCaumanSemayriceRumaq.house* Kaen-an nu Cau Semay Rumaq.{} eat-LV ERG man rice house"The man is eating rice in the house." (or "The house is being eaten rice in by the man.")

(4)Instrument Voice* Si-kaenIV-eatnuERGCaumanSemayricelima-ni-á.hand-GEN-3SG* Si-kaen nu Cau Semay lima-ni-á.{} IV-eat ERG man rice hand-GEN-3SG"The man is eating rice with his hand." (or "Hisi hand is being eaten rice with by the mani.")

<h2 id="formosan-examples">Formosan examples</h2>
The data below come from <a href="/facts/Formosan_languages/zt7dgu9k">Formosan</a>, a geographic grouping of all <a href="/facts/Austronesian_languages/jpygNVzl">Austronesian languages</a> that belong outside of <a href="/facts/Malayo-Polynesian_languages/1R1xJmjW">Malayo-Polynesian</a>. The Formosan languages are primarily spoken in <a href="/facts/Taiwan/VcJoUD8w">Taiwan</a>.

<h3>Amis</h3>
<a href="/facts/Amis_language/t7AWm61w">Amis</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15">15</a> has four voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, Locative Voice, and Instrument Voice.
The direct case marker, which marks the subject in Amis, is ku.

(1)Actor VoiceMi-ʔaɬupAV-huntkuDIRkapahyoung mantuACCvavuy.pigMi-ʔaɬup ku kapah tu vavuy.AV-hunt DIR {young man} ACC pig"A young man hunts a pig."

(2)Patient VoiceMa-ʔaɬupPV-huntnuERGkapahyoung mankuDIRvavuy.pigMa-ʔaɬup nu kapah ku vavuy.PV-hunt ERG {young man} DIR pig"A young man hunts a pig." (or "A pig is hunted by a young man.)

(3)Locative VoicePi-ʔaɬup-anLV-hunt-LVnuERGkapahyoung mankurathat.DIRlutukmountaintuACCvavuy.pigPi-ʔaɬup-an nu kapah kura lutuk tu vavuy.LV-hunt-LV ERG {young man} that.DIR mountain ACC pig"A young man hunts a pig on that mountain." (or "That mountain is hunted a pig on by a young man.")

(4)Instrument VoiceSa-pi-ʔaɬupIV-huntnuERGkapahyoung mankuDIRʔilucspeartuACCvavuy.pigSa-pi-ʔaɬup nu kapah ku ʔiluc tu vavuy.IV-hunt ERG {young man} DIR spear ACC pig"A young man hunts a pig with a spear." (or "A spear is hunted a pig with by a young man.")

<h3>Atayal</h3>
While they both have the same number of voices, the two dialects of <a href="/facts/Atayal_language/MatQzyA4">Atayal</a> presented below do differ in the shape of the circumstantial voice prefix. In Mayrinax, the circumstantial voice prefix is si-, whereas in Squliq, it is s-.

<h4>Mayrinax</h4>
Mayrinax<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16">16</a> has four voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, Locative Voice, and Circumstantial Voice.
The circumstantial Voice prefix selects for benefactee and instrument subjects.
The direct case morpheme in Mayrinax is kuʔ.

(1)Actor VoiceM-arasAV-fetchcuʔACCqusiaʔwaterkuʔDIRmakurakis.girlM-aras cuʔ qusiaʔ kuʔ makurakis.AV-fetch ACC water DIR girl"The girl fetches water."

(2)Patient VoiceRas-unfetch-PVnkuʔERGmakurakisgirlkuʔDIRqusiaʔ.waterRas-un nkuʔ makurakis kuʔ qusiaʔ.fetch-PV ERG girl DIR water"The girl fetches water." (or "Water is fetched by the girl.")

(3)Locative VoiceRas-anfetch-LVnkuʔERGmakurakisgirlcuʔACCqusiaʔwaterkuʔDIRβintaŋwater bucketkaLIGhani.thisRas-an nkuʔ makurakis cuʔ qusiaʔ kuʔ βintaŋ ka hani.fetch-LV ERG girl ACC water DIR {water bucket} LIG this"The girl fetches water in this water bucket." (or "This water bucket is fetched water in by the girl.")

(4) a.Circumstantial Voice (with beneficiary subject)Si-ʔarasCV-fetchnkuʔERGmakurakisgirlcuʔACCqusiaʔwaterkuʔDIRmamaliku=niaʔ.husband=3SG.GENSi-ʔaras nkuʔ makurakis cuʔ qusiaʔ kuʔ mamaliku=niaʔ.CV-fetch ERG girl ACC water DIR husband=3SG.GEN"The girl fetches water for her husband." (or "Her husbandi is fetched water for by the girli.")

b.Circumstantial Voice (with instrument subject)Si-ʔarasCV-fetchnkuʔERGmakurakisgirlcuʔACCqusiaʔwaterkuʔDIRβintaŋwater bucketkaLIGhani.thisSi-ʔaras nkuʔ makurakis cuʔ qusiaʔ kuʔ βintaŋ ka hani.CV-fetch ERG girl ACC water DIR {water bucket} LIG this"The girl fetches water with this water bucket." (or "This water bucket is fetched water with by the girl.")

<h4>Squliq</h4>
Squliq<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17">17</a> has four voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, Locative Voice, and Circumstantial Voice.
The circumstantial voice prefix selects for benefactee and instrument subjects.
The direct case morpheme in Squliq is qu’.

(1)Actor VoiceM-aniqAV-eatqulihfishqu’DIRTali’.TaliM-aniq qulih qu’ Tali’.AV-eat fish DIR Tali"Tali eats fish."

(2)Patient VoiceNiq-uneat-PVna’ERGTali’Taliqu’DIRqulihfishqasa.thatNiq-un na’ Tali’ qu’ qulih qasa.eat-PV ERG Tali DIR fish that"Tali eats that fish." (or "That fish is eaten by Tali.")

(3)Locative VoiceNiq-aneat-LVna’ERGTali’Taliqulihfishqu’DIRngasalhouseqasa.thatNiq-an na’ Tali’ qulih qu’ ngasal qasa.eat-LV ERG Tali fish DIR house that"Tali eats fish in that house." (or "That house is eaten fish in by Tali.")

(4) a.Circumstantial Voice (with benefactee subject)S-qaniqCV-eatna’ERGTali’Taliqulihfishqu’DIRSayun.SayunS-qaniq na’ Tali’ qulih qu’ Sayun.CV-eat ERG Tali fish DIR Sayun"Tali eats fish for Sayun." (or "Sayun is eaten fish for by Tali.")

b.Circumstantial Voice (with instrument subject)S-qaniqCV-eatna’ERGTali’Taliqulihfishqu’DIRqway.chopsticksS-qaniq na’ Tali’ qulih qu’ qway.CV-eat ERG Tali fish DIR chopsticks"Tali eats fish with chopsticks." (or "Chopsticks are eaten fish with by Tali.")

<h3>Hla’alua</h3>
<a href="/facts/Saaroa_language/KtNNdMTG">Hla’alua</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18">18</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19">19</a> has three voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice and Circumstantial Voice.
The circumstantial voice suffix selects for location and theme subjects.
While <a href="/facts/Clitic/4A00CTek">bound</a> pronouns have a direct case form, nouns do not bear a special direct <a href="/facts/Grammatical_case/5caTQalU">case marker</a> for subjects in Hla’alua. 

(1)Actor VoiceHli-um-u=cu=akuASP-AV-eat=ASP=1SG.DIRhlavateguavausua.twoHli-um-u=cu=aku hlavate usua.ASP-AV-eat=ASP=1SG.DIR guava two"I have eaten two guavas."

(2)Patient VoiceHli-paipekel-a=cuASP-mould-PV=ASPaDETElekeElekeaDETtangusuhlu=na.rice.cake=DEFHli-paipekel-a=cu a Eleke a tangusuhlu=na.ASP-mould-PV=ASP DET Eleke DET rice.cake=DEF"Eleke has moulded the rice cake." (or "The rice cake has been moulded by Eleke.")

(3) a.Circumstantial Voice (with location subject)Hli-aala-anaASP-take-CV’Angai’AngaivutukuhlufishaDEThluuhlungu=na.stream=DEFHli-aala-ana ’Angai vutukuhlu a hluuhlungu=na.ASP-take-CV ’Angai fish DET stream=DEF"’Angai has caught fish in the stream." (or "The stream has been caught fish in by ’Angai.")

b.Circumstantial Voice (with theme subject)Hli-aala-ana=kuASP-take-CV=1SG.ERGaDETvahlituku-isamoney-3ama’a.fatherHli-aala-ana=ku a vahlituku-isa ama’a.ASP-take-CV=1SG.ERG DET money-3 father"I have taken father's money." (or "Father's money has been taken by me.")

<h3>Kanakanavu</h3>
<a href="/facts/Kanakanavu_language/u9U2haUI">Kanakanavu</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20">20</a> has four voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, Locative Voice, and Instrument Voice.
The direct case morpheme, which optionally marks the subject in Kanakanavu, is sua.

(1)Actor VoiceK‹um›aʉn‹AV›eat(sua)DIRŋiaucattapianaŋai.birdK‹um›aʉn (sua) ŋiau tapianaŋai.‹AV›eat DIR cat bird"A cat ate a bird."

(2)Patient VoiceCʉʔʉr-aisee-PVmaanuchildiisithis(sua)DIRtacaudogiisa.thatCʉʔʉr-ai maanu iisi (sua) tacau iisa.see-PV child this DIR dog that"This child saw that dog." (or "That dog was seen by this child.")
 
(3)Locative VoiceRiucuucu-ankiss-LVMu'uMu'u(sua)DIRPaicU.PaicURiucuucu-an Mu'u (sua) PaicU.kiss-LV Mu'u DIR PaicU"Mu'u kissed PaicU." (or "PaicU was kissed by Mu'u.")

(4)Instrument VoiceSi-puʔaIV-buymaanu-makuchild-1SG.GENʔʉnailandsuaDIRvantukumoneyiisi.thisSi-puʔa maanu-maku ʔʉnai sua vantuku iisi.IV-buy child-1SG.GEN land DIR money this"My child bought land with this money." (or "This money was bought land with by my child.")

<h3>Kavalan</h3>
<a href="/facts/Kavalan_language/dIkMuYaE">Kavalan</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21">21</a> has three voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice and Circumstantial Voice.
The circumstantial voice prefix selects for instrument and benefactee subjects.
The direct case morpheme, which marks the subject in Kavalan, is ya.

(1)Actor VoiceQ‹em›al‹AV›digtuACCrasungwellyaDIRsunis.childQ‹em›al tu rasung ya sunis.‹AV›dig ACC well DIR child"The child dug a well."

(2)Patient VoiceQal-andig-PVnaERGsunischildyaDIRrasung.wellQal-an na sunis ya rasung.dig-PV ERG child DIR well"The child dug the well." (or The well was dug by the child.")

(3) a.Circumstantial Voice (with instrument subject)Ti-tangan=kuCV-open=1SG.ERGtuACCinebdooryaDIRsuqsuq.keyTi-tangan=ku tu ineb ya suqsuq.CV-open=1SG.ERG ACC door DIR key"I opened the door with the key." (or "The key was opened the door with by me.")

(3) b.Circumstantial Voice (with benefactee subject)Ti-sammayCV-cooknaERGtama=kufather=1SG.GENyaDIRtina=ku.mother-1SG.GENTi-sammay na tama=ku ya tina=ku.CV-cook ERG father=1SG.GEN DIR mother-1SG.GEN"My father cooked for my mother." (or "My mother was cooked for by my father.")

<h3>Paiwan</h3>
<a href="/facts/Paiwan_language/ArokmtMD">Paiwan</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22">22</a> has four voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, Locative Voice, and Instrument Voice.
The direct case morpheme, which marks the subject in Paiwan, is a.

(1)Actor VoiceQ‹m›ałup‹AV›huntaDIRtsautsaumantuaOBLvavuypigiPREP(tua)(OBL)gadumountaintuaOBLvuluq.spearQ‹m›ałup a tsautsau tua vavuy i (tua) gadu tua vuluq.‹AV›hunt DIR man OBL pig PREP (OBL) mountain OBL spear"The man hunts the pigs in the mountains with a spear."

(2)Patient VoiceQałup-enhunt-PVnuaERGtsautsaumanaDIRvavuypigiPREP(tua)(OBL)gadumountaintuaOBLvuluq.spearQałup-en nua tsautsau a vavuy i (tua) gadu tua vuluq.hunt-PV ERG man DIR pig PREP (OBL) mountain OBL spear"The man hunts the pigs in the mountains with a spear." (or "The pigs are hunted by the man in the mountains with a spear.")

(3)Locative VoiceQałup-anhunt-LVnuaERGtsautsaumantuaOBLvavuypigaDIRgadumountaintuaOBLvuluq.spearQałup-an nua tsautsau tua vavuy a gadu tua vuluq.hunt-LV ERG man OBL pig DIR mountain OBL spear"The man hunts the pigs in the mountains with a spear." (or "The mountains are hunted the pigs in by the man with a spear.")

