Menu
Home
People
Places
Arts
History
Plants & Animals
Science
Life & Culture
Technology
Reference.org
Diallyl disulfide
open-in-new
<h2 id="history">History</h2> <p>In 1844, <a href="/facts/Theodor_Wertheim/lxymQIzS">Theodor Wertheim</a> separated by <a href="/facts/Steam_distillation/tYEIIkqq">steam distillation</a> a pungent-smelling substance from garlic and named it "<a href="/facts/Allyl/CDxPwyvF">allyl</a> <a href="/facts/Sulfur/IK0amTfM">sulfur</a>." However, only in 1892 could <a href="/facts/Friedrich_Wilhelm_Semmler/SFk283gN">Friedrich Wilhelm Semmler</a> identify diallyl disulfide as one of the components of distilled <a href="/facts/Garlic_oil/lRyoGd45">garlic oil</a>. The natural precursor of diallyl disulfide, <a href="/facts/Allicin/tPLWtC2a">allicin</a>, was discovered in 1944 by <a href="/facts/Chester_J._Cavallito/CMfgjkXM">Chester J. Cavallito</a> and John Hays Bailey. In 1947, A. Stoll and E. Seebeck found that <a href="/facts/Allicin/tPLWtC2a">allicin</a> in turn can be produced from the <a href="/facts/Cysteine/kbqvUm6d">cysteine</a> derivative <a href="/facts/Alliin/yFkD3NNm">alliin</a> using the enzyme <a href="/facts/Alliinase/ILJgSy3m">alliinase</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:2" href="#fn:2"><sup>2</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:3" href="#fn:3"><sup>3</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="occurrence">Occurrence</h2> <p>Diallyl disulfide and the related trisulfide are produced by decomposition of <a href="/facts/Allicin/tPLWtC2a">allicin</a>, which is released upon breaking the cells of the <a href="/facts/Alliaceae/oyJrRTj2">Alliaceae</a> plants, especially <a href="/facts/Garlic/NschLR1S">garlic</a>. The diallyl disulfide yield is the highest for the <a href="/facts/Steam_distillation/tYEIIkqq">steam distillation</a> of garlic bulbs which contain about 2 wt.% of diallyl disulfide-rich oil. Diallyl disulfide can also be extracted from garlic leaves, but their oil content is significantly lower at 0.06 wt.%.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:4" href="#fn:4"><sup>4</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5"><sup>5</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="extraction-and-representation">Extraction and representation</h2> <p>On an industrial scale, diallyl disulfide is produced from sodium disulfide and <a href="/facts/Allyl_bromide/a7oHzGKs">allyl bromide</a> or <a href="/facts/Allyl_chloride/saGo9WGr">allyl chloride</a> at temperatures of 40–60 °C in an <a href="/facts/Inert_gas/3EkBEoYh">inert gas</a> atmosphere; sodium disulfide is generated <i>in situ</i> by reacting <a href="/facts/Sodium_sulfide/DKu0s158">sodium sulfide</a> with <a href="/facts/Sulfur/IK0amTfM">sulfur</a>. The reaction is <a href="/facts/Exothermic/gCuSvpa4">exothermic</a> and its theoretical efficiency of 88% has been achieved in practice.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6"><sup>6</sup></a> </p> <p>Smaller quantities can be synthesized from the same starting materials, but in air and using <a href="/facts/Tetrabutylammonium_bromide/tyzkJkXE">tetrabutylammonium bromide</a> as a catalyst. The corresponding yield is below 82%.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7"><sup>7</sup></a> The major problem, both in the industrial synthesis and in the extraction from plants, is separation of diallyl disulfide from higher sulfides (diallyl trisulfide (<a href="/facts/DATS/SFrK0YHY">DATS</a>), etc.). They have very similar physical properties and therefore, a typical commercial product contains only 80% of diallyl disulfide. The conversion of allicin to diallyl disulfide and trisulfide takes place particularly rapidly above 37 °C.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8"><sup>8</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="properties">Properties</h2> <h3>Physical characteristics</h3> <p>Diallyl disulfide has a strong garlic smell. It is a clear, yellowish liquid which boils at 138–139 °C (for the typical 80% purity) and has its <a href="/facts/Flash_point/97JQP35E">flash point</a> at 50 °C, a <a href="/facts/Density/92p6hh9I">density</a> of about 1.0 g/mL and a <a href="/facts/Vapor_pressure/whrEr96T">vapor pressure</a> of 1 mmHg at 20 °C. It is non-polar; therefore, diallyl disulfide is insoluble in water and is soluble in fats, oils, <a href="/facts/Lipid/TdQR87HX">lipids</a>, and