Systems architecture

<h2 id="overview">Overview</h2>
Various organizations can define systems architecture in different ways, including:

<ul><li>The fundamental organization of a system, embodied in its components, their relationships to each other and to the environment, and the principles governing its design and evolution.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5">5</a></li>
<li>A representation of a system, including a mapping of functionality onto hardware and <a href="/facts/Software_component/eW5wvSHC">software components</a>, a mapping of the <a href="/facts/Software_architecture/1Hokp0Ed">software architecture</a> onto the <a href="/facts/Hardware_architecture/c0qL5r2U">hardware architecture</a>, and human interaction with these components.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6">6</a></li>
<li>An allocated arrangement of physical elements which provides the design solution for a consumer product or life-cycle process intended to satisfy the requirements of the functional architecture and the requirements baseline.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7">7</a></li>
<li>An architecture consists of the most important, pervasive, top-level, strategic inventions, decisions, and their associated rationales about the overall structure (i.e., essential elements and their relationships) and associated characteristics and behavior.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8">8</a></li>
<li>A description of the design and contents of a <a href="/facts/Computer_system/SQe1aK05">computer system</a>. If documented, it may include information such as a detailed inventory of current hardware, software and networking capabilities; a description of long-range plans and priorities for future purchases, and a plan for upgrading and/or replacing dated equipment and software.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9">9</a></li>
<li>A formal description of a system, or a detailed plan of the system at component level to guide its implementation.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10">10</a></li>
<li>The composite of the design architectures for products and their life-cycle processes.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11">11</a></li>
<li>The structure of components, their interrelationships, and the principles and guidelines governing their design and evolution over time.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12">12</a></li></ul>
One can think of system architecture as a set of representations of an existing (or future) system. These representations initially describe a general, high-level functional organization, and are progressively refined to more detailed and concrete descriptions.
System architecture conveys the informational content of the elements consisting of a system, the relationships among those elements, and the rules governing those relationships. The architectural components and set of relationships between these components that an architecture description may consist of hardware, <a href="/facts/Software/RP79lVSW">software</a>, documentation, facilities, manual procedures, or roles played by organizations or people.
A system architecture primarily concentrates on the internal <a href="/facts/Interface_(computer_science)/zdfp8unT">interfaces</a> among the system's components or <a href="/facts/System/hmqQ4ASX">subsystems</a>, and on the interface(s) between the system and its external environment, especially the <a href="/facts/User_(computing)/zQRzG0KG">user</a>. (In the specific case of computer systems, this latter, special, interface is known as the <a href="/facts/Computer_human_interface/e9sPEWVD">computer human interface</a>, AKA human computer interface, or <a href="/facts/Human-computer_interaction/EkmIxGCx">HCI</a>; formerly called the man-machine interface.)
One can contrast a system architecture with system architecture engineering (SAE) - the method and discipline for effectively implementing the architecture of a system:<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13">13</a>

<ul><li>SAE is a method because a sequence of steps is prescribed[by whom?] to produce or to change the architecture of a system within a <a href="/facts/Set_(mathematics)/BfucfHMq">set</a> of <a href="/facts/Constraint_(mathematics)/QLFIFlFX">constraints</a>.</li>
<li>SAE is a discipline because a body of <a href="/facts/Knowledge/joozoaup">knowledge</a> is used to inform practitioners as to the most effective way to design the system within a set of constraints.</li></ul>
<h2 id="history">History</h2>
Systems architecture depends heavily on practices and techniques which were developed over thousands of years in many other fields, perhaps the most important being civil architecture.