(4)Instrument VoiceSi-qałupIV-huntnuaERGtsautsaumantuaOBLvavuypigiPREP(tua)(OBL)gadumountainaDIRvuluq.spearSi-qałup nua tsautsau tua vavuy i (tua) gadu a vuluq.IV-hunt ERG man OBL pig PREP (OBL) mountain DIR spear"The man hunts the pigs in the mountains with a spear." (or "The spear is hunted the pigs with by the man in the mountains.")

<h3>Pazeh</h3>
<a href="/facts/Pazeh_language/dC6hXuag">Pazeh</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23">23</a> which became extinct in 2010, had four voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, Locative Voice, and Instrument Voice.
The direct case morpheme, which marks the subject in Pazeh, is ki.

(1)Actor VoiceMu-ngazipAV-biteyaku1SGkiDIRwazu.dogMu-ngazip yaku ki wazu.AV-bite 1SG DIR dog"The dog bit me."

(2)Patient VoiceNgazib-enbite-PVwazudogliaASPkiDIRrakihan.childNgazib-en wazu lia ki rakihan.bite-PV dog ASP DIR child"A dog bit the child." (or The child was bitten by a dog.")

(3)Locative VoicePu-batu’-anpave-stone-LVliaASPkiDIRbabawabovedaran.roadPu-batu’-an lia ki babaw daran.pave-stone-LV ASP DIR above road"The road surface was paved with stones."

(4)Instrument VoiceSaa-talekIV-cookalawfishkiDIRbulayan.panSaa-talek alaw ki bulayan.IV-cook fish DIR pan"The pan was cooked fish with."

<h3>Puyuma</h3>
<a href="/facts/Puyuma_language/xFCYuRRF">Puyuma</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24">24</a> has four voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, Locative Voice, and Circumstantial Voice.
The circumstantial voice suffix selects for benefactee and instrument subjects.
The direct case morpheme, which marks the subject in Puyuma, is na or i.

(1)Actor VoiceTr‹em›akaw‹AT.RL›stealdraACCpaisumoneyiDIRIsaw.IsawTr‹em›akaw dra paisu i Isaw.‹AT.RL›steal ACC money DIR Isaw"Isaw stole money."

(2)Patient VoiceTu=trakaw-aw3.ERG=steal-PT.RLnaDIRpaisumoneykanERGIsaw.IsawTu=trakaw-aw na paisu kan Isaw.3.ERG=steal-PT.RL DIR money ERG Isaw"Isaw stole the money." (or "The money was stolen by Isaw.")

(3)Locative VoiceTu=trakaw-ay=ku3.ERG=steal-LT.RL=1SG.DIRdraACCpaisumoneykanERGIsaw.IsawTu=trakaw-ay=ku dra paisu kan Isaw.3.ERG=steal-LT.RL=1SG.DIR ACC money ERG Isaw"Isaw stole money from me." (or "I was stolen money from by Isaw.")

(4) a.Circumstantial Voice (with benefactee subject)Tu=trakaw-anay3.ERG=steal-CT.RLiDIRtinatawhis.motherdraACCpaisu.moneyTu=trakaw-anay i tinataw dra paisu.3.ERG=steal-CT.RL DIR his.mother ACC money"He stole money for his mother." (or "Hisi mother was stolen money for by himi.")

b.Circumstantial Voice (with instrument subject)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25">25</a>Ku=dirus-anay1SG.ERG=wash-CT.RLnaDIRenaywaterkanACCAliwaki.AliwakiKu=dirus-anay na enay kan Aliwaki.1SG.ERG=wash-CT.RL DIR water ACC Aliwaki"I washed Aliwaki with water." (or "The water was washed Aliwaki with by me.")

<h3>Seediq</h3>
The two dialects of <a href="/facts/Seediq_language/w92n313M">Seediq</a> presented below each have a different number of voices. The direct case morpheme, which marks the subject in both dialects, is ka.

<h4>Tgdaya</h4>
Tgdaya<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26">26</a> has four voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, Locative Voice and Instrument Voice.

(1)Actor VoiceS‹em›ebuc‹AV›hitricahplumkaDIRPawan.PawanS‹em›ebuc ricah ka Pawan.‹AV›hit plum DIR Pawan"Pawan is hitting plums."

(2)Patient VoiceSebet-unhit-PVnaERGPawanPawankaDIRricah.plumSebet-un na Pawan ka ricah.hit-PV ERG Pawan DIR plum"Pawan is hitting the plum." (or "The plum is being hit by Pawan.")

(3)Locative VoiceSebet-anhit-LVnaERGPawanPawanricahplumkaDIRpeepah.farm.fieldSebet-an na Pawan ricah ka peepah.hit-LV ERG Pawan plum DIR farm.field"Pawan is hitting plums in the farm field." (or "The farm field is being hit plums in by Pawan.")

(4)Instrument VoiceSe-sebucIV-hitnaERGPawanPawanricahplumkaDIRbutakan.stickSe-sebuc na Pawan ricah ka butakan.IV-hit ERG Pawan plum DIR stick"Pawan is hitting plums with the stick." (or "The stick is being hit plums with by Pawan.")

<h4>Truku</h4>
Truku<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27">27</a> has three voices: Actor Voice, Goal Voice, and Circumstantial Voice.
The goal voice suffix selects for patient and location subjects. The circumstantial voice prefix selects for benefactee and instrument subjects.

(1)Actor VoiceK‹em›erut‹AV›cutbabuypigkaDIRMasaw.MasawK‹em›erut babuy ka Masaw.‹AV›cut pig DIR Masaw"Masaw slaughters a/the pig."

(2) a.Goal Voice (with patient subject)Keret-ancut-GVMasawMasawkaDIRbabuy.pigKeret-an Masaw ka babuy.cut-GV Masaw DIR pig"Masaw slaughters the pig." (or "The pig is slaughtered by Masaw.")

b.Goal Voice (with location subject)Keret-ancut-GVlaqichildsagaswatermelonkaDIRketi’inuhboardni’i.thisKeret-an laqi sagas ka keti’inuh ni’i.cut-GV child watermelon DIR board this"The child cuts watermelon on this board." (or "This board is cut watermelon on by the child.")

(3) a.Circumstantial Voice (with benefactee subject)Se-kerutCV-cutbabuypigMasawMasawkaDIRbaki.old.manSe-kerut babuy Masaw ka baki.CV-cut pig Masaw DIR old.man"Masaw slaughters a/the pig for the old man." (or "The old man is slaughtered a/the pig for by Masaw.")

b.Circumstantial Voice (with instrument subject)Se-kerutCV-cutbabuypigMasawMasawkaDIRputing.knifeSe-kerut babuy Masaw ka puting.CV-cut pig Masaw DIR knife"Masaw slaughters a/the pig with the knife." (or "The knife is slaughtered a/the pig with by Masaw.")

<h3>Tsou</h3>
<a href="/facts/Tsou_language/LmcT0W7I">Tsou</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28">28</a> has four voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, Locative Voice, and Benefactive Voice. In addition to the voice morphology on the main verb, auxiliary verbs in Tsou, which are obligatory in the sentence,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29">29</a> are also marked for voice. However, auxiliaries only differentiate between Actor Voice and non-Actor Voice<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30">30</a> (in green text).
The direct case morpheme, which marks subjects in Tsou, is ’o.

(1)Actor VoiceMi-’oAUX.AV-1SG.DIRmo-siAV-puttoOBLpeisumoneyneOBLNookay.NookayMi-’o mo-si to peisu ne Nookay.AUX.AV-1SG.DIR AV-put OBL money OBL Nookay"I deposit money in Nookay."

(2)Patient VoiceOs-’oAUX.NAV-1SG.ERGsi-aput-PVtoOBLpankatable’oDIRpeisu.moneyOs-’o si-a to panka ’o peisu.AUX.NAV-1SG.ERG put-PV OBL table DIR money"I put the money on the/a table." (or "The money was put on the/a table by me.")

(3)Locative VoiceOs-’oAUX.NAV-1SG.ERGsi-iput-LVtoOBLchumuwater’oDIRkopu.cupOs-’o si-i to chumu ’o kopu.AUX.NAV-1SG.ERG put-LV OBL water DIR cup"I put water into the cup." (or "The cup was put water into by me.")

(4)Benefactive Voice<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31">31</a>Os-’oAUX.NAV-1SG.ERGsi-i-neniput-LV-BVtoOBLochatea’oDIRPasuya.PasuyaOs-’o si-i-neni to ocha ’o Pasuya.AUX.NAV-1SG.ERG put-LV-BV OBL tea DIR Pasuya"I served tea for Pasuya." (or "Pasuya was served tea for by me.")

<h2 id="batanic-examples">Batanic examples</h2>
The data below come from the <a href="/facts/Batanic_languages/B0mN3qU9">Batanic languages</a>, a subgroup under <a href="/facts/Malayo-Polynesian_languages/1R1xJmjW">Malayo-Polynesian</a>. These languages are spoken on the islands found in the <a href="/facts/Luzon_Strait/cyKsYNpJ">Luzon Strait</a>, between <a href="/facts/Taiwan/VcJoUD8w">Taiwan</a> and the <a href="/facts/Philippines/ARpmxXQV">Philippines</a>.

<h3>Ivatan</h3>
<a href="/facts/Ivatan_language/moHbhJnx">Ivatan</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32">32</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33">33</a> has four voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, Locative Voice, and Circumstantial Voice.
The circumstantial voice prefix selects for instrument and benefactee subjects.
The direct case morpheme, which marks the subject in Ivatan, is qo.

(1)Actor VoiceMangamoqmom-pang-qamoqmoAV-¿?-frightenqo DIRtao manso ACCmotdeh childno INDboday snakedo OBLvahay. houseMangamoqmo qo tao so motdeh no boday do vahay.m-pang-qamoqmo {} {} {} {} {} {} {} {}AV-¿?-frighten DIR man ACC child IND snake OBL house"The man is frightening a child with a snake in the house."

(2)Patient VoiceQamoqmo-henfrighten-PVnoINDtaomanqoDIRmotdehchildnoINDbodaysnakedoOBLvahay.houseQamoqmo-hen no tao qo motdeh no boday do vahay.frighten-PV IND man DIR child IND snake OBL house"The man is frightening a child with a snake in the house." (or "A child is being frightened with a snake in the house by the man.")

(3)Locative Voice<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34">34</a>Pangamoqmoanpang-qamoqmo-an¿?-frighten-LVno INDtao manso ACCmotdeh childno INDboday snakeqo DIRvahay. housePangamoqmoan no tao so motdeh no boday qo vahay.pang-qamoqmo-an {} {} {} {} {} {} {} {}¿?-frighten-LV IND man ACC child IND snake DIR house"The man is frightening a child with a snake in the house." (or "The house is being frightened a child in with a snake by the man.")

(4) a.Circumstantial Voice (with instrument subject)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35">35</a>Qipangamoqmoqi-pang-qamoqmoCV-¿?-frightenno INDtao manso ACCmotdeh childqo DIRboday snakedo OBLvahay. houseQipangamoqmo no tao so motdeh qo boday do vahay.qi-pang-qamoqmo {} {} {} {} {} {} {} {}CV-¿?-frighten IND man ACC child DIR snake OBL house"The man is frightening a child with a snake in the house." (or "The snake is being frightened a child with in the house by the man.")

(4) b.Circumstantial Voice (with benefactee subject)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36">36</a>Qipangamoqmoqi-pang-qamoqmoCV-¿?-frightenno INDtao manso ACCmotdeh childno INDboday snakedo OBLvahay houseqo DIRkayvan-a. friend-3SG.GENQipangamoqmo no tao so motdeh no boday do vahay qo kayvan-a.qi-pang-qamoqmo {} {} {} {} {} {} {} {} {} {}CV-¿?-frighten IND man ACC child IND snake OBL house DIR friend-3SG.GEN"The man is frightening a child with a snake in the house for his friend." (or "Hisi friend is being frightened a child for with a snake in the house by the mani.")

<h3>Yami</h3>
<a href="/facts/Yami_language/CBXwd2GH">Yami</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37">37</a> has four voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, Locative Voice, and Instrument Voice.
The direct case morpheme, which marks subjects in Yami, is si for proper names, and o for common nouns.

(1)Actor VoiceK‹om›an‹AV›eatsoOBLwakaysweet potatosiDIRSalang.SalangK‹om›an so wakay si Salang.‹AV›eat OBL {sweet potato} DIR Salang"Salang ate a sweet potato."

(2)Patient VoiceKan-eneat-PVna3SG.ERGniERGSalangSalangoDIRwakay.sweet potatoKan-en na ni Salang o wakay.eat-PV 3SG.ERG ERG Salang DIR {sweet potato}"Salang ate the sweet potato." (or "The sweet potato was eaten by Salang.")

(3)Locative VoiceNi-akan-anASP-eat-LVna3SG.ERGoDIRmogisriceorithatniERGSalang.SalangNi-akan-an na o mogis ori ni Salang.ASP-eat-LV 3SG.ERG DIR rice that ERG Salang"Salang ate from some of that rice." (or "Some of that rice was eaten from by Salang.")

(4)Instrument VoiceI-akanIV-eatna3SG.ERGniERGSalangSalangoDIRamongfishya.thisI-akan na ni Salang o among ya.IV-eat 3SG.ERG ERG Salang DIR fish this"Salang ate (a meal) with this fish." (or "This fish was eaten (a meal) with by Salang.")