non-polar solvents such as <a href="/facts/Hexane/JxPecNPt">hexane</a> or <a href="/facts/Toluene/Pzdt8dwD">toluene</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9"><sup>9</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10"><sup>10</sup></a> </p> <h3>Chemical reactions</h3> <p>Diallyl disulfide can be readily oxidized to <a href="/facts/Allicin/tPLWtC2a">allicin</a> with <a href="/facts/Hydrogen_peroxide/vju6HBIc">hydrogen peroxide</a> or <a href="/facts/Peracetic_acid/bdL4PGo5">peracetic acid</a>. <a href="/facts/Allicin/tPLWtC2a">Allicin</a> in turn can hydrolyze giving diallyl disulfide and trisulfide. Reaction of diallyl disulfide with liquid <a href="/facts/Sulfur/IK0amTfM">sulfur</a> gives a mixture containing diallyl <a href="/facts/Polysulfide/PpfaUlw4">polysulfides</a> with as many as 22 <a href="/facts/Sulfur/IK0amTfM">sulfur</a> atoms in a continuous chain identified.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11"><sup>11</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12"><sup>12</sup></a> When diallyl disulfide is heated it decomposes giving a complex mixture. The carbon-sulfur bond of diallyl disulfide is 16 kcal mol−1 weaker than the sulfur-sulfur bond (46 kcal mol−1 versus 62 kcal mol−1, respectively), with the consequence that on heating diallyl disulfide gives the allyldithio radical (AllSS•), which through addition to the double bonds in diallyl disulfide followed by fragmentation and subsequent reactions generates numerous organosulfur compounds, many of which are found in trace amounts in distilled garlic oil.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13"><sup>13</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14"><sup>14</sup></a> In the presence of a catalyst, diallyl disulfide can combine with <a href="/facts/Alkyl_halide/Enb7LQqt">alkyl halides</a> forming 1-alkylthio-3-allylthio-1-propene and 1,3-di(alkylthio)propene.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15"><sup>15</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="applications">Applications</h2> <p>In the presence of <a href="/facts/Iron_chloride/hfChIpkH">iron chloride</a> or <a href="/facts/Copper_chloride/YbJa7Skv">copper chloride</a> catalyst, or of liquid <a href="/facts/Sulfur/IK0amTfM">sulfur</a> at 120 °C<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16"><sup>16</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17"><sup>17</sup></a> Diallyl disulfide can be used as a precursor for the synthesis of higher diallyl <a href="/facts/Polysulfides/PpfaUlw4">polysulfides</a> (polysulfanes). In agriculture, diallyl disulfide and related diallyl polysulfides show useful activity as environmentally-benign <a href="/facts/Nematicide/xnJNqGxx">nematicides</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18"><sup>18</sup></a> Diallyl disulfide is also a starting material for the synthesis of <a href="/facts/Allicin/tPLWtC2a">allicin</a>. In the food industry, diallyl disulfide is used to improve the taste of meat, vegetables and fruits.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19"><sup>19</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20"><sup>20</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="biological-importance">Biological importance</h2> <h3>Smell and taste</h3> <p>The unpleasant smell of diallyl disulfide is perceived through the <a href="/facts/Transient_receptor_potential_cation_channel,_member_A1/JPYYxzfY">transient receptor potential cation channel, member A1</a> (TRPA1). This <a href="/facts/Ion_channel/A46LARFH">ion channel</a> had long been present not only in humans and animals, but even in fungi. Thus, <a href="/facts/Alliaceae/oyJrRTj2">Alliaceae</a> plants have likely developed the diallyl disulfide-TRPA1 protection mechanism against predators at the early stages of the evolution.