<ul><li>Prior to the advent of digital computers, the electronics and other engineering disciplines used the term "system" as it is still commonly used today. However, with the arrival of <a href="/facts/Digital_computers/SQe1aK05">digital computers</a> and the development of <a href="/facts/Software_engineer/79aIJhcy">software engineering</a> as a separate discipline, it was often necessary to distinguish among engineered hardware artifacts, software artifacts, and the combined artifacts. A <a href="/facts/Computer_program/e38jH9N9">programmable</a> hardware artifact, or <a href="/facts/Computer/SQe1aK05">computing machine</a>, that lacks its <a href="/facts/Computer_program/e38jH9N9">computer program</a> is impotent; even as a software artifact, or program, is equally impotent unless it can be used to alter the sequential states of a suitable (hardware) machine. However, a hardware machine and its programming can be designed to perform an almost illimitable number of abstract and physical tasks. Within the computer and software engineering disciplines (and, often, other engineering disciplines, such as communications), then, the term system came to be defined as containing all of the elements necessary (which generally includes both hardware and software) to perform a useful function.</li>
<li>Consequently, within these engineering disciplines, a system generally refers to a programmable hardware machine and its included program. And a <a href="/facts/Systems_engineer/gFwRmkDp">systems engineer</a> is defined as one concerned with the complete device, both hardware and software and, more particularly, all of the interfaces of the device, including that between hardware and software, and especially between the complete device and its user (the CHI). The hardware engineer deals (more or less) exclusively with the hardware device; the <a href="/facts/Software_engineer/79aIJhcy">software engineer</a> deals (more or less) exclusively with the computer program; and the systems engineer is responsible for seeing that the program is capable of properly running within the hardware device, and that the system composed of the two entities is capable of properly interacting with its external environment, especially the user, and performing its intended function.</li>
<li>A systems architecture makes use of elements of both software and hardware and is used to enable the design of such a composite system. A good architecture may be viewed as a 'partitioning <a href="/facts/Scheme_(mathematics)/c7uSqGqL">scheme</a>,' or <a href="/facts/Algorithm/fnl5NmRt">algorithm</a>, which partitions all of the system's present and foreseeable requirements into a workable set of cleanly <a href="/facts/Bounded_set/yCldjtoy">bounded</a> <a href="/facts/Subsystem/hmqQ4ASX">subsystems</a> with nothing left over. That is, it is a partitioning scheme which is exclusive, <a href="/facts/Interval_(mathematics)/e9se3vTe">inclusive</a>, and <a href="/facts/Collectively_exhaustive_events/DCK4rxvW">exhaustive</a>. A major purpose of the partitioning is to arrange the elements in the sub systems so that there is a minimum of interdependencies needed among them. In both software and hardware, a good sub system tends to be seen to be a meaningful "object". Moreover, a good architecture provides for an easy mapping to the user's requirements and the <a href="/facts/Verification_and_Validation/hgqysrzb">validation tests</a> of the user's requirements. Ideally, a mapping also exists from every least element to every requirement and test.</li></ul>
<h2 id="modern-trends-in-systems-architecture">Modern Trends in Systems Architecture</h2>
With the increasing complexity of <a href="/facts/Digital_electronics/3kJcKbkw">digital systems</a>, modern systems architecture has evolved to incorporate advanced principles such as <a href="/facts/Modularity/mptqhanB">modularization</a>, microservices, and artificial intelligence-driven optimizations. <a href="/facts/Cloud_computing/guhg0FGV">Cloud computing</a>, edge computing, and distributed ledger technologies (DLTs) have also influenced architectural decisions, enabling more scalable, secure, and <a href="/facts/Fault_tolerance/rasrYlJk">fault-tolerant</a> designs.
One of the most significant shifts in recent years has been the adoption of Software-Defined Architectures (SDA), which decouple hardware from <a href="/facts/Software/RP79lVSW">software</a>, allowing systems to be more flexible and adaptable to changing requirements.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14">14</a> This trend is particularly evident in network architectures, where <a href="/facts/Software-defined_networking/MJGFxyoj">Software-Defined Networking (SDN)</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15">15</a> and <a href="/facts/Network_function_virtualization/74bwhhoJ">Network Function Virtualization (NFV)</a> enable more dynamic management of <a href="/facts/Network_topology/rBYE0kke">network</a> resources.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16">16</a>
In addition, AI-enhanced system architectures have gained traction, leveraging machine learning for <a href="/facts/Predictive_maintenance/phoMznRm">predictive maintenance</a>, <a href="/facts/Anomaly_detection/wjEGMGGz">anomaly detection</a>, and automated system optimization. The rise of <a href="/facts/Cyber%E2%80%93physical_system/cpYVeuch">cyber-physical systems (CPS)</a> and digital twins has further extended system architecture principles beyond traditional computing, integrating real-world data into virtual models for better decision-making.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17">17</a>
With the rise of <a href="/facts/Edge_computing/4lqr8N6V">edge computing</a>, system architectures now focus on <a href="/facts/Decentralization/5koMXAUs">decentralization</a> and <a href="/facts/Real_Time_Processing/p9HxgL4L">real-time processing</a>, reducing dependency on centralized data centers and improving latency-sensitive applications such as <a href="/facts/Autonomous_vehicles/hhmnmpcu">autonomous vehicles</a>, <a href="/facts/Robotics/wkmvodJz">robotics</a>, and <a href="/facts/Internet_of_things/rwwGAxn3">IoT networks</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18">18</a>
These advancements continue to redefine how systems are designed, leading to more resilient, scalable, and intelligent architectures suited for the digital age.