<h2 id="philippine-examples">Philippine examples</h2>
The data below come from <a href="/facts/Philippine_languages/2YpddJJJ">Philippine languages</a>, a subgroup under <a href="/facts/Malayo-Polynesian_languages/1R1xJmjW">Malayo-Polynesian</a>, predominantly spoken across the <a href="/facts/Philippines/ARpmxXQV">Philippines</a>, with some found on the island of <a href="/facts/Sulawesi/BKg2WNej">Sulawesi</a> in <a href="/facts/Indonesia/vQnWU3IW">Indonesia</a>.

<h3>Blaan</h3>
<a href="/facts/Blaan_language/ojuhFVGv">Blaan</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38">38</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39">39</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40">40</a> has four voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, Instrument Voice, and Non-Actor Voice.
The non-Actor Voice affix selects for patient and location subjects, depending on the inherent voice of the verb.

<table><tbody><tr><td colspan="2">Agent Prefocus Base<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:41" href="#fn:41">41</a></td><td colspan="2">Patient Prefocus Base<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:42" href="#fn:42">42</a></td><td colspan="2">Instrument Prefocus Base<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:43" href="#fn:43">43</a></td></tr><tr><td>(1)</td><td>Actor Voice (intransitive)Stifunassembleale.3PL.DIRStifun ale.assemble 3PL.DIR"They assemble."</td><td>(1)</td><td>Actor VoiceM-batAV-throwagu1SG.DIRbula.ballM-bat agu bula.AV-throw 1SG.DIR ball"I throw the ball."</td><td>(1)</td><td>Actor VoiceK‹am›lang‹AV›cutagu1SG.DIRkayu.treeK‹am›lang agu kayu.‹AV›cut 1SG.DIR tree"I cut the tree."</td></tr><tr><td>(2)</td><td>Actor Voice (transitive)S‹am›tifun‹AV›assembleale3PL.DIRdadPLto.personS‹am›tifun ale dad to.‹AV›assemble 3PL.DIR PL person"They assemble the people."</td><td>(2)</td><td>Patient Voice (with patient subjectBat=guthrow=1SG.ERGbula.ballBat=gu bula.throw=1SG.ERG ball"I throw the ball"(or "The ball is thrown by me.")</td><td>(2)</td><td>Non-Actor Voice (with patient subject)K‹an›lang=gu‹NAV›cut=1SG.ERGkayu.treeK‹an›lang=gu kayu.‹NAV›cut=1SG.ERG tree"I cut the tree."(or "The tree is cut by me.")</td></tr><tr><td>(3)</td><td>Non-Actor Voice (with patient subject)S‹an›tifun=la‹NAV›assemble=3PL.ERGdadPLto.personS‹an›tifun=la dad to.‹NAV›assemble=3PL.ERG PL person"They assemble the people."(or "The people are assembled by them.")</td><td>(3)</td><td>Non-Actor Voice (with location subject)N-bat=guNAV-throw=1SG.ERGbulaballdiding.wallN-bat=gu bula diding.NAV-throw=1SG.ERG ball wall"I throw the ball at the wall."(or "The wall is thrown the ball at by me.")</td><td>(3)</td><td>Instrument VoiceKlang=gucut=1SG.ERGkayutreefalakol.hatchetKlang=gu kayu falakol.cut=1SG.ERG tree hatchet"I cut the tree with the hatchet."(or "The hatchet is cut the tree with by me.")</td></tr></tbody></table>
<h3>Cebuano</h3>
<a href="/facts/Cebuano_language/0vPDCHcX">Cebuano</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:44" href="#fn:44">44</a> has four voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, Circumstantial Voice, and Instrument Voice.
The circumstantial voice suffix selects for location, benefactee and goal subjects.
The direct case morpheme, which marks the subject in Cebuano, is ang or si.

(1)Actor VoiceMo-lutòAV-cooksiDIRMariaMariaugACCkalamáytype.of.dessertparaforkangOBLPedro.PedroMo-lutò si Maria ug kalamáy para kang Pedro.AV-cook DIR Maria ACC type.of.dessert for OBL Pedro"Maria will cook kalamáy for Pedro."

(2)Patient VoiceLuto-oncook-PVsaERGbabayewomanangDIRbugásricesaOBLlata.canLuto-on sa babaye ang bugás sa lata.cook-PV ERG woman DIR rice OBL can"The woman will cook the rice in the can."
(or "The rice will be cooked by the woman in the can.")

(3) a.Circumstantial Voice (with location subject)Luto-ancook-CVsaERGbabayewomanangDIRlatacanugACCbugás.riceLuto-an sa babaye ang lata ug bugás.cook-CV ERG woman DIR can ACC rice"The woman will cook rice in the can."
(or "The can will be cooked rice in by the woman.")

(3) b.Circumstantial Voice (with benefactee subject)Luto-ancook-CVniERGMariaMariasiDIRPedroPedrougACCkalamáy.type.of.dessertLuto-an ni Maria si Pedro ug kalamáy.cook-CV ERG Maria DIR Pedro ACC type.of.dessert"Maria will cook Pedro kalamáy."
(or "Pedro will be cooked kalamáy for by Maria.")

(3) c.Circumstantial Voice (with goal subject)Sulat-ánwrite-CVniERGIndayIndaysiDIRPerlaPerlaugACCsulat.letterSulat-án ni Inday si Perla ug sulat.write-CV ERG Inday DIR Perla ACC letter"Inday will write Perla a letter."
(or "Perla will be written a letter to by Inday.")

(4)Instrument VoiceI-sulátIV-writeniERGLindaLindaangDIRlapispencilugACCsulat.letterI-sulát ni Linda ang lapis ug sulat.IV-write ERG Linda DIR pencil ACC letter"Linda will write a letter with the pencil."
(or "The pencil will be written a letter with by Linda.")

<h3>Kalagan</h3>
<a href="/facts/Kalagan_language/UWQ9vovQ">Kalagan</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:45" href="#fn:45">45</a> has four voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, Instrument Voice, and Circumstantial Voice.
The circumstantial voice suffix selects for benefactee and location subjects.
The direct case morpheme, which marks the subject in Kalagan, is ya. The direct case form of the first person, singular pronoun is aku, whereas the ergative case form is ku.

(1)Actor VoiceK‹um›amang‹AV›getaku1SG.DIRsaOBLtubigwaternaPREPlatacankanforMa’DadadtionbalkonporchnaPREPlunis.MondayK‹um›amang aku sa tubig na lata kan Ma’ adti balkon na lunis.‹AV›get 1SG.DIR OBL water PREP can for Dad on porch PREP Monday"I will get the water with the can for Dad on the porch on Monday."

(2)Patient VoiceKamang-inget-PVku1SG.ERGyaDIRtubigwaternaPREPlatacankanforMa’DadadtionbalkonporchnaPREPlunis.MondayKamang-in ku ya tubig na lata kan Ma’ adti balkon na lunis.get-PV 1SG.ERG DIR water PREP can for Dad on porch PREP Monday"I will get the water with the can for Dad on the porch on Monday."
(or "The water will be gotten by me with the can for Dad on the porch on Monday.")

(3)Instrument VoicePag-kamangIV-getku1SG.ERGyaDIRlatacansaOBLtubigwaterkanforMa’DadadtionbalkonporchnaPREPlunis.MondayPag-kamang ku ya lata sa tubig kan Ma’ adti balkon na lunis.IV-get 1SG.ERG DIR can OBL water for Dad on porch PREP Monday"I will get the water with the can for Dad on the porch on Monday."
(or "The can will be gotten the water with by me for Dad on the porch on Monday.")

(4) a.Circumstantial Voice (with benefactee subject)Kamang-anget-CVku1SG.ERGyaDIRMa’DadsaOBLtubigwaternaPREPlatacanadtionbalkonporchnaPREPlunis.MondayKamang-an ku ya Ma’ sa tubig na lata adti balkon na lunis.get-CV 1SG.ERG DIR Dad OBL water PREP can on porch PREP Monday"I will get the water with the can for Dad on the porch on Monday."
(or "Dad will be gotten the water for by me with the can on the porch on Monday.")

(4) b.Circumstantial Voice (with location subject)Kamang-anget-CVku1SG.ERGyaDIRbalkonporchsaOBLtubigwaternaPREPlatacankanforMa’DadnaPREPlunis.MondayKamang-an ku ya balkon sa tubig na lata kan Ma’ na lunis.get-CV 1SG.ERG DIR porch OBL water PREP can for Dad PREP Monday"I will get the water with the can for Dad on the porch on Monday."
(or "The porch will be gotten the water from by me with the can for Dad on Monday.")

<h3>Kapampangan</h3>
<a href="/facts/Kapampangan_language/0PNrjUcS">Kapampangan</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:46" href="#fn:46">46</a> has five voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, Goal Voice, Locative Voice, and Circumstantial Voice.
The circumstantial voice prefix selects for instrument and benefactee subjects.
The direct case morpheme in Kapampangan is ing, which marks singular subjects, and reng, which is for plural subjects. Non-subject agents are marked with ergative case, ning, while non-subject patients are marked with accusative case, -ng, which is <a href="/facts/Clitic/4A00CTek">cliticized</a> onto the preceding word.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:47" href="#fn:47">47</a>

(1)Actor VoiceS‹um›ulat ‹AV›will.writeyangya=ng3SG.DIR=ACCpoesia poeming DIRlalaki boygamit OBLpen penking OBLpapil. paperS‹um›ulat yang poesia ing lalaki gamit pen king papil.{} ya=ng {} {} {} {} {} {} {}‹AV›will.write 3SG.DIR=ACC poem DIR boy OBL pen OBL paper"The boy will write a poem with a pen on the paper."

(2)Patient VoiceI-sulat PV-will.writenena+ya3SG.ERG+3SG.DIRning ERGlalaki boying DIRpoesia poemking OBLmestra. teacher.FI-sulat ne ning lalaki ing poesia king mestra.{} na+ya {} {} {} {} {} {}PV-will.write 3SG.ERG+3SG.DIR ERG boy DIR poem OBL teacher.F"The boy will write the poem to the teacher."
(or "The poem will be written by boy to the teacher.")

(3)Goal VoiceSulat-anan will.write-GVnena+ya3SG.ERG+3SG.DIRning ERGlalaki boying DIRmestro. teacher.MSulat-anan ne ning lalaki ing mestro.{} na+ya {} {} {} {}will.write-GV 3SG.ERG+3SG.DIR ERG boy DIR teacher.M"The boy will write to the teacher."
(or "The teacher will be written to by the boy.")

(4)Locative VoicePi-sulat-an LV-will.write-LVnengna+ya=ng3SG.ERG+3SG.DIR=ACCpoesia poemning ERGlalaki boying DIRblackboard. blackboardPi-sulat-an neng poesia ning lalaki ing blackboard.{} na+ya=ng {} {} {} {} {}LV-will.write-LV 3SG.ERG+3SG.DIR=ACC poem ERG boy DIR blackboard"The boy will write a poem on the blackboard."
(or "The blackboard will be written a poem on by the boy.")

(5) a.Circumstantial Voice (with instrument subject)PanyulatpaN-sulatCV-will.writenengna+ya=ng3SG.ERG+3SG.DIR=ACCpoesia poemning ERGlalaki boying DIRpen. penPanyulat neng poesia ning lalaki ing pen.paN-sulat na+ya=ng {} {} {} {} {}CV-will.write 3SG.ERG+3SG.DIR=ACC poem ERG boy DIR pen"The boy will write a poem with the pen."
(or "The pen will be written a poem with by the boy.")

(5) b.Circumstantial Voice (with benefactee subject)PamasapaN-basaCV-will.readnongna+la=ng3SG.ERG+3PL.DIR=ACClibru bookning ERGbabai womanreng PL.DIRanak. childPamasa nong libru ning babai reng anak.paN-basa na+la=ng {} {} {} {} {}CV-will.read 3SG.ERG+3PL.DIR=ACC book ERG woman PL.DIR child"The woman will read a book for the children."
(or "The children will be read a book for by the woman.")

<h3>Limos Kalinga</h3>
Limos <a href="/facts/Kalinga_language/dL3INWlA">Kalinga</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:48" href="#fn:48">48</a> has five voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, Locative Voice, Benefactive Voice and Instrument Voice.
Except for when the subject is the agent, the subject is found directly after the agent in the clause.

(1)Actor VoiceNandalusn-man-dalusASP-AV-washsi DIRMalia=t Malia=OBLdanat PLpalatu. plateNandalus si Malia=t danat palatu.n-man-dalus {} {} {} {}ASP-AV-wash DIR Malia=OBL PL plate"Malia washed some plates."

(2)Patient Voice<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:49" href="#fn:49">49</a>Binayumb‹in›ayu-∅=m‹ASP›pound-PV=2SG.ERGdin DIRpagoy. riceBinayum din pagoy.b‹in›ayu-∅=m {} {}‹ASP›pound-PV=2SG.ERG DIR rice"You pounded the rice."
(or "The rice was pounded by you.")

(3)Locative VoiceD‹in›alus-an‹ASP›wash-LVudERGMaliaMaliadanatDIR.PLpalatu.plateD‹in›alus-an ud Malia danat palatu.‹ASP›wash-LV ERG Malia DIR.PL plate"Malia washed the plates."
(or "The plates were washed by Malia.")