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21"><sup>21</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22"><sup>22</sup></a> </p> <h3>Poisoning and detoxification</h3> <p>Diallyl disulfide is an efficient agent for detoxication of the cells. It significantly increases the production of the enzyme <a href="/facts/Glutathione_S-transferase/4Nfd68PE">glutathione S-transferase</a> (GST), which binds <a href="/facts/Electrophilicity/1AHFg1zm">electrophilic</a> toxins in the cell. Garlic therefore supports, for example, the detoxification function of liver cells <i>in vitro</i> and protects nerve cells from oxidative stress, also <i>in vitro</i>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23"><sup>23</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24"><sup>24</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25"><sup>25</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26"><sup>26</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27"><sup>27</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28"><sup>28</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29"><sup>29</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30"><sup>30</sup></a> The detoxification effect may prevent symptoms of inflammation. This was confirmed in a study on rats where prolonged administration of diallyl disulfide protected poisoning of their intestinal cells. This study also showed that certain side effects of high doses of garlic oil are not attributable to the diallyl disulfide.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31"><sup>31</sup></a> By supporting the detoxification activity in the liver, diallyl disulfide might offer liver protection during the <a href="/facts/Chemotherapy/fWTLbaUT">chemotherapy</a>, e.g. against <a href="/facts/Cyanide/t0o8FMKI">cyanide</a> detoxification.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32"><sup>32</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33"><sup>33</sup></a> </p> <h3>Antimicrobial effect</h3> <p>The release of <a href="/facts/Organosulfur_compound/sUxSSXwD">organosulfur compounds</a> upon destruction of Alliaceae plant cells has great importance, because of the antimicrobial, <a href="/facts/Insecticide/1xYL3MSD">insecticidal</a> and <a href="/facts/Larvicide/dlhj8wkN">larvicidal</a> properties of those compounds.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34"><sup>34</sup></a> In particular, diallyl disulfide is the main reason for inhibiting the growth of <a href="/facts/Mold_(fungus)/7nHqptM7">molds</a> and bacteria by garlic oil. It is also acts against the <a href="/facts/Stomach_ulcer/peMGnYCd">stomach ulcer</a> germ <i><a href="/facts/Helicobacter_pylori/9q4H68LP">Helicobacter pylori</a></i>, however not as efficiently as allicin.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35"><sup>35</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36"><sup>36</sup></a> Because of its antimicrobial effects, diallyl disulfide, together with <a href="/facts/Tobramycin/BS2cm58u">tobramycin</a>, is included in preparations which are used for selective decontamination of the organs (e.g. gut) before surgical operations. A clinical study showed that such preparations prevent <a href="/facts/Endotoxemia/Ch967TXw">endotoxemia</a> in heart valve operations.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37"><sup>37</sup></a> </p> <h3>Protection against colon cancer</h3> <p>Garlic can prevent <a href="/facts/Colorectal_cancer/nV592sW7">colorectal cancer</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38"><sup>38</sup></a> and several studies revealed that diallyl disulfide is a major component responsible for this action. The effect is dose dependent as demonstrated on mice.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39"><sup>39</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40"><sup>40</sup></a> Diallyl disulfide affects cancer cells much more strongly than normal cells.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:41" href="#fn:41"><sup>41</sup></a> It also results in a strong and dose-dependent accumulation of several agents, such as reactive oxygen species, which activate enzyme and lead to destruction of cancer cells.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:42" href="#fn:42"><sup>42</sup></a> </p> <h3>Protection against cardiovascular disease</h3> <p>There is evidence that garlic may prevent the development of cardiovascular diseases. A possible reason for some of these diseases, such as <a href="/facts/Atherosclerosis/WIS8QQ6v">atherosclerosis</a> or <a href="/facts/Coronary_heart_disease/szCt0nVx">coronary heart disease</a> is <a href="/facts/Oxidative_stress/HX7dfUUb">oxidative stress</a>. The latter is reduced by diallyl disulfide by assisting in the detoxification of the cell, as well as some other mechanisms.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:43" href="#fn:43"><sup>43</sup></a> By activating the TRPA1 ion channel, diallyl disulfide leads to a short-term lowering of blood pressure.