<h2 id="types">Types</h2>
Several types of system architectures exist, each catering to different domains and applications. While all system architectures share fundamental principles of structure, behavior, and interaction, they vary in design based on their intended purpose. Several types of systems architectures (underlain by the same fundamental principles<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19">19</a>) have been identified as follows:<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20">20</a>

<ul><li>Hardware Architecture: Hardware architecture defines the physical components of a system, including processors, <a href="/facts/Memory_hierarchy/ttwjvRyd">memory hierarchies</a>, buses, and input/output interfaces. It encompasses the design and integration of computing hardware elements to ensure performance, reliability, and scalability.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21">21</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22">22</a></li>
<li>Software Architecture: Software architecture focuses on the high-level organization of software systems, including modules, components, and communication patterns. It plays a crucial role in defining system behavior, security, and maintainability.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23">23</a> Examples include monolithic, microservices, event-driven, and layered architectures.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24">24</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25">25</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26">26</a></li>
<li>Enterprise Architecture: Enterprise architecture provides a strategic blueprint for an organization’s IT infrastructure, ensuring that business goals align with technology investments. It includes frameworks such as <a href="/facts/The_Open_Group_Architecture_Framework/G8qggAIa">TOGAF</a> (The Open Group Architecture Framework) and <a href="/facts/Zachman_Framework/RN8tJcSM">Zachman Framework</a> to standardize IT governance and business operations.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27">27</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28">28</a></li>
<li>Collaborative Systems Architecture: This category includes large-scale interconnected systems designed for seamless interaction among multiple entities. Examples include the <a href="/facts/Internet/Xw1rVvJU">Internet</a>, <a href="/facts/Intelligent_transportation_system/3B6Wls8X">intelligent transportation systems</a>, <a href="/facts/Air_traffic_control/G2cQebVb">air traffic control</a> networks, and <a href="/facts/Defense_systems/fV9QfoBh">defense systems</a>. These architectures emphasize <a href="/facts/Interoperability/7WgqUbXU">interoperability</a>, distributed control, and resilience.</li>
<li>Manufacturing Systems Architecture: Manufacturing system architectures integrate automation, <a href="/facts/Robotics/wkmvodJz">robotics</a>, IoT, and AI-driven decision-making to optimize production workflows. Emerging trends include <a href="/facts/Industry_4.0/BqVVErBA">Industry 4.0</a>, cyber-physical systems (CPS), and <a href="/facts/Digital_twin/CIajYd9S">digital twins</a>, enabling predictive <a href="/facts/Maintenance/Mrp4kIwF">maintenance</a> and real-time monitoring.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29">29</a></li>
<li>Cloud and Edge Computing Architecture: With the shift toward cloud-based infrastructures, <a href="/facts/Cloud_computing/guhg0FGV">cloud architecture</a> defines how resources are distributed across data centers and virtualized environments. <a href="/facts/Edge_computing/4lqr8N6V">Edge computing</a> architecture extends this by processing data closer to the source, reducing <a href="/facts/Latency_(engineering)/6Bjhn30H">latency</a> for applications like autonomous vehicles, industrial automation, and smart cities.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30">30</a></li>
<li>AI-Driven System Architecture: <a href="/facts/Artificial_intelligence/lJGauQwX">Artificial Intelligence (AI)</a> and <a href="/facts/Machine_learning/e0w0XJTu">machine learning</a>-driven architectures optimize decision-making by dynamically adapting system behavior based on real-time data. This is widely used in autonomous systems, cybersecurity, and intelligent automation</li></ul>