(4)Benefactive VoiceI-n-dalus-anBV-ASP-wash-BVudERGMaliaMaliasiDIRina=na=tmother=3SG.GEN=OBLnatSGpalatu.plateI-n-dalus-an ud Malia si ina=na=t nat palatu.BV-ASP-wash-BV ERG Malia DIR mother=3SG.GEN=OBL SG plate"Malia washed a plate for her mother."
(or "Heri mother was washed a plate for by Maliai.")

(5)Instrument VoiceI-n-dalusIV-ASP-washudERGMaliaMalianatDIRsabunsoapsinatOBL.SGpalatu.plateI-n-dalus ud Malia nat sabun sinat palatu.IV-ASP-wash ERG Malia DIR soap OBL.SG plate"Malia washed a plate with the soap."
(or "The soap was washed a plate with by Malia.")

<h3>Maranao</h3>
<a href="/facts/Maranao_language/cVqaHgvr">Maranao</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:50" href="#fn:50">50</a> has four voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, Circumstantial Voice, and Instrument Voice.
The circumstantial suffix selects for benefactee and location subjects.
The direct case morpheme, which marks the subject in Maranao, is so.

(1)Actor VoiceS‹om›ombali’‹AV›butchersoDIRmama’mansaOBLkarabaowater.buffalokoPREPmaior.mayorS‹om›ombali’ so mama’ sa karabao ko maior.‹AV›butcher DIR man OBL water.buffalo PREP mayor"The man will butcher water buffalo for the mayor."

(2)Patient VoiceSombali’-inbutcher-PVoERGmama’mansoDIRkarabao.water.buffaloSombali’-in o mama’ so karabao.butcher-PV ERG man DIR water.buffalo"The man will butcher the water buffalo."
(or "The water buffalo will be butchered by the man.")

(3) a.Circumstantial Voice (with benefactee subject)Sombali’-anbutcher-CVoERGmama’mansoDIRmaiormayorsaOBLkarabao.water.buffaloSombali’-an o mama’ so maior sa karabao.butcher-CV ERG man DIR mayor OBL water.buffalo"The man will butcher water buffalo for the mayor."
(or "The mayor will be butchered water buffalo for by the man.")

(3) b.Circumstantial Voice (with location subject)Koaq-anget-CVoERGmama’mansaOBLbolongmedicinesoDIRtinda.storeKoaq-an o mama’ sa bolong so tinda.get-CV ERG man OBL medicine DIR store"The man will get the medicine at/from the store."
(or "The store will be gotten medicine at/from by the man.")

(4)Instrument VoiceI-sombali’butcher-IVoERGmama’mansoDIRgelatknifekoPREPkarabao.water.buffaloI-sombali’ o mama’ so gelat ko karabao.butcher-IV ERG man DIR knife PREP water.buffalo"The man will butcher the water buffalo with the knife."
(or "The knife will be butchered the water buffalo with by the man.")

<h3>Palawan</h3>
<a href="/facts/Palawano_language/KPTUd9xr">Palawan</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:51" href="#fn:51">51</a> has four voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, Instrument Voice, and Circumstantial Voice.
The circumstantial voice suffix selects for benefactee and location subjects.

(1)Actor Voice‹Mog›lamuʔ‹ASP.AV›cooklibunwomaninthat.DIRotINDlugowcongeekotformosakitsick personsotonapuy.fire‹Mog›lamuʔ libun in ot lugow kot mosakit sot apuy.‹ASP.AV›cook woman that.DIR IND congee for {sick person} on fire"The woman will cook congee on the fire for the sick person."

(2)Patient VoiceLa~lamuʔ-onASP~cook-PVotINDlibunwomanlugowcongeeinthat.DIRkotformosakitsick personsotonapuy.fireLa~lamuʔ-on ot libun lugow in kot mosakit sot apuy.ASP~cook-PV IND woman congee that.DIR for {sick person} on fire"The woman will cook the congee on the fire for the sick person."
(or "The congee will be cooked on the fire for the sick person by the woman.")

(3)Instrument VoiceI-la~lamuʔIV-ASP~cookotINDlibunwomanlugowcongeekotformosakitsick personapuyfirein.that.DIRI-la~lamuʔ ot libun lugow kot mosakit apuy in.IV-ASP~cook IND woman congee for {sick person} fire that.DIR"The woman will cook congee with the fire for the sick person."
(or "The fire will be cooked congee with for the sick person by the woman.")

(4) a.Circumstantial Voice (with benefactee subject)La~lamuʔ-anASP~cook-CVotINDlibunwomanotINDlugowcongeesotonapuyfiremosakitsick personin.that.DIRLa~lamuʔ-an ot libun ot lugow sot apuy mosakit in.ASP~cook-CV IND woman IND congee on fire {sick person} that.DIR"The woman will cook congee on the fire for the sick person."
(or "The sick person will be cooked congee for on the fire by the woman.")

(4) b.Circumstantial Voice (with location subject)La~lamuʔ-anASP~cook-CVotINDlibunwomanotINDlugowcongeekotformosakitsick personapuyfirein.that.DIRLa~lamuʔ-an ot libun ot lugow kot mosakit apuy in.ASP~cook-CV IND woman IND congee for {sick person} fire that.DIR"The woman will cook congee on the fire for the sick person."
(or "The fire will be cooked congee on for the sick person by the woman.")

<h3>Subanen</h3>
<a href="/facts/Subanen_languages/cGw8HnkT">Subanen</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:52" href="#fn:52">52</a> has three voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, and Circumstantial Voice. 
The examples below are from Western Subanon, and the direct case morpheme in this language is og.

(1)Actor VoiceS‹um›aluy‹ASP.AV›buyogDIRpolopanadteachernogINDkolatas.paperS‹um›aluy og polopanad nog kolatas.‹ASP.AV›buy DIR teacher IND paper"A teacher will buy some paper."
 
(2)Patient VoiceSoluy-onbuy-ASP.PVnogINDpolopanadteacherogDIRkolatas.paperSoluy-on nog polopanad og kolatas.buy-ASP.PV IND teacher DIR paper"A teacher will buy some paper."
(or "Some paper will be bought by a teacher.")
 
(3)Circumstantial VoiceSoluy-anbuy-ASP.CVnogINDpolopanadteacherogDIRbata′childnogINDkolatas.paperSoluy-an nog polopanad og bata′ nog kolatas.buy-ASP.CV IND teacher DIR child IND paper"A teacher will buy some paper for a child."
(or "A child will be bought some paper for by a teacher.")

<h3>Tagalog</h3>
<a href="/facts/Tagalog_language/G8UARRIl">Tagalog</a> has six voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, Locative Voice, Benefactive Voice, Instrument Voice, and Reason Voice.
The locative voice suffix selects for location and goal subjects. (In the examples below, the goal subject and the benefactee subject are the same noun phrase.)
The reason voice prefix can only be affixed to certain roots, the majority of which are for emotion verbs (e.g., galit "be angry", sindak "be shocked"). However, verb roots such as matay "die", sakit "get sick", and iyak "cry" may also be marked with the reason voice prefix.
The direct case morpheme, which marks subjects in Tagalog, is ang. The indirect case morpheme, ng /naŋ/, which is the conflation of the ergative and accusative cases seen in Proto-Malayo-Polynesian, marks non-subject agents and non-subject patients.

(1)Actor VoiceB‹um›ili‹ASP.AV›buyngINDmanggamangosaOBLpalengkemarketparaforsaOBLalewomansaOBLpamamagitanmeansngINDperamoneyangDIRmama.manB‹um›ili ng mangga sa palengke para sa ale sa pamamagitan ng pera ang mama.‹ASP.AV›buy IND mango OBL market for OBL woman OBL means IND money DIR man"The man bought a mango at the market for the woman by means of money."
 
(2)Patient Voice<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:53" href="#fn:53">53</a>B‹in›ili-∅‹ASP›buy-PVngINDmamamansaOBLpalengkemarketparaforsaOBLalewomansaOBLpamamagitanmeansngINDperamoneyangDIRmangga.mangoB‹in›ili-∅ ng mama sa palengke para sa ale sa pamamagitan ng pera ang mangga.‹ASP›buy-PV IND man OBL market for OBL woman OBL means IND money DIR mango"The man bought the mango at the market for the woman by means of money."
(or "The mango was bought by the man at the market for the woman by means of money.")

(3) a.Locative Voice (with location subject)B‹in›ilh-an‹ASP›buy-LVngINDmamamanngINDmanggamangoparaforsaOBLalewomansaOBLpamamagitanmeansngINDperamoneyangDIRpalengke.marketB‹in›ilh-an ng mama ng mangga para sa ale sa pamamagitan ng pera ang palengke.‹ASP›buy-LV IND man IND mango for OBL woman OBL means IND money DIR market"The man bought a mango at the market for the woman by means of money."
(or "At the market was bought a mango by the man for the woman by means of money.")

(3) b.Locative Voice (with goal subject)B‹in›ilh-an‹ASP›buy-LVngINDmamamanngINDmanggamangosaOBLpalengkemarketsaOBLpamamagitanmeansngINDperamoneyangDIRale.womanB‹in›ilh-an ng mama ng mangga sa palengke sa pamamagitan ng pera ang ale.‹ASP›buy-LV IND man IND mango OBL market OBL means IND money DIR woman"The man bought a mango at the market for the woman by means of money."
(or "The woman was bought a mango for by the man at the market by means of money.")

(4)Benefactive VoiceI-b‹in›iliBV-‹ASP›buyngINDmamamanngINDmanggamangosaOBLpalengkemarketsaOBLpamamagitanmeansngINDperamoneyangDIRale.womanI-b‹in›ili ng mama ng mangga sa palengke sa pamamagitan ng pera ang ale.BV-‹ASP›buy IND man IND mango OBL market OBL means IND money DIR woman"The man bought a mango at the market for the woman by means of money."
(or "The woman was bought a mango for by the man at the market by means of money.")

(5)Instrument VoiceIpinambiliIp‹in›aN-bili‹ASP›IV-buyng INDmama manng INDmangga mangosa OBLpalengke marketpara forsa OBLale womanang DIRpera. moneyIpinambili ng mama ng mangga sa palengke para sa ale ang pera.Ip‹in›aN-bili {} {} {} {} {} {} {} {} {} {} {}‹ASP›IV-buy IND man IND mango OBL market for OBL woman DIR money"The man bought a mango at the market for the woman by means of money."
(or "The money was bought a mango with by the man at the market for the woman.")

(6) a.Reason Voice<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:54" href="#fn:54">54</a>Ik‹in›a-iyak‹ASP›RV-cryngINDbatachildangDIRpag-kagatNMLZ-bitesaOBLkaniya3SG.OBLngINDlanggam.antIk‹in›a-iyak ng bata ang pag-kagat sa kaniya ng langgam.‹ASP›RV-cry IND child DIR NMLZ-bite OBL 3SG.OBL IND ant"The child cried because an/the ant bit him."
(or "An/the ant's biting of him was cried about by the child.")

(6) b.Actor Voice‹Um›iyak‹ASP.AV›cryangDIRbatachilddahilbecausek‹in›agat-∅‹ASP›bite-PVsiya3SG.DIRngINDlanggam.ant‹Um›iyak ang bata dahil k‹in›agat-∅ siya ng langgam.‹ASP.AV›cry DIR child because ‹ASP›bite-PV 3SG.DIR IND ant"The child cried because an/the ant bit him."
(or "The child cried because he was bitten by an/the ant.")

<h3>Tondano</h3>
<a href="/facts/Tondano_language/NSTzGlMx">Tondano</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:55" href="#fn:55">55</a> has four voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, Locative Voice, and Circumstantial Voice.
The circumstantial Voice selects for instrument, benefactee, and theme subjects.
The subject is found in sentence-initial position, before the verb.

(1)Actor VoiceSiAN.SGtuamamank‹um›eoŋ‹AV›will.pullrodacartwowithn-taliINAN-ropewakitopasar.marketSi tuama k‹um›eoŋ roda wo n-tali waki pasar.AN.SG man ‹AV›will.pull cart with INAN-rope to market"The man will pull the cart with the rope to the market."

(2)Patient VoiceRodacartkeoŋ-ənwill.pull-PVniERG.AN.SGtuamamanwowithn-taliINAN-ropewakitopasar.marketRoda keoŋ-ən ni tuama wo n-tali waki pasar.cart will.pull-PV ERG.AN.SG man with INAN-rope to market"The man will pull the cart with the rope to the market."
(or "The cart will be pulled with rope to the market by the man.")

(3)Locative VoicePasarmarketkeoŋ-anwill.pull-LVniERG.AN.SGtuamamanrodacartwowithn-tali.INAN-ropePasar keoŋ-an ni tuama roda wo n-tali.market will.pull-LV ERG.AN.SG man cart with INAN-rope"The man will pull the cart with the rope to the market."
(or "The market will be pulled the cart to with the rope by the man.")

(4) a.Circumstantial Voice (with instrument subject)Taliropei-keoŋCV-will.pullniERG.AN.SGtuamamanrodacartwakitopasar.marketTali i-keoŋ ni tuama roda waki pasar.rope CV-will.pull ERG.AN.SG man cart to market"The man will pull the cart with the rope to the market."
(or "The rope will be pulled the cart with to the market by the man.")