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:44" href="#fn:44"><sup>44</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="safety">Safety</h2> <p>Diallyl disulfide is a skin irritant and an <a href="/facts/Allergen/bnM4cttq">allergen</a>. In particular, it is the main cause of <a href="/facts/Garlic_allergy/5A84CnNg">garlic allergy</a> (<a href="/facts/Allergic_contact_dermatitis/cNyAKVe7">allergic contact dermatitis</a> to garlic). The allergy usually starts at the fingertips and cannot be prevented by wearing gloves because diallyl disulfide penetrates through most commercial glove types.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:45" href="#fn:45"><sup>45</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:46" href="#fn:46"><sup>46</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:47" href="#fn:47"><sup>47</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:48" href="#fn:48"><sup>48</sup></a> </p><p>The median <a href="/facts/Lethal_dose/Q2IDEBaS">lethal dose</a> (LD50) for oral intake in <a href="/facts/Rat/5rn6uEKM">rats</a> is 260 mg per kg of body weight and it is 3.6 g/kg for dermal intake. High doses of 5 g/kg placed on the skin of cats cause death through <a href="/facts/Hemolytic_anemia/qNz6wDct">hemolytic anemia</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:49" href="#fn:49"><sup>49</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:50" href="#fn:50"><sup>50</sup></a> </p><p>Diallyl disulfide can be easily detected in the air or in the blood with <a href="/facts/Gas_chromatography/kwLY8vt1">gas chromatography</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:51" href="#fn:51"><sup>51</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:52" href="#fn:52"><sup>52</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="see-also">See also</h2> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Allyl_propyl_disulfide/SmdaH9EE">Allyl propyl disulfide</a></li></ul> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>Block, Eric (2010). Garlic and Other Alliums: The Lore and the Science. Royal Society of Chemistry. ISBN 9780854041909.[page needed] <a href="9780854041909" target="_blank">9780854041909</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>Block, Eric (2010). Garlic and Other Alliums: The Lore and the Science. Royal Society of Chemistry. ISBN 9780854041909.[page needed] <a href="9780854041909" target="_blank">9780854041909</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>Omar, Syed Haris; Hasan, Ahmed; Hunjul, Nashat; Ali, Javed; Aqil, M (2007). "Historical, chemical and cardiovascular perspectives on garlic: A review". Pharmacognosy Reviews. 1 (1): 80–87. Archived from the original on 2012-03-07. Retrieved 2010-05-28. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120307003643/http://www.phcogrev.com/article.asp?issn=0973-7847;year=2007;volume=1;issue=1;spage=80;epage=87;aulast=Omar;type=0" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20120307003643/http://www.phcogrev.com/article.asp?issn=0973-7847;year=2007;volume=1;issue=1;spage=80;epage=87;aulast=Omar;type=0</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:4"><p>Lawson, L; Wang, Z; Hughes, B (2007). "Identification and HPLC Quantitation of the Sulfides and Dialk(en)yl Thiosulfinates in Commercial Garlic Products". Planta Medica. 57 (4): 363–370. doi:10.1055/s-2006-960119. PMID 1775579. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:5"><p>Edris, A; Fadel, H (2002). "Investigation of the volatile aroma components of garlic leaves essential oil. Possibility of utilization to enrich garlic bulb oil". European Food Research and Technology. 214 (2): 105–107. doi:10.1007/s00217-001-0429-2. S2CID 95448926. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:6"><p>WO 2006016881, "PROCESS FOR PRODUCING DIALLYL DISULFIDE", published 16-02-2006 <a href="https://worldwide.espacenet.com/textdoc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=WO2006016881" target="_blank">https://worldwide.espacenet.com/textdoc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=WO2006016881</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:7"><p>Yuan, X; Chen, X; Jiang, X; Nie, Y (2006). "Synthesis, characterization and bioactivity evaluation of diallyl disulfide". Journal of Central South University of Technology. 