<h2 id="see-also">See also</h2>
<ul><li><a href="/facts/Arcadia_(engineering)/HT604VMX">Arcadia (engineering)</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Architectural_pattern_(computer_science)/GnN0z06K">Architectural pattern (computer science)</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Department_of_Defense_Architecture_Framework/fjB2hV0z">Department of Defense Architecture Framework</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Enterprise_architecture_framework/kq1FCjjT">Enterprise architecture framework</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Enterprise_information_security_architecture/vDch35hf">Enterprise information security architecture</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Process_architecture/oxe07Tlt">Process architecture</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Requirements_analysis/fHtWUoMs">Requirements analysis</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Software_architecture/1Hokp0Ed">Software architecture</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Software_engineering/KX6cE9kz">Software engineering</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Systems_architect/SXvEJzNg">Systems architect</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Systems_analysis/2NwqATNQ">Systems analysis</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Systems_design/hFWYoaNP">Systems design</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Systems_engineering/gFwRmkDp">Systems engineering</a></li></ul>

<h2 id="external-links">External links</h2>

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Systems architecture.

<ul><li><a href="http://sysarch.pbwiki.com">Principles of system architecture</a></li>
<li><a href="http://borisgolden.com/systems_architecture.html">What is Systems Architecture ?</a></li>
<li><a href="https://www.incose.org/communities/working-groups-initiatives/architecture">INCOSE Systems Architecture Working Group</a></li>
<li><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/journal/journal-of-systems-architecture">Journal of Systems Architecture (Embedded Software Design)</a></li></ul>