(4) b.Circumstantial Voice (with benefactee subject)SeAN.PLokiʔchildi-lutuʔCV-will.cookniERG.AN.SGmamamotherseraʔfishSe okiʔ i-lutuʔ ni mama seraʔAN.PL child CV-will.cook ERG.AN.SG mother fish"Mother will cook fish for the children."
(or "The children will be cooked fish for by mother.")

(4) c.Circumstantial Voice (with theme subject)Ləloŋkotanladderi-wareŋCV-will.returnniERG.AN.SGtuamamanwakitowale.houseLəloŋkotan i-wareŋ ni tuama waki wale.ladder CV-will.return ERG.AN.SG man to house"The man will return the ladder to the house."
(or "The ladder will be returned by the man to the house.")

<h2 id="north-bornean-examples">North Bornean examples</h2>
The data below come from North Bornean languages, a grouping under <a href="/facts/Malayo-Polynesian_languages/1R1xJmjW">Malayo-Polynesian</a>, mainly spoken on the northern parts of <a href="/facts/Borneo/1aIGfyvV">Borneo</a>, spanning administrative areas of <a href="/facts/Malaysia/8zbUMzCP">Malaysia</a> and <a href="/facts/Indonesia/vQnWU3IW">Indonesia</a>.

<h3>Bonggi</h3>
<a href="/facts/Bonggi_language/m5p0pVVh">Bonggi</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:56" href="#fn:56">56</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:57" href="#fn:57">57</a> has four voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, Instrumental Voice, and Circumstantial Voice.
The circumstantial voice suffix selects for benefactee and goal subjects.
The subject is found in sentence-initial position, before the verb.

(1)Actor VoiceSia 3SG.DIRimagiin-N-bagiRL-AV-dividelouk fishnyu. 2PL.GENSia imagi louk nyu.{} in-N-bagi {} {}3SG.DIR RL-AV-divide fish 2PL.GEN"He divided your fish."

(2)Patient Voice<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:58" href="#fn:58">58</a>Louk fishnyu 2PL.GENbiagib‹in›agi-∅‹RL›divide-PVnya. 3SG.ERGLouk nyu biagi nya.{} {} b‹in›agi-∅ {}fish 2PL.GEN ‹RL›divide-PV 3SG.ERG"He divided your fish." (or "Your fish was divided by him.")

(3)Instrument VoiceBadiʔ macheteku 1SG.GENpimagip‹in›əN-bagi‹RL›IV-dividenya 3SG.ERGlouk fishnyu. 2PL.GENBadiʔ ku pimagi nya louk nyu.{} {} p‹in›əN-bagi {} {} {}machete 1SG.GEN ‹RL›IV-divide 3SG.ERG fish 2PL.GEN"He divided your fish with my machete." (or "My machete was divided your fish with by him.")

(4) a.Circumstantial Voice (with benefactee subject)Ou 1SG.DIRbigiadnb‹in›agi-adn‹RL›divide-CVnya 3SG.ERGlouk fishnyu. 2PL.GENOu bigiadn nya louk nyu.{} b‹in›agi-adn {} {} {}1SG.DIR ‹RL›divide-CV 3SG.ERG fish 2PL.GEN"He divided your fish for me." (or "I was divided your fish for by him.")

(4) b.Circumstantial Voice (with goal subject)Ou 1SG.DIRbiniriadnb‹in›ori-adn‹RL›give-CVnya 3SG.ERGsiidn. moneyOu biniriadn nya siidn.{} b‹in›ori-adn {} {}1SG.DIR ‹RL›give-CV 3SG.ERG money"He gave money to me." (or "I was given money to by him.")

<h3>Kadazan Dusun</h3>
<a href="/facts/Kadazan_Dusun_language/47635x1N">Kadazan Dusun</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:59" href="#fn:59">59</a> has three voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice and Benefactive Voice.
The direct case morpheme, which marks the subject in Kadazan Dusun, is i.

(1)Actor VoiceMog-ovitAV-bringiDIRama’fatherdiINDtanakchilddoACCbuuk.bookMog-ovit i ama’ di tanak do buuk.AV-bring DIR father IND child ACC book"Father is bringing the child a book."

(2)Patient VoiceOvit-onbring-PVdiINDama’fatherdiINDtanakchildiDIRbuuk.bookOvit-on di ama’ di tanak i buuk.bring-PV IND father IND child DIR book"Father is bringing the child the book." (or "The book is being brought to the child by Father.")

(3)Benefactive VoiceOvit-anbring-BVdiINDama’fatheriDIRtanakchilddoACCbuuk.bookOvit-an di ama’ i tanak do buuk.bring-BV IND father DIR child ACC book"Father is bringing the child a book." (or "The child is being brought a book to by Father.")

<h3>Kelabit</h3>
<a href="/facts/Kelabit_language/QkwlBCVa">Kelabit</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:60" href="#fn:60">60</a> has three voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice and Instrument Voice.
Unlike other languages presented here, Kelabit does not use case-marking or word-ordering strategies to indicate the subject of the clause.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:61" href="#fn:61">61</a> However, certain syntactic processes, such as <a href="/facts/Relative_clause/zFSPHLwE">relativization</a>, target the subject. Relativizing non-subjects results in ungrammatical sentences.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:62" href="#fn:62">62</a>

(1)Actor VoiceLa’ih mansineh thatnenekulin-N-tekulASP-AV-spoon.upnubaq ricenedih 3SG.GENngen withseduk. spoonLa’ih sineh nenekul nubaq nedih ngen seduk.{} {} in-N-tekul {} {} {} {}man that ASP-AV-spoon.up rice 3SG.GEN with spoon"That man spooned his rice up with a spoon."

(2)Patient Voice<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:63" href="#fn:63">63</a>Sikult‹in›ekul-∅‹ASP›spoon.up-PVla’ih mansineh thatnubaq ricenedih 3SG.GENngen withseduk. spoon.Sikul la’ih sineh nubaq nedih ngen seduk.t‹in›ekul-∅ {} {} {} {} {} {}‹ASP›spoon.up-PV man that rice 3SG.GEN with spoon."That man spooned his rice up with a spoon." (or "Hisi rice was spooned up with a spoon by that mani.")

(3)Instrument VoiceSeduk spoonpenenekulp‹in›eN-tekul‹ASP›IV-spoon.upla’ih mansineh thatnubaq ricenedih. 3SG.GENSeduk penenekul la’ih sineh nubaq nedih.{} p‹in›eN-tekul {} {} {} {}spoon ‹ASP›IV-spoon.up man that rice 3SG.GEN"That man spooned his rice up with a spoon." (or "A spoon was spooned hisi rice up with by that mani.")

<h3>Kimaragang</h3>
<a href="/facts/Momogun_language/3KD0Wryt">Kimaragang</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:64" href="#fn:64">64</a> has five voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, Benefactive Voice, Instrument Voice and Locative Voice.
Only intransitive verbs can be marked with the locative voice suffix,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:65" href="#fn:65">65</a> which looks similar to the patient voice suffix.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:66" href="#fn:66">66</a>
The direct case marker, which marks the subject in Kimaragang, is it for definite nouns and ot for indefinite nouns.

(1)Actor VoiceMangalapakm-poN-lapakAV-TR-splitoku 1SG.DIRdo IND.INDFniyuw. coconutMangalapak oku do niyuw.m-poN-lapak {} {} {}AV-TR-split 1SG.DIR IND.INDF coconut"I will split a coconut/some coconuts."

(2)Patient VoiceLapak-onsplit-PVku1SG.INDitDIR.DEFniyuw.coconutLapak-on ku it niyuw.split-PV 1SG.IND DIR.DEF coconut"I will split the coconuts." (or "The coconuts will be split by me.")

(3)Benefactive VoiceLapak-ansplit-BVku1SG.INDdoIND.INDFniyuwcoconutitDIR.DEFwogok.pigLapak-an ku do niyuw it wogok.split-BV 1SG.IND IND.INDF coconut DIR.DEF pig"I will split some coconuts for the pigs." (or "The pigs will be split some coconuts for by me.")

(4)Instrument Voice<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:67" href="#fn:67">67</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:68" href="#fn:68">68</a>Tongo whatot DIR.INDFpangalapak∅-poN-lapakIT-TR-splitnu 2SG.INDdilo’ that.INDniyuw coconut______? DIRTongo ot pangalapak nu dilo’ niyuw ______?{} {} ∅-poN-lapak {} {} {} {}what DIR.INDF IT-TR-split 2SG.IND that.IND coconut DIR"What will you split those coconuts with?" (or "The thing that will be split those coconuts with by you is what?")

(5)Locative Voice<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:69" href="#fn:69">69</a>SiombowhereotDIR.INDFogom-onsit-LVku1SG.IND_____?DIRSiombo ot ogom-on ku _____?where DIR.INDF sit-LV 1SG.IND DIR"Where shall I sit?" (or "The thing that will be sat upon by me is where?")

<h3>Timugon Murut</h3>
<a href="/facts/Timugon_language/voSWyH3w">Timugon Murut</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:70" href="#fn:70">70</a> has five voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, Benefactive Voice, Instrument Voice, and Circumstantial Voice.
There is no direct case marker to mark subjects in Timugon Murut. However, non-subject agents are marked with the ergative case marker, du, while non-subject non-agents are marked with the oblique case marker, da.

(1)Actor VoiceMambalim-paN-baliAV-¿?-buydŭanduʔ=ti woman=DETda=konoon OBL=clothesda=dalaiŋ=no OBL=child=DETda=sŭab=no OBL=morning=DETda=duit=na-no. OBL=money=3SG.GEN-DETMambali dŭanduʔ=ti da=konoon da=dalaiŋ=no da=sŭab=no da=duit=na-no.m-paN-bali {} {} {} {} {}AV-¿?-buy woman=DET OBL=clothes OBL=child=DET OBL=morning=DET OBL=money=3SG.GEN-DET"The woman will buy clothes for the child in the morning with her money."

(2)Patient VoiceBali-onbuy-PVkonoonclothesdu=dŭanduʔ=tiERG=woman=DETda=dalaiŋ=noOBL=child=DETda=sŭab=noOBL=morning=DETda=duit=na-no.OBL=money=3SG.GEN-DETBali-on konoon du=dŭanduʔ=ti da=dalaiŋ=no da=sŭab=no da=duit=na-no.buy-PV clothes ERG=woman=DET OBL=child=DET OBL=morning=DET OBL=money=3SG.GEN-DET"The woman will buy clothes for the child in the morning with her money." (or "Clothes will be bought for the child in the morning by the woman with her money.")

(3)Benefactive VoiceBali-inbuy-BVdalaiŋ=nochild=DETda=konoonOBL=clothesdu=dŭanduʔ=tiERG=woman=DETda=sŭab=noOBL=morning=DETda=duit=na-no.OBL=money=3SG.GEN-DETBali-in dalaiŋ=no da=konoon du=dŭanduʔ=ti da=sŭab=no da=duit=na-no.buy-BV child=DET OBL=clothes ERG=woman=DET OBL=morning=DET OBL=money=3SG.GEN-DET"The woman will buy clothes for the child in the morning with her money." (or "The child will be bought clothes for in the morning by the woman with her money.")

(4)Instrument VoiceDuit=na-no money=3SG.GEN-DETpambabalipaN-CV~bali¿?-IV~buydu=dŭanduʔ=ti ERG=woman=DETda=konoon OBL=clothesda=dalaiŋ=no OBL=child=DETda=sŭab=no. OBL=morning=DETDuit=na-no pambabali du=dŭanduʔ=ti da=konoon da=dalaiŋ=no da=sŭab=no.{} paN-CV~bali {} {} {} {}money=3SG.GEN-DET ¿?-IV~buy ERG=woman=DET OBL=clothes OBL=child=DET OBL=morning=DET"The woman will buy clothes for the child in the morning with her money." (or "Heri money will be bought clothes with for the child in the morning by the womani.")

(5)Circumstantial VoiceSŭab=na morning=DETpambalianpaN-bali-an¿?-buy-CVdu=dŭanduʔ=ti ERG=woman=DETda=konoon OBL=clothesda=dalaiŋ=no OBL=child=DETda=duit=na-no. OBL=money=3SG.GEN-DETSŭab=na pambalian du=dŭanduʔ=ti da=konoon da=dalaiŋ=no da=duit=na-no.{} paN-bali-an {} {} {} {}morning=DET ¿?-buy-CV ERG=woman=DET OBL=clothes OBL=child=DET OBL=money=3SG.GEN-DET"The woman will buy clothes for the child in the morning with her money." (or "The morning will be bought clothes in for the child by the woman with her money.")

<h2 id="malayic-examples">Malayic examples</h2>
The data below come from <a href="/facts/Malayic_languages/7rWz6m8k">Malayic languages</a>, a subgroup under <a href="/facts/Malayo-Polynesian_languages/1R1xJmjW">Malayo-Polynesian</a>, mainly spoken on parts of <a href="/facts/Sumatra/Fo192kJb">Sumatra</a>, the <a href="/facts/Malay_Peninsula/BrBger2u">Malay Peninsula</a>, <a href="/facts/Borneo/1aIGfyvV">Borneo</a>, and the islands between.