13 (5): 515–518. doi:10.1007/s11771-006-0079-4. S2CID 97570822. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:8"><p>Freeman, F; Kodera, Y (1995). "Garlic Chemistry: Stability of S-(2-Propenyl)-2-Propene-1-sulfinothioate (Allicin) in Blood, Solvents, and Simulated Physiological Fluids". Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 43 (9): 2332–2338. doi:10.1021/jf00057a004. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:9"><p>allyl disulfide <a href="http://www.thegoodscentscompany.com/data/rw1002791.html" target="_blank">http://www.thegoodscentscompany.com/data/rw1002791.html</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:10"><p>Diallyl disulfide at Sigma Aldrich <a href="http://www.sigmaaldrich.com/catalog/search/ProductDetail/sigma/smb00378" target="_blank">http://www.sigmaaldrich.com/catalog/search/ProductDetail/sigma/smb00378</a> <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:11"><p>Block, Eric (2010). Garlic and Other Alliums: The Lore and the Science. Royal Society of Chemistry. ISBN 9780854041909.[page needed] <a href="9780854041909" target="_blank">9780854041909</a> <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:12"><p>Wang, Kai; Groom, Murree; Sheridan, Robert; Zhang, Shaozhong; Block, Eric (2013). "Liquid sulfur as a reagent: Synthesis of polysulfanes with 20 or more sulfur atoms with characterization by UPLC-(Ag+)-coordination ion spray-MS". Journal of Sulfur Chemistry. 34 (1–2): 55–66. doi:10.1080/17415993.2012.721368. S2CID 95562164. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:13"><p>Block, Eric (2010). Garlic and Other Alliums: The Lore and the Science. Royal Society of Chemistry. ISBN 9780854041909.[page needed] <a href="9780854041909" target="_blank">9780854041909</a> <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:14"><p>Block, Eric; Iyer, Rajeshwari; Grisoni, Serge; Saha, Chantu; Belman, Sidney; Lossing, Fred P (1988). "Lipoxygenase inhibitors from the essential oil of garlic. Markovnikov addition of the allyldithio radical to olefins". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 110 (23): 7813–7827. doi:10.1021/ja00231a037. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:15"><p>Amosova, S.V.; Nosyreva, V.V.; Musorin, G.K.; Sigalov, M.V.; Sinegovskaya, L.M.; Trofimov, B.A. (1986). "Synthesis of 1-alkylthio-3-allylthio-1-propenes by the reaction of dialllyl disulfide with allyl halides in the alkali-metal hydroxide-DMSO superbasic system". Journal of Organic Chemistry of the USSR. 22 (5): 856–61. OCLC 4434235280. OSTI 6388212. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:16"><p>Block, Eric (2010). Garlic and Other Alliums: The Lore and the Science. Royal Society of Chemistry. ISBN 9780854041909.[page needed] <a href="9780854041909" target="_blank">9780854041909</a> <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:17"><p>U.S. patent 8,101,802 <a href="https://patents.google.com/patent/US8101802" target="_blank">https://patents.google.com/patent/US8101802</a> <a href="#fnref:17" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:18"><p>Block, Eric (2010). Garlic and Other Alliums: The Lore and the Science. Royal Society of Chemistry. ISBN 9780854041909.[page needed] <a href="9780854041909" target="_blank">9780854041909</a> <a href="#fnref:18" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:19"><p>allyl disulfide <a href="http://www.thegoodscentscompany.com/data/rw1002791.html" target="_blank">http://www.thegoodscentscompany.com/data/rw1002791.html</a> <a href="#fnref:19" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:20"><p>U.S. patent 5,231,114 <a href="https://patents.google.com/patent/US5231114" target="_blank">https://patents.google.com/patent/US5231114</a> <a href="#fnref:20" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:21"><p>Bautista, D. M; Movahed, P; Hinman, A; Axelsson, H. E; Sterner, O; Hogestatt, E. D; Julius, D; Jordt, S.-E; Zygmunt, P. M (2005). "Pungent products from garlic activate the sensory ion channel TRPA1". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 102 (34): 12248–12252. Bibcode:2005PNAS..10212248B. doi:10.1073/pnas.0505356102. PMC 1189336. PMID 16103371. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1189336" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1189336</a> <a href="#fnref:21" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:22"><p>Hile, Arla G; Shan, Zhixing; Zhang, Shao-Zhong; Block, Eric (2004). "Aversion of European Starlings (Sturnus vulgaris) to Garlic Oil Treated Granules: Garlic Oil as an Avian Repellent. Garlic Oil Analysis by Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy". Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 52 (8): 2192–2196. doi:10.1021/jf035181d. PMID 15080619. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:22" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:23"><p>Germain, E; Chevalier, J; Siess, M.-H; Teyssier, C (2008). "Hepatic metabolism of diallyl disulphide in rat and man" (PDF). Xenobiotica. 33 (12): 1185–1199. doi:10.1080/00498250310001636840. PMID 14742141. S2CID 20421070. <a href="https://hal.inrae.fr/hal-02678545/file/16149_20081024022736808_1.pdf" target="_blank">https://hal.inrae.fr/hal-02678545/file/16149_20081024022736808_1.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:23" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:24"><p>Tsai, Chia-Wen; Yang, Jaw-Ji; Chen, Haw-Wen; Sheen, Lee-Yan; Lii, Chong-Kuei (2005). "Garlic Organosulfur Compounds Upregulate the Expression of the π Class of Glutathione S-Transferase in Rat Primary Hepatocytes". The Journal of Nutrition. 135 (11): 2560–2565. doi:10.1093/jn/135.11.2560. PMID 16251611. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjn%2F135.11.2560" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjn%2F135.11.2560</a> <a href="#fnref:24" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:25"><p>Wu, CC; Sheen, LY; Chen, HW; Kuo, WW; Tsai, SJ; Lii, CK (2002). "Differential effects of garlic oil and its three major organosulfur components on the hepatic detoxification system in rats" (PDF). Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 50 (2): 378–83. doi:10.1021/jf010937z. PMID 11782211. <a href="http://ntur.lib.ntu.edu.tw/bitstream/246246/190076/1/24.pdf" target="_blank">http://ntur.lib.ntu.edu.tw/bitstream/246246/190076/1/24.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:25" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:26"><p>Fukao, T; Hosono, T; Misawa, S; Seki, T; Ariga, T (2004). "The effects of allyl sulfides on the induction of phase II detoxification enzymes and liver injury by carbon tetrachloride". Food and Chemical Toxicology. 42 (5): 743–749. doi:10.1016/j.fct.2003.12.010. PMID 15046820. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:26" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:27"><p>Lemar, Katey M; Aon, Miguel A; Cortassa, Sonia; O'Rourke, Brian; Müller, Carsten T; Lloyd, David (2007). "Diallyl disulphide depletes glutathione in Candida albicans: Oxidative stress-mediated cell death studied by two-photon microscopy". Yeast. 24 (8): 695–706. doi:10.1002/yea.1503. PMC 2292485. PMID 17534841. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2292485" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2292485</a> <a href="#fnref:27" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:28"><p>Hu, Ying; Urig, Sabine; Koncarevic, Sasa; Wu, Xinjiang; Fischer, Marina; Rahlfs, Stefan; Mersch-Sundermann, Volker; Becker, Katja (2007). "Glutathione- and thioredoxin-related enzymes are modulated by sulfur-containing chemopreventive agents". Biological Chemistry. 388 (10): 1069–81. doi:10.1515/BC.2007.135. PMID 17937621. S2CID 6384362. <a href="https://zenodo.org/record/894094" target="_blank">https://zenodo.org/record/894094</a> <a href="#fnref:28" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:29"><p>Koh, Seong-Ho; Kwon, Hyugsung; Park, Kee Hyung; Ko, Jin Kyung; Kim, Joo Hwan; Hwang, Myung Sil; Yum, Young Na; Kim, Ok-Hee; Kim, Juhan; Kim, Hee-Tae; Do, Byung-Rok; Kim, Kyung Suk; Kim, Haekwon; Roh, Hakjae; Yu, Hyun-Jeung; Jung, Hai Kwan; Kim, Seung Hyun (2005). "Protective effect of diallyl disulfide on oxidative stress-injured neuronally differentiated PC12 cells". Molecular Brain Research. 133 (2): 176–186. doi:10.1016/j.molbrainres.2004.10.006. PMID 15710234. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:29" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:30"><p>Kim, Jun-Gyou; Koh, Seong-Ho; Lee, Young Joo; Lee, Kyu-Young; Kim, Youngchul; Kim, Sunyoun; Lee, Myung-Koo; Kim, Seung Hyun (2005). "Differential effects of diallyl disulfide on neuronal cells depend on its concentration". Toxicology. 211 (1–2): 86–96. Bibcode:2005Toxgy.211...86K. doi:10.1016/j.tox.2005.02.011. PMID 15863251. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:30" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:31"><p>Chiang, Yi-Hsuan; Jen, Lin-Ni; Su, Hsiau-Yuan; Lii, Chong-Kuei; Sheen, Lee-Yan; Liu, Cheng-Tzu (2006). "Effects of garlic oil and two of its major organosulfur compounds, diallyl disulfide and diallyl trisulfide, on intestinal damage in rats injected with endotoxin". Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology. 213 (1): 46–54. Bibcode:2006ToxAP.213...46C. doi:10.1016/j.taap.2005.08.008. PMID 16274720. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:31" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:32"><p>Iciek, Małgorzata; Marcinek, Joanna; Mleczko, Urszula; Włodek, Lidia (2007). "Selective effects of diallyl disulfide, a sulfane sulfur precursor, in the liver and Ehrlich ascites tumor cells". European Journal of Pharmacology. 569 (1–2): 1–7. doi:10.1016/j.ejphar.2007.04.055. PMID 17560567. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:32" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:33"><p>Iciek, M; Bilska, A; Ksiazek, L; Srebro, Z; Włodek, L (2005). "Allyl disulfide as donor and cyanide as acceptor of sulfane sulfur in the mouse tissues" (PDF). Pharmacological Reports. 57 (2): 212–8. PMID 15886420. <a href="http://www.if-pan.krakow.pl/pjp/pdf/2005/2_212.pdf" target="_blank">http://www.if-pan.krakow.pl/pjp/pdf/2005/2_212.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:33" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:34"><p>Amonkar, S. V; Banerji, A (1971). "Isolation and Characterization of Larvicidal Principle of Garlic". Science. 174 (4016): 1343–1344. Bibcode:1971Sci...174.1343A. doi:10.1126/science.174.4016.1343. PMID 5135721. S2CID 43748340. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:34" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:35"><p>Avato, P; Tursi, F; Vitali, C; Miccolis, V; Candido, V (2000). "Allylsulfide constituents of garlic volatile oil as antimicrobial agents". Phytomedicine. 7 (3): 239–243. doi:10.1016/s0944-7113(00)80010-0. PMID 11185736. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:35" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:36"><p>O'Gara, EA; Hill, DJ; Maslin, DJ (2000). "Activities of garlic oil, garlic powder, and their diallyl constituents against Helicobacter pylori". Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 66 (5): 2269–73. Bibcode:2000ApEnM..66.2269O. doi:10.1128/AEM.66.5.2269-2273.2000. PMC 101489. PMID 10788416. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC101489" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC101489</a> <a href="#fnref:36" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:37"><p>Yu, J; Xiao, YB; Wang, XY (2007). "Effects of preoperatively selected gut decontamination on cardiopulmonary bypass-induced endotoxemia". Chinese Journal of Traumatology. 10 (3): 131–7. PMID 17535634. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/PMID_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:37" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:38"><p>World Cancer Research Fund/American Institute for Cancer Research: Food, Nutrition, Physical Activity and the Prevention of Cancer. 2nd Edition, 2007 (ISBN 0-97225222-3) S. pp.93–94 Archived 2009-03-25 at the Wayback Machine (PDF, 12 MB) <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:38" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:39"><p>Milner, John A (2006). "Preclinical Perspectives on Garlic and Cancer". The Journal of Nutrition. 136 (3): 827S – 831S. doi:10.1093/jn/136.3.727S. PMID 16484574. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjn%2F136.3.727S" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjn%2F136.3.727S</a> <a href="#fnref:39" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:40"><p>Yang, JS; Kok, LF; Lin, YH; Kuo, TC; Yang, JL; Lin, CC; Chen, GW; Huang, WW; et al. (2006). "Diallyl disulfide inhibits WEHI-3 leukemia cells in vivo". Anticancer Research. 26 (1A): 219–25. PMID 16475702. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/PMID_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:40" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:41"><p>Huang, Z; Lei, X; Zhong, M; Zhu, B; Tang, S; Liao, D (2007). "Bcl-2 small interfering RNA sensitizes cisplatin-resistant human lung adenocarcinoma A549/DDP cell to cisplatin and diallyl disulfide". Acta Biochimica et Biophysica Sinica. 