<h2 id="references">References</h2>

<ol>
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<li id="fn:2">Paul C. Clements (1996) "A survey of architecture description languages." Proceedings of the 8th international workshop on software specification and design. IEEE Computer Society, 1996. <a href="http://www.sei.cmu.edu/library/assets/Survey_of_ADLs.pdf" target="_blank">http://www.sei.cmu.edu/library/assets/Survey_of_ADLs.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:3">Nenad Medvidovic and Richard N. Taylor (2000). "A classification and comparison framework for software architecture description languages." Software Engineering, IEEE Transactions on 26.1 (2000): 70-93. <a href="ftp://ftp.ics.uci.edu/pub/arch/papers/TR-UCI-ICS-97-02.pdf" target="_blank">ftp://ftp.ics.uci.edu/pub/arch/papers/TR-UCI-ICS-97-02.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:4">Nejad, Bobby (2023), Nejad, Bobby (ed.), "The Physical Architecture", Introduction to Satellite Ground Segment Systems Engineering: Principles and Operational Aspects, Space Technology Library, vol. 41, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 187–197, doi:10.1007/978-3-031-15900-8_13, ISBN 978-3-031-15900-8, retrieved 2022-12-07 <a href="978-3-031-15900-8" target="_blank">978-3-031-15900-8</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:5">From ANSI/IEEE 1471-2000. <a href="/wiki/ANSI" target="_blank">/wiki/ANSI</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:6">From the Carnegie Mellon University's Software Engineering Institute. <a href="http://www.cmu.edu" target="_blank">http://www.cmu.edu</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:7">From The Human Engineering Home Page's Glossary. Archived 2015-02-13 at the Wayback Machine <a href="http://www.manningaffordability.com/s&tweb/HEResource/Other/Definitions.htm" target="_blank">http://www.manningaffordability.com/s&tweb/HEResource/Other/Definitions.htm</a> <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:8">From OPEN Process Framework (OPF) Repository Archived 2006-03-05 at the Wayback Machine. <a href="http://www.opfro.org/Components/WorkProducts/ArchitectureSet/Architectures/Architectures.html" target="_blank">http://www.opfro.org/Components/WorkProducts/ArchitectureSet/Architectures/Architectures.html</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:9">From The National Center for Education Statistics glossary. <a href="http://nces.ed.gov/pubs98/tech/glossary.asp" target="_blank">http://nces.ed.gov/pubs98/tech/glossary.asp</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:10">TOGAF <a href="/wiki/TOGAF" target="_blank">/wiki/TOGAF</a> <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:11">From IEEE 1220-1998 as found at their glossary Archived 2006-05-17 at the Wayback Machine. <a href="/wiki/IEEE" target="_blank">/wiki/IEEE</a> <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:12">TOGAF <a href="/wiki/TOGAF" target="_blank">/wiki/TOGAF</a> <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:13">The Method Framework for Engineering System Architectures, Donald Firesmith et al., 2008 <a href="/wiki/Donald_Firesmith" target="_blank">/wiki/Donald_Firesmith</a> <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:14">Zeng, Ruiqi; Niu, Yiru; Zhao, Yue; Peng, Haiyang (2022). Liu, Shuai; Ma, Xuefei (eds.). "Software Architecture Evolution and Technology Research". Advanced Hybrid Information Processing. Cham: Springer International Publishing: 708–720. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-94551-0_54. ISBN 978-3-030-94551-0. <a href="978-3-030-94551-0" target="_blank">978-3-030-94551-0</a> <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:15">"Software-defined Networking", Wikipedia (in German), 2024-10-21, retrieved 2025-03-03 <a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software-defined_Networking" target="_blank">https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software-defined_Networking</a> <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:16">Ziemann, Jörg (2022), Ziemann, Jörg (ed.), "Enterprise Architecture in a Nutshell", Fundamentals of Enterprise Architecture Management: Foundations for Steering the Enterprise-Wide Digital System, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 23–60, doi:10.1007/978-3-030-96734-5_2, ISBN 978-3-030-96734-5, retrieved 2025-03-03 <a href="978-3-030-96734-5" target="_blank">978-3-030-96734-5</a> <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:17">Michaels, Paul (2022). "Software Architecture by Example". SpringerLink. doi:10.1007/978-1-4842-7990-8. <a href="https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-1-4842-7990-8" target="_blank">https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-1-4842-7990-8</a> <a href="#fnref:17" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:18">Nejad, Bobby (2023), Nejad, Bobby (ed.), "The Physical Architecture", Introduction to Satellite Ground Segment Systems Engineering: Principles and Operational Aspects, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 187–197, doi:10.1007/978-3-031-15900-8_13, ISBN 978-3-031-15900-8, retrieved 2025-03-03 <a href="978-3-031-15900-8" target="_blank">978-3-031-15900-8</a> <a href="#fnref:18" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:19">The fundamental principles of Systems Architecture, by Boris Golden <a href="http://borisgolden.com/systems_architecture.html#principles" target="_blank">http://borisgolden.com/systems_architecture.html#principles</a> <a href="#fnref:19" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:20">The Art of Systems Architecture, Mark Maier and Eberhardt Rechtin, 2nd ed 2002 <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mark_Maier&action=edit&redlink=1" target="_blank">/w/index.php?title=Mark_Maier&action=edit&redlink=1</a> <a href="#fnref:20" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:21">Abbas, Karim (2023). "From Algorithms to Hardware Architectures". SpringerLink. doi:10.1007/978-3-031-08693-9. <a href="https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-031-08693-9" target="_blank">https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-031-08693-9</a> <a href="#fnref:21" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:22">Abbas, Karim (2023). From Algorithms to Hardware Architectures. doi:10.1007/978-3-031-08693-9. ISBN 978-3-031-08692-2. S2CID 251371033. <a href="978-3-031-08692-2" target="_blank">978-3-031-08692-2</a> <a href="#fnref:22" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:23">Michaels, Paul (2022). "Software Architecture by Example". SpringerLink. doi:10.1007/978-1-4842-7990-8. <a href="https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-1-4842-7990-8" target="_blank">https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-1-4842-7990-8</a> <a href="#fnref:23" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:24">Zeng, Ruiqi; Niu, Yiru; Zhao, Yue; Peng, Haiyang (2022). Liu, Shuai; Ma, Xuefei (eds.). "Software Architecture Evolution and Technology Research". Advanced Hybrid Information Processing. Cham: Springer International Publishing: 708–720. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-94551-0_54. ISBN 978-3-030-94551-0. <a href="978-3-030-94551-0" target="_blank">978-3-030-94551-0</a> <a href="#fnref:24" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:25">Michaels, Paul (2022). Software Architecture by Example. doi:10.1007/978-1-4842-7990-8. ISBN 978-1-4842-7989-2. S2CID 248408249. <a href="978-1-4842-7989-2" target="_blank">978-1-4842-7989-2</a> <a href="#fnref:25" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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Systems architecture open-in-new

Systems architecture