<h3>Besemah</h3>
Besemah (a dialect of <a href="/facts/South_Barisan_Malay/cQRP34wg">South Barisan Malay</a> spoken in southwestern Sumatra)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:71" href="#fn:71">71</a> has two voices: Agentive Voice and Patientive Voice.

(1)Agentive VoiceJeme peoplengambikng-ambikAV-takesidu spoongale. allJeme ngambik sidu gale.{} ng-ambik {} {}people AV-take spoon all"All people took the spoons."

(2)Patientive VoiceSidu spoondiambikdi-ambikPV-takejeme peoplegale. allSidu diambik jeme gale.{} di-ambik {} {}spoon PV-take people all"The people took all the spoons."

<h3>Indonesian</h3>
<a href="/facts/Indonesian_language/J8Q78Ywb">Indonesian</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:72" href="#fn:72">72</a> has two voices: Actor Voice and Undergoer Voice.

(1)Actor VoiceAnak childsaya 1SGmelihatme-lihatAV-seeorang personitu. DISTAnak saya melihat orang itu.{} {} me-lihat {} {}child 1SG AV-see person DIST"My child saw that person."

(1)Undergoer VoiceOrang personitu DISTdilihatdi-lihatPV-seeanak childsaya. 1SGOrang itu dilihat anak saya.{} {} di-lihat {} {}person DIST PV-see child 1SG"My child saw that person." (or "That person was seen (by) my child.")

<h2 id="barito-examples">Barito examples</h2>
The data below represent the <a href="/facts/Barito_languages/va9qtwsb">Barito languages</a>, and are from a language spoken on <a href="/facts/Madagascar/ez12IAcY">Madagascar</a>, off the east coast of <a href="/facts/Africa/XkqQUP9s">Africa</a>. Other languages from Barito are spoken in <a href="/facts/Indonesia/vQnWU3IW">Indonesia</a> and the <a href="/facts/Philippines/ARpmxXQV">Philippines</a>.

<h3>Malagasy</h3>
<a href="/facts/Malagasy_language/KefIavD1">Malagasy</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:73" href="#fn:73">73</a> has three voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, and Circumstantial Voice.
The circumstantial voice suffix selects for instrument and benefactee subjects.
Malagasy does not have a direct case marker. However, the subject is found in sentence-final position.

(1)Actor VoiceMamonom-aN-vonoAV-TR-killakoho chickenamin'ny with'DETantsy knifeny DETmpiompy. farmerMamono akoho amin'ny antsy ny mpiompy.m-aN-vono {} {} {} {} {}AV-TR-kill chicken with'DET knife DET farmer"The farmer kills chickens with the knife."

(2)Patient VoiceVonoin'nyvono-ina'nykill-PV'DETmpiompy farmeramin'ny with'DETantsy knifeny DETakoho. chickenVonoin'ny mpiompy amin'ny antsy ny akoho.vono-ina'ny {} {} {} {} {}kill-PV'DET farmer with'DET knife DET chicken"The farmer kills the chickens with the knife." (or "The chickens are killed with the knife by the farmer.")

(3) a.Circumstantial Voice (with instrument subject)Amonoan'nyaN-vono-ana'nyTR-kill-CV'DETmpiompy farmerakoho chickenny DETantsy. knifeAmonoan'ny mpiompy akoho ny antsy.aN-vono-ana'ny {} {} {} {}TR-kill-CV'DET farmer chicken DET knife"The farmer kills chickens with the knife." (or "The knife is killed chickens with by the farmer.")

(3) b.Circumstantial Voice (with benefactee subject)Amonoan'nyaN-vono-ana'nyTR-kill-CV'DETmpiompy farmerakoho chickenny DETvahiny. guestAmonoan'ny mpiompy akoho ny vahiny.aN-vono-ana'ny {} {} {} {}TR-kill-CV'DET farmer chicken DET guest"The farmer kills chickens for the guests." (or "The guests are killed chickens for by the farmer.")

<h2 id="non-austronesian-examples">Non-Austronesian examples</h2>
Alignment types resembling symmetrical voice have been observed in non-Austronesian languages.

<h3>Nilotic</h3>
The <a href="/facts/Nilotic_languages/EcGXuWtF">Nilotic languages</a> are a group of languages spoken in the eastern part of <a href="/facts/Sub-Saharan_Africa/p4u389aa">Sub-Saharan Africa</a>.

<h4>Dinka</h4>
<a href="/facts/Dinka_language/V6UdIToX">Dinka</a> is a <a href="/facts/Dialect_continuum/0QAuqxp3">dialect continuum</a> spoken in <a href="/facts/South_Sudan/DacJpKfT">South Sudan</a>. The two dialects presented below each have a maximum of three voices. 

<h5>Agar</h5>
Andersen (1991) suggests that Agar exhibits symmetrical voice. This language has a maximum of three voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, and Circumstantial Voice. The subject is found in sentence-initial position, before the verb. The non-finite form of the verb found in the examples<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:74" href="#fn:74">74</a> below is yḛ̂ep "cut".

(1)Actor Voiceô̰ok1PLá̰a-y‹ḛ̀›pD.PL-‹AV›cuttḭ̀imtreenè̤PREPyê̤ep.axeô̰ok á̰a-y‹ḛ̀›p tḭ̀im nè̤ yê̤ep.1PL D.PL-‹AV›cut tree PREP axe"We are cutting the tree with the axe."

(2)Patient Voicetḭ̀imtreeà̰-y‹ḛ́›p-kṳ̀D-‹PV›cut-1PLnè̤PREPyê̤ep.axetḭ̀im à̰-y‹ḛ́›p-kṳ̀ nè̤ yê̤ep.tree D-‹PV›cut-1PL PREP axe"We are cutting the tree with the axe." (or "The tree is being cut by us with the axe.")

(3)Circumstantial Voiceyê̤epaxeà̰-y‹ḛ́e›pD-‹CV›cutó̰ok1PL.GENtḭ̀im.treeyê̤ep à̰-y‹ḛ́e›p ó̰ok tḭ̀im.axe D-‹CV›cut 1PL.GEN tree"We are cutting the tree with the axe." (or "The axe is being cut the tree with by us.")

However, the number of voice morphemes available in this language is reduced to two when the agent is a full <a href="/facts/Noun/SsnDNfkX">noun</a> (i.e., not a <a href="/facts/Pronoun/UsbSNRSl">pronoun</a>), such as in the examples<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:75" href="#fn:75">75</a> below. In (5a), where the subject is a patient, and the agent is not a pronoun, the verb is marked with Circumstantial Voice. Compare to (2) above, in which the agent is pronominal, and the verb is marked with patient voice morpheme, ḛ́.

(4)Actor Voicedhɔ̤̀ɔkboyà̰-y‹ḛ̀›pD-‹AV›cuttḭ̀imtreenè̤PREPyê̤ep.axedhɔ̤̀ɔk à̰-y‹ḛ̀›p tḭ̀im nè̤ yê̤ep.boy D-‹AV›cut tree PREP axe"The boy is cutting the tree with the axe."

(5) a.Circumstantial Voice (with patient subject)tḭ̀imtreeà̰-y‹ḛ́e›pD-‹CV›cutdhɔ̤̀ɔkboynè̤PREPyê̤ep.axetḭ̀im à̰-y‹ḛ́e›p dhɔ̤̀ɔk nè̤ yê̤ep.tree D-‹CV›cut boy PREP axe"The boy is cutting the tree with the axe." (or "The tree is being cut by the boy with the axe.")

(5) b.Circumstantial Voice (with instrument subject)yê̤epaxeà̰-y‹ḛ́e›pD-‹CV›cutdhɔ̤̀ɔkboytḭ̀im.treeyê̤ep à̰-y‹ḛ́e›p dhɔ̤̀ɔk tḭ̀im.axe D-‹CV›cut boy tree"The boy is cutting the tree with the axe." (or "The axe is being cut the tree with by the boy.")

<h5>Bor</h5>
Van Urk (2015) suggests that Bor exhibits symmetrical voice. This language has three voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, and Circumstantial Voice.
The subject is found in sentence-initial position, before the verb. The non-finite form of the verb found in the examples<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:76" href="#fn:76">76</a> below is câam "eat".

(1)Actor VoiceÀyénAyenà-c‹à›m3SG-‹AV›eatcuî̤infoodnè̤PREPpǎal.knifeÀyén à-c‹à›m cuî̤in nè̤ pǎal.Ayen 3SG-‹AV›eat food PREP knife"Ayen is eating food with a knife."

(2)Patient VoiceCuî̤infoodà-c‹ɛ́ɛ›m3SG-‹PV›eatÁyènAyen.ERGnè̤PREPpǎal.knifeCuî̤in à-c‹ɛ́ɛ›m Áyèn nè̤ pǎal.food 3SG-‹PV›eat Ayen.ERG PREP knife"Ayen is eating food with a knife." (or "Food is being eaten by Ayen with a knife.")

(3)Circumstantial Voice<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:77" href="#fn:77">77</a>Pǎalknifeà-c‹ɛ́ɛ›m-è̤3SG-‹PV›eat-CVÁyènAyen.ERGcuî̤in.foodPǎal à-c‹ɛ́ɛ›m-è̤ Áyèn cuî̤in.knife 3SG-‹PV›eat-CV Ayen.ERG food"Ayen is eating food with a knife." (or "The knife is being eaten food with by Ayen.")

<h4>Kurmuk</h4>
Andersen (2015) suggests that <a href="/facts/Burun_languages/qDp83opV">Kurmuk</a>, which is spoken in <a href="/facts/Sudan/yGeaNdvS">Sudan</a>, has a construction that resembles symmetrical voice. This language has three voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, and Circumstantial Voice.
The subject in the examples<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:78" href="#fn:78">78</a> below is found in sentence-initial position, before the verb.

(1)Actor Voicet̪áarákpersonꜜbóor-ú-∅skin-PST-AVdɛ̀ɛlgoatkʌ̀PREPŋɪ̀ɪr.knifet̪áarák ꜜbóor-ú-∅ dɛ̀ɛl kʌ̀ ŋɪ̀ɪr.person skin-PST-AV goat PREP knife"The man skinned a goat with a knife."

(2)Patient Voicedɛ̀ɛlgoatbóor-út̪-ɪ̀skin-PST-PVŋʌ̀NOMt̪áarákpersonkʌ̀PREPŋɪ̀ɪr.knifedɛ̀ɛl bóor-út̪-ɪ̀ ŋʌ̀ t̪áarák kʌ̀ ŋɪ̀ɪr.goat skin-PST-PV NOM person PREP knife"The man skinned the goat with a knife." (or "The goat was skinned by the man with a knife.")

(3)Circumstantial Voiceŋɪ̀ɪrknifebóor-út̪-ꜜɪ́skin-PST-CVdɛ́ɛlgoatŋʌ̀NOMt̪áarák.personŋɪ̀ɪr bóor-út̪-ꜜɪ́ dɛ́ɛl ŋʌ̀ t̪áarák.knife skin-PST-CV goat NOM person"The man skinned a goat with the knife." (or "The knife was skinned a goat with by the man.")

<h2 id="notes">Notes</h2>
<h3>Glosses</h3>
Here is a list of the abbreviations used in the glosses: 

<table><tbody><tr><td>1</td><td> </td><td>first person</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>DEF</td><td> </td><td>definite</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>LIG</td><td> </td><td>ligature</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>RL</td><td> </td><td>realis mood</td></tr><tr><td>2</td><td> </td><td>second person</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>DET</td><td> </td><td>determiner</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>LV</td><td> </td><td>locative voice</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>RV</td><td> </td><td>reason voice</td></tr><tr><td>3</td><td> </td><td>third person</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>DIR</td><td> </td><td>direct case</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>M</td><td> </td><td>masculine</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>SG</td><td> </td><td>singular</td></tr><tr><td>ACC</td><td> </td><td>accusative case</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>ERG</td><td> </td><td>ergative case</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>NAV</td><td> </td><td>non-actor voice</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>TR</td><td> </td><td>transitive</td></tr><tr><td>AN</td><td> </td><td>animate</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>F</td><td> </td><td>feminine</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>NMLZ</td><td> </td><td>nominalizer</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>¿?</td><td> </td><td>morpheme of unknown semantics</td></tr><tr><td>ASP</td><td> </td><td>aspect</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>GEN</td><td> </td><td>genitive case</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>NOM</td><td> </td><td>nominative case</td></tr><tr><td>AV</td><td> </td><td>actor voice</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>GV</td><td> </td><td>goal voice</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>OBL</td><td> </td><td>oblique case</td></tr><tr><td>AUX</td><td> </td><td>auxiliary verb</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>INAN</td><td> </td><td>inanimate</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>PL</td><td> </td><td>plural</td></tr><tr><td>BV</td><td> </td><td>benefactive voice</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>IND</td><td> </td><td>indirect case</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>PREP</td><td> </td><td>preposition</td></tr><tr><td>CV</td><td> </td><td>circumstantial voice</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>INDF</td><td> </td><td>indefinite</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>PST</td><td> </td><td>past tense</td></tr><tr><td>D</td><td> </td><td>declarative</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>IV</td><td> </td><td>instrument voice</td><td> </td><td> </td><td>PV</td><td> </td><td>patient voice</td></tr></tbody></table>
<h3>Endnotes</h3>