39 (11): 835–43. doi:10.1111/j.1745-7270.2007.00356.x. PMID 17989874. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:41" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:42"><p>Jo, Hong; Song, Ju; Kim, Kang; Cho, Yong; Kim, Ki; Park, Young (2008). "Diallyl disulfide induces reversible G2/M phase arrest on a p53-independent mechanism in human colon cancer HCT-116 cells". Oncology Reports. 19 (1): 275–80. doi:10.3892/or.19.1.275. PMID 18097607. <a href="https://doi.org/10.3892%2For.19.1.275" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.3892%2For.19.1.275</a> <a href="#fnref:42" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:43"><p>Omar, Syed Haris; Hasan, Ahmed; Hunjul, Nashat; Ali, Javed; Aqil, M (2007). "Historical, chemical and cardiovascular perspectives on garlic: A review". Pharmacognosy Reviews. 1 (1): 80–87. Archived from the original on 2012-03-07. Retrieved 2010-05-28. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120307003643/http://www.phcogrev.com/article.asp?issn=0973-7847;year=2007;volume=1;issue=1;spage=80;epage=87;aulast=Omar;type=0" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20120307003643/http://www.phcogrev.com/article.asp?issn=0973-7847;year=2007;volume=1;issue=1;spage=80;epage=87;aulast=Omar;type=0</a> <a href="#fnref:43" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:44"><p>Bautista, D. M; Movahed, P; Hinman, A; Axelsson, H. E; Sterner, O; Hogestatt, E. D; Julius, D; Jordt, S.-E; Zygmunt, P. M (2005). "Pungent products from garlic activate the sensory ion channel TRPA1". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 102 (34): 12248–12252. Bibcode:2005PNAS..10212248B. doi:10.1073/pnas.0505356102. PMC 1189336. PMID 16103371. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1189336" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1189336</a> <a href="#fnref:44" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:45"><p>Block, E (2009). Garlic and other alliums: the lore and the science. Royal Society of Chemistry. p. 228. ISBN 978-0-85404-190-9. <a href="978-0-85404-190-9" target="_blank">978-0-85404-190-9</a> <a href="#fnref:45" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:46"><p>Horn, TD (2003). Dermatology, Volume 2. Elsevier Health Sciences. p. 305. ISBN 978-0-323-02578-2. <a href="978-0-323-02578-2" target="_blank">978-0-323-02578-2</a> <a href="#fnref:46" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:47"><p>Garlic Archived 2010-06-15 at the Wayback Machine <a href="http://www.allallergy.net/fapaidfind.cfm?cdeoc=684" target="_blank">http://www.allallergy.net/fapaidfind.cfm?cdeoc=684</a> <a href="#fnref:47" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:48"><p>Moyle, Mignon; Frowen, Kath; Nixon, Rosemary (2004). "Use of gloves in protection from diallyl disulphide allergy". Australasian Journal of Dermatology. 45 (4): 223–225. doi:10.1111/j.1440-0960.2004.00102.x. PMID 15527433. S2CID 38878468. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:48" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:49"><p>allyl disulfide <a href="http://www.thegoodscentscompany.com/data/rw1002791.html" target="_blank">http://www.thegoodscentscompany.com/data/rw1002791.html</a> <a href="#fnref:49" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:50"><p>EPA documents <a href="http://yosemite.epa.gov/oppts/epatscat8.nsf/ReportSearch?OpenAgent&CASNumber=2179-57-9" target="_blank">http://yosemite.epa.gov/oppts/epatscat8.nsf/ReportSearch?OpenAgent&CASNumber=2179-57-9</a> <a href="#fnref:50" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:51"><p>documents of the U.S. Department of Labor Occupational Safety & Health <a href="http://www.osha.gov/dts/chemicalsampling/data/CH_231730.html" target="_blank">http://www.osha.gov/dts/chemicalsampling/data/CH_231730.html</a> <a href="#fnref:51" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:52"><p>Sun, X; Guo, T; He, J; Zhao, M; Yan, M; Cui, F; Deng, Y (2006). "Simultaneous determination of diallyl trisulfide and diallyl disulfide in rat blood by gas chromatography with electron-capture detection". Die Pharmazie. 61 (12): 985–8. PMID 17283653. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/PMID_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:52" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> </ol>