<ul><li>Abrams, N. 1970. "Bilaan Morphology". Papers in Philippine Linguistics No.3 A-24:1-62.</li>
<li>Aldridge, Edith. 2015. "A Minimalist Approach to the Emergence of Ergativity in Austronesian Languages". Linguistics Vanguard 1(1):313-326.</li>
<li>Andersen, Torben. 1991. "Subject and Topic in Dinka". Studies in Language 15(2):265-294.</li>
<li>Andersen, Torben. 2015. "Syntacticized topics in Kurmuk: A ternary voice-like system in Nilotic". Studies in Language 39(3):508-554.</li>
<li>Bell, Sarah Johanna. 1976. Cebuano Subjects in Two Frameworks. PhD dissertation: Massachusetts Institute of Technology.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Robert_Blust/LTdtG2br">Blust, Robert</a> (2013), <a href="https://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au/handle/1885/10191">The Austronesian languages (Revised edition)</a>, Canberra: Australian National University, <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 9781922185075</li>
<li>Boutin, Michael E. 2002. "Nominative and genitive case alternations in Bonggi". The history and typology of western Austronesian voice systems. eds. Fay Wouk and Malcolm Ross, pp 209-239. Pacific Linguistics 518. Canberra: Australian National University.</li>
<li>Cauquelin, Josiane. 1991. "The Puyuma Language". Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde 147(1):17-60.</li>
<li>Estioca, Sharon Joy. 2020. A Grammar of Western Subanon. PhD Dissertation: University of Hawai’i at Mānoa.</li>
<li>Ferreirinho, Naomi. 1993. Selected Topics in the Grammar of Limos Kalinga, the Philippines. Pacific Linguistics B-109. Canberra: Australian National University.</li>
<li>Hemmings, Charlotte (2016), <a href="https://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.707206">The Kelabit Language, Austronesian Voice and Syntactic Typology (Doctoral dissertation)</a> (Ph.D), SOAS, University of London, <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.25501%2FSOAS.00023792">10.25501/SOAS.00023792</a></li>
<li>Himmelmann, Nikolaus P.; Adelaar, Alexander (2005). The Austronesian Languages of Asia and Madagascar. Abingdon: Routledge.</li>
<li>Huang, Stacy Wan Tin. 2014. "Tao Voice Affixes: Derivation or Inflection or Both?". Argument realisations and related constructions in Austronesian languages: papers from 12-ICAL, Volume 2. eds. I.W. Arka and N.L.K.M. Indrawati, pp 175-195. Asia-Pacific Linguistics 013 / Studies on Austronesian languages 002. Canberra: Australian National University. <a href="http://pacling.anu.edu.au/materials/SAL/APL013-SAL002.pdf">[1]</a></li>
<li>Huang, Huei-ju and Shuanfan Huang. 2007. "Lexical Perspectives on Voice Constructions in Tsou". Oceanic Linguistics 46.2:424-455.</li>
<li>Kroeger, Paul R. 2005. "Kimaragang". The Austronesian languages of Asia and Madagascar. eds. K.A. Adelaar and N. Himmelmann, pp 397–428. New York: Routledge.</li>
<li>Kroeger, Paul R. 2010. "The Grammar of hitting, breaking, and cutting in Kimaragang Dusun". Oceanic Linguistics 49.1:1-20.</li>
<li>Kroeger, Paul. 2017. "Frustration, culmination, and inertia in Kimaragang grammar". Glossa: a journal of general linguistics 2(1):56, 1-29.</li>
<li>Kuo, Jonathan Cheng-Chuen. 2015. Argument Alternation and Argument Structure in Symmetrical Voice Languages: A case study of transfer verbs in Amis, Puyuma, and Seediq. PhD Dissertation: University of Hawai’i at Mānoa.</li>
<li>Lee, Wei-Wei. 2016. The Expression and Conceptualization of Time in Kavalan (Austronesian, Taiwan). MA thesis: Universiteit Leiden.</li>
<li>Li, Paul Jen-kuei. 2000. "Some Aspects of Pazeh Syntax". Oceanic Linguistics Special Publications 29:89-108.</li>
<li>Li, Paul Jen-kuei. 2002. "Nominalization in Pazih". Language and Linguistics 3.2:227-239.</li>
<li>Liu, (Adlay) Kun-Long. 2017. Syntactic Interactions with Information Structure in Squliq Atayal. PhD dissertation: Australian National University.</li>
<li>Liu, Tsai-hsiu (2011), <a href="https://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/handle/10125/101742">Complementation in Three Formosan Languages—Amis, Mayrinax Atayal and Tsou (Doctoral dissertation)</a> (Thesis), Honolulu: University of Hawai'i at Mānoa, <a href="/facts/Hdl_(identifier)/rdebSxmC">hdl</a>:<a href="https://hdl.handle.net/10125%2F101742">10125/101742</a></li>
<li>Liu, Dorinda Tsai-hsiu. 2014. "Neutral and Imperfective Forms in Kanakanavu". Argument realisations and related constructions in Austronesian languages: papers from 12-ICAL, Volume 2. eds. I.W. Arka and N.L.K.M. Indrawati, pp 175-195. Asia-Pacific Linguistics 013 / Studies on Austronesian languages 002. Canberra: Australian National University. <a href="http://pacling.anu.edu.au/materials/SAL/APL013-SAL002.pdf">[2]</a></li>
<li>McKaughan, Howard. 1962. "Overt Relation Markers in Maranao". Language 38.1:47-51.</li>
<li>McKaughan, H. 1970. "Topicalization in Maranao - an addendum". Pacific linguistic studies in honour of Arthur Capell. eds. S.A. Wurm, and D.C. Laycock, pp 291-300. Pacific Linguistics C-13. Canberra: Australian National University.</li>
<li>Mirikitani, Leatrice T. 1972. Kapampangan Syntax. Oceanic Linguistics Special Publication, 10. Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press.</li>
<li>Pan, Chia-jung. 2012. A Grammar of Lha’alua, an Austronesian Language of Taiwan. PhD dissertation: James Cook University.</li>
<li>Pearson, Matt. 2005. "Voice morphology, case, and argument structure in Malagasy". Proceedings of AFLA 11. ed. P. Law, pp 229-243. Zentrum für Allgemeine Sprachwissenschaft, Berlin.</li>
<li>Prentice, D.J. 1965. "Form and Function in the Verbs of Sabah Murut: A Preliminary Analysis". Oceanic Linguistics 4.1/2:127-156.</li>
<li>Reid, Lawrence Andrew. 1966. An Ivatan Syntax. PhD dissertation: University of Hawai'i.</li>
<li>Ross, Malcolm. 2002. "The history and transitivity of western Austronesian voice and voice-marking". The history and typology of western Austronesian voice systems. eds. Fay Wouk and Malcolm Ross, pp 17-62. Pacific Linguistics 518. Canberra: Australian National University.</li>
<li>Ross, Malcolm and Stacy Fang-ching Teng. 2005. "Formosan Languages and Linguistic Typology". Language and Linguistics 6.4:739-781.</li>
<li>Schachter, Paul and Fé T. Otanes. 1972. Tagalog Reference Grammar. Berkeley: University of California Press.</li>
<li>Shiohara, Asako. 2012. "Applicatives in Standard Indonesian". Objectivization and Subjectivization: A Typology of Voice Systems. eds. W. Nakamura and R. Kikusawa, pp 59-76. Senri Ethnological Studies 77. Osaka: National Museum of Ethnology.</li>
<li>Sneddon, J.N. 1970. "The languages of Minahasa, North Celebes". Oceanic Linguistics 9:11-36.</li>
<li>Sneddon, J.N. 1975. Tondano phonology and grammar. Pacific Linguistics B-38. Canberra: Australian National University.</li>
<li>Travis, Lisa. 2010. Inner Aspect: the articulation of VP. Dordrecht: Springer.</li>
<li>Tryon, Darrell T. 1994. "The Austronesian Languages". Comparative Austronesian dictionary: An introduction to Austronesian studies. ed. D.T. Tryon, pp 5-45. Berlin; New York: Mouton de Gruyter.</li>
<li>Tsukida, Naomi. 2012. "Goal Voice and Conveyance Voice of Seediq". Objectivization and Subjectivization: A Typology of Voice Systems. eds. W. Nakamura and R. Kikusawa, pp 77-95. Senri Ethnological Studies 77. Osaka: National Museum of Ethnology.</li>
<li>van Urk, Coppe. 2015. <a href="https://dspace.mit.edu/handle/1721.1/101595">A uniform syntax for phrasal movement: A case study of Dinka Bor</a>. PhD dissertation: Massachusetts Institute of Technology.</li>
<li>Zeitoun, Elizabeth. 2005. "Tsou". The Austronesian languages of Asia and Madagascar. eds. K.A. Adelaar and N. Himmelmann, pp 259-290. New York: Routledge.</li></ul>

<h2 id="references">References</h2>

<ol>
<li id="fn:1">Blust (2013), p. 436. - Blust, Robert (2013), The Austronesian languages (Revised edition), Canberra: Australian National University, ISBN 9781922185075 <a href="https://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au/handle/1885/10191" target="_blank">https://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au/handle/1885/10191</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:2">Ross, John (2002). "Final words: research themes in the history and typology of western Austronesian languages". In Wouk, Fay; Malcolm, Ross (eds.). The history and typology of Western Austronesian voice systems. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics. pp. 451–474. <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:3">Beguš, Gašper. (2016). "The Origins of the Voice/Focus System in Austronesian". Presented at the 42nd Annual Meeting of the Berkeley Linguistics Society (BLS42). <a href="http://scholar.harvard.edu/files/begus/files/begus_the_origins_of_voice_focus_system_in_austronesian_ws.pdf" target="_blank">http://scholar.harvard.edu/files/begus/files/begus_the_origins_of_voice_focus_system_in_austronesian_ws.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:4">Himmelmann, N. P. (2002). Voice in western Austronesian: An update. In F. Wouk & M. Ross (Eds.), The History and Typology of western Austronesian voice systems (pp. 7-15). Canberra, ACT: Australian National University. <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:5">Starosta, Stanley. (2002). Austronesian ‘Focus’ as Derivation: Evidence from Nominalization. Language and Linguistics, 3(2), 427-479. <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:6">Masumi Katagiri (2020) 'Tagalog'. In Tasaku Tsunoda (ed.) Mermaid Construction: A Compound-Predicate Construction with Biclausal Appearance. De Gruyter. P. 786. <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:7">Hemmings, Charlotte. (2015). Kelabit Voice: Philippine‐Type, Indonesian‐Type or Something a Bit Different? Transactions of the Philological Society, 113(3), 383-405. <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:8">Liao, Liao, H. C. (2011). Some morphosyntactic differences between Formosan and Philippine languages. Language and Linguistics, 12(4), 845-876. <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:9">Kroeger, Paul. (2007). Morphosyntactic vs. morphosemantic functions of Indonesian –kan. In A. Zaenen et al. (Eds.), Architectures, Rules, and Preferences: Variations on Themes of Joan Bresnan (pp. 229-251). <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:10">Huang, Shuan-fan. (2002). The pragmatics of focus in Tsou and Seediq. Language and Linguistics, 3(4), 665-694. <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:11">Fortin, Catherine. (2003). Syntactic and Semantic Valence: Morphosyntactic Evidence from Minangkabau. In Proceedings of the Twenty-Ninth Annual Meeting of the Berkeley Linguistics Society (BLS 29). <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:12">Ross (2002, p. 20) <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:13">Taken from Shiohara (2012)'s examples in (4a-b) on page 60, and in (12) on page 63. Glosses and translations modified for the Wikipedia article. <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:14">Taken from Blust (2013)'s Table 7.2 on page 439. Glosses and translations modified for the Wikipedia article. <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:15">Taken from Liu (2011)'s examples in (2.5) on page 27. Glosses and translation modified for the Wikipedia article. <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:16">Taken from Liu (2011)'s examples in (2.30) on page 44. Glosses and translation modified for the Wikipedia article. <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:17">Taken from Liu (2017)'s examples in (52) to (56). Glosses and translations modified for the Wikipedia article. <a href="#fnref:17" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:18">Taken from Pan (2012)'s examples in (3.16b), (3.23a), (3.32d) and (3.33a). Glosses and translation modified for the Wikipedia article. <a href="#fnref:18" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:19">The orthography used in this subsection does not conform to the orthography used in Pan (2012) with respect to the consonant /ɬ/. Whereas Pan (2012) represents this sound as ‹lh›, this sound is represented here as ‹hl› (Pan (2012; page 50)). <a href="#fnref:19" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:20">Taken from Liu (2014)'s examples in (5a), (5c), (17a), and (20a). Glosses and translation modified for the Wikipedia article. <a href="#fnref:20" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:21">Taken from Lee (2016)'s examples in (24), and (25). Glosses and translations modified for the Wikipedia article. <a href="#fnref:21" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:22">Taken from Ross and Teng (2005)'s examples in (2). Glosses and translations modified for the Wikipedia article. <a href="#fnref:22" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:23">Taken from Li (2000)'s examples in (22), (39), and (58), and Li (2002)'s example in (15). Glosses and translations modified for the Wikipedia article. <a href="#fnref:23" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:24">Taken from Aldridge (2015)'s examples in (7), and Cauquelin (1991)'s example on page 44. Glosses and translations modified for the Wikipedia article. <a href="#fnref:24" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:25">While this example may come from Cauquelin (1991), the orthography used here conforms to the orthography used in Aldridge (2015). <a href="#fnref:25" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:26">Taken from Kuo (2015)'s examples in (2.1) on page 14. Glosses and translations modified for the Wikipedia article. <a href="#fnref:26" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:27">Taken from Tsukida (2012)'s examples in (3). Glosses and translations modified for the Wikipedia article. <a href="#fnref:27" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:28">Taken from Huang and Huang (2007)'s examples in III in the Appendix, pages 449-450. Glosses and translations modified for the Wikipedia article. <a href="#fnref:28" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:29">Zeitoun (2005), page 266 <a href="#fnref:29" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:30">Zeitoun (2005), page 267 ("actor voice" and "undergoer voice", respectively, in her terminology). <a href="#fnref:30" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:31">In their gloss for this example, Huang and Huang (2007, page 450) suggest that the benefactive voice suffix attaches to a stem composed of the verb and the locative voice ("locative voice" in their terminology). <a href="#fnref:31" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:32">Taken from Reid (1966)'s examples on pages 26 and 27. Glosses and translation modified for the Wikipedia article. <a href="#fnref:32" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:33">The orthography used for the data here reflects the transcription system used by Reid (1966). It seems that, from the Wikipedia article on Ivatan, this may not be the actual spelling system that the speakers of this language use. The sound represented by ‹q› is /ʔ/. <a href="#fnref:33" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:34">Reid (1966; pp 25-27) presents an alternative form for the verb in locative voice. Instead of appearing with the 'pang-' prefix, a verb of this class in locative voice form may appear with just the '-an' suffix. For this example, instead of 'pangamoqmoan', the verb would be 'qamoqmoan'. Reid indicates that the distinction between these two forms is that the patient of the action must be explicit for the form appearing without the 'pang-' prefix. <a href="#fnref:34" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:35">Reid (1966; pp 25-27) presents an alternative form for the verb in circumstantial voice, when it selects for instrument subjects. Instead of appearing with the 'pang-' prefix, a verb of this class in circumstantial voice form may appear with just the 'qi-' prefix. For this example, instead of 'qipangamoqmo', the verb would be 'qimoqmo'. Reid indicates that the distinction between these two forms is that the patient of the action must be explicit for the form appearing without the 'pang-' prefix. <a href="#fnref:35" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:36">Reid (1966; pp 25-27) does not present any alternative form for verbs of this class in circumstantial voice, when they select for benefactee subjects. <a href="#fnref:36" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:37">Taken from Huang (2014)'s examples in (3a-d) on page 251. Glosses and translations modified for the Wikipedia article. <a href="#fnref:37" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:38">Taken from Abrams (1970)'s examples on page 2. Glosses and translations modified for the Wikipedia article. <a href="#fnref:38" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:39">Abrams (1970, pages 1-2) indicates that Blaan verbs are classified into three types of prefocus bases, each of which has an inherent voice without bearing any voice affixes. An agent prefocus base is a bare verb that is inherently in Actor Voice voice. A patient prefocus base is inherently in patient voice, and an instrument prefocus base is inherently in instrument voice. <a href="/wiki/Affix" target="_blank">/wiki/Affix</a> <a href="#fnref:39" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:40">Blaan has two morphemes which, when attached to a prefocus base, change the inherent voice of the base. These morphemes are the Actor Voice affix, m-/-am-, and the non-Actor Voice affix, n-/-an- ("subject focus" and "non-subject focus" in Abrams (1970, page 1)'s terminology, respectively). <a href="#fnref:40" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:41">Abrams (1970, page 2) has not found many examples of an agent prefocus base taking either of the voice-changing morphemes. However, in that rare example in which an agent prefocus base does, both voice-changing morphemes transitivize the intransitive agent prefocus base. In addition, the Actor Voice affix keeps the base in Actor Voice voice, while the non-Actor Voice affix changes the voice of the base to non-Actor Voice voice, and allows for the selection of a patient subject. <a href="#fnref:41" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:42">Without any voice-changing morphemes, patient prefocus bases take patient subjects. The Actor Voice affix changes the voice of the base to Actor Voice voice, allowing the verb to take an agent subject. The non-Actor Voice affix allows a patient prefocus base to take location subjects. <a href="#fnref:42" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:43">The Actor Voice affix changes the inherent instrument voice of the base to Actor Voice voice, whereas the non-Actor Voice affix changes the voice to non-Actor Voice voice, and allows for the selection of a patient subject. <a href="#fnref:43" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:44">Taken from Bell (1976)'s examples on pages 8, 9, and 11. Glosses and translations modified for the Wikipedia article. <a href="#fnref:44" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:45">Taken from Travis (2010)'s examples in (46) on page 42. Glosses and translations modified for the Wikipedia article. <a href="#fnref:45" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:46">Taken from Mirikitani (1972)'s examples in (64), (95), (96), (100), (101) and (106). Glosses and translations modified for the Wikipedia article. <a href="#fnref:46" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:47">In the examples, the word to which the accusative case marker attaches is a pronoun or portmanteau pronoun that is obligatorily present in the same clause as the noun with which it is co-referential. In sentences with an Actor Voice, the pronoun co-refers with the agent subject. In sentences with a non-Actor Voice, the portmanteau pronoun co-refers with both the ergative agent and the non-agent subject, which is marked with direct case. <a href="/wiki/Portmanteau" target="_blank">/wiki/Portmanteau</a> <a href="#fnref:47" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:48">Taken from Ferreirinho (1993)'s examples in (100), (245), (246), (247) and (248). Glosses and translations modified for the Wikipedia article. <a href="#fnref:48" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:49">The patient voice suffix surfaces either as -on or as -∅. The choice of allomorph depends on whether or not the verb is marked with the -in- aspectual infix. When the aspectual infix is present, the -∅ allomorph surfaces. <a href="/wiki/Allomorph" target="_blank">/wiki/Allomorph</a> <a href="#fnref:49" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:50">Taken from McKaughan (1962)'s examples on pages 48 and 50, and from McKaughan (1970)'s example in (4). Glosses and translations modified for the Wikipedia article. <a href="#fnref:50" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:51">Taken from Tryon (1994)'s examples on pages 35 and 36. Glosses and translations modified for the Wikipedia article. <a href="#fnref:51" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:52">Taken from Estioca (2020)'s examples on page 123. Glosses and translations modified for the Wikipedia article. <a href="#fnref:52" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:53">The patient voice suffix surfaces either as -in or as -∅. The choice of allomorph depends on whether or not the verb is marked with the -in- aspectual infix. When the aspectual infix is present, the -∅ allomorph surfaces. <a href="/wiki/Allomorph" target="_blank">/wiki/Allomorph</a> <a href="#fnref:53" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:54">The subject in (6a) is the nominalization of the adverbial clause in (6b). <a href="/wiki/Nominalization" target="_blank">/wiki/Nominalization</a> <a href="#fnref:54" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:55">Taken from Sneddon (1970)'s examples on page 13, and from Sneddon (1975)'s examples on pages 63 and 66. Glosses and translations modified for the Wikipedia article. <a href="#fnref:55" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:56">Taken from Boutin (2002)'s examples in (3), and (4) on page 211, (6) and (7) on page 212, and in (44) on page 222. Glosses and translations modified for the Wikipedia article. <a href="#fnref:56" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:57">Boutin (2002; pp. 211-212) presents other voice-related data. However, because these are periphrastic constructions, they are of no interest for the purposes of this Wikipedia article. <a href="/wiki/Voice_(grammar)" target="_blank">/wiki/Voice_(grammar)</a> <a href="#fnref:57" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:58">The patient voice suffix surfaces either as -idn or as -∅. The choice of allomorph depends on whether or not the verb is marked with the -in- realis mood morpheme. When the realis mood morpheme is present, the -∅ allomorph surfaces. <a href="/wiki/Allomorph" target="_blank">/wiki/Allomorph</a> <a href="#fnref:58" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:59">Hemmings (2016), p. 270: "Taken from examples in (39). Glosses and translations modified for the Wikipedia article." - Hemmings, Charlotte (2016), The Kelabit Language, Austronesian Voice and Syntactic Typology (Doctoral dissertation) (Ph.D), SOAS, University of London, doi:10.25501/SOAS.00023792 <a href="https://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.707206" target="_blank">https://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.707206</a> <a href="#fnref:59" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:60">Hemmings (2016), p. 200: "Taken from examples in (189a-c). Glosses and translations modified for the Wikipedia article." - Hemmings, Charlotte (2016), The Kelabit Language, Austronesian Voice and Syntactic Typology (Doctoral dissertation) (Ph.D), SOAS, University of London, doi:10.25501/SOAS.00023792 <a href="https://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.707206" target="_blank">https://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.707206</a> <a href="#fnref:60" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:61">Hemmings (2016) presents examples in which the subject in patient voice appears before the verb, and in which the subject in Actor Voice voice appears after the verb <a href="#fnref:61" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:62">Hemmings (2016), pp. 202–203. - Hemmings, Charlotte (2016), The Kelabit Language, Austronesian Voice and Syntactic Typology (Doctoral dissertation) (Ph.D), SOAS, University of London, doi:10.25501/SOAS.00023792 <a href="https://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.707206" target="_blank">https://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.707206</a> <a href="#fnref:62" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:63">The patient voice suffix has two allomorphs, -en and -∅. The former occurs in non-perfective contexts, whereas the latter in perfective contexts. <a href="/wiki/Allomorph" target="_blank">/wiki/Allomorph</a> <a href="#fnref:63" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:64">Taken from Kroeger (2005)'s examples in (20a-c), page 405, and from Kroeger (2017)'s examples in (5), (6a) and (7). The orthography used here conforms to the orthography used in Kroeger (2017). Glosses and translations modified for the Wikipedia article. <a href="#fnref:64" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:65">Kroeger (2017), page 5. <a href="#fnref:65" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:66">According to Kroeger (2005; page 415, table (45)), the patient voice suffix has two allomorphs, -on and -∅. The former occurs in non-past contexts, whereas the latter in past contexts. The locative voice suffix does not exhibit such allomorphy, and can appear in both past and non-past contexts. <a href="/wiki/Allomorph" target="_blank">/wiki/Allomorph</a> <a href="#fnref:66" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:67">According to Kroeger (2010; page 8), the instrument voice prefix has two allomorphs, i-, and ∅-. The latter surfaces in the presence of the transitivity prefix, poN-. <a href="/wiki/Allomorph" target="_blank">/wiki/Allomorph</a> <a href="#fnref:67" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:68">The sentence in this example exhibits a pseudocleft construction with a relative clause as the subject, and a WH-word as the predicate. The instrument voice prefix selects a null operator within the relative clause. This null operator serves as the head of the relative clause, which can be interpreted as "the thing that...". <a href="/wiki/Cleft_sentence#Types" target="_blank">/wiki/Cleft_sentence#Types</a> <a href="#fnref:68" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:69">The sentence in this example exhibits a pseudocleft construction with a relative clause as the subject, and a WH-word as the predicate. The locative voice suffix selects a null operator within the relative clause. This null operator serves as the head of the relative clause, which can be interpreted as "the thing that...". <a href="/wiki/Cleft_sentence#Types" target="_blank">/wiki/Cleft_sentence#Types</a> <a href="#fnref:69" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:70">Taken from Prentice (1965)'s examples on pages 130 and 131. Glosses and translations for the Wikipedia article. <a href="#fnref:70" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:71">McDonnell, Bradley (2016). Symmetrical voice constructions in Besemah: a usage-based approach (PhD Dissertation). Santa Barbara: University of California Santa Barbara. pp. 132–138. <a href="https://alexandria.ucsb.edu/lib/ark:/48907/f3mp53bw" target="_blank">https://alexandria.ucsb.edu/lib/ark:/48907/f3mp53bw</a> <a href="#fnref:71" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:72">Himmelmann & Adelaar 2005, p. 112. - Himmelmann, Nikolaus P.; Adelaar, Alexander (2005). The Austronesian Languages of Asia and Madagascar. Abingdon: Routledge. <a href="#fnref:72" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:73">Taken from Pearson (2005)'s examples in (2) and (10c). Glosses and translations modified for the Wikipedia article. <a href="#fnref:73" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:74">Taken from Andersen (1991)'s example (74) on page 286. Glosses and translations modified for the Wikipedia article. <a href="#fnref:74" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:75">Taken from Andersen (1991)'s example (71) on page 285. Glosses and translations modified for the Wikipedia article. <a href="#fnref:75" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:76">Taken from van Urk (2015)'s example (2) on page 61. Glosses and translations modified for the Wikipedia article. <a href="#fnref:76" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:77">Van Urk (2015, page 69) indicates that the circumstantial voice suffix is attached to a stem composed of the verb and the patient voice ("object voice" in van Urk's terminology). <a href="#fnref:77" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:78">Taken from Andersen (2015)'s example (1) on page 510. Glosses and translations modified for the Wikipedia article. <a href="#fnref:78" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
</ol>

Symmetrical voice open-in-new

Symmetrical voice