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1925 in science
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<h2 id="astronomy-and-space-science">Astronomy and space science</h2> <ul><li>January 1 – <a href="/facts/Cecilia_Payne/omItk5SS">Cecilia Payne</a> completes her PhD thesis <i>Stellar Atmospheres: a Contribution to the Observational Study of High Temperature in the Reversing Layers of Stars</i><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:1" href="#fn:1"><sup>1</sup></a> at <a href="/facts/Radcliffe_College/kBmjyYHq">Radcliffe College</a> of <a href="/facts/Harvard_University/Lhy9L1cx">Harvard University</a>, providing spectral evidence that stars are composed almost entirely of hydrogen with helium, contrary to scientific consensus at the time; however, her findings will be vindicated by 1929 and astronomer <a href="/facts/Otto_Struve/rFYFWXLk">Otto Struve</a> will describe her work as "the most brilliant PhD thesis ever written in astronomy".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:2" href="#fn:2"><sup>2</sup></a></li></ul> <h2 id="biology">Biology</h2> <ul><li>July 10–21 – <a href="/facts/Scopes_Trial/RM50y3Ck">Scopes Trial</a>: In a staged test case (the "Monkey Trial") in <a href="/facts/Dayton%2c_Tennessee/Eor7ekAN">Dayton, Tennessee</a>, <a href="/facts/John_T._Scopes/yoky8sUT">John T. Scopes</a>, a young high school science teacher is accused of assigning a reading from a state-mandated textbook on Darwinian <a href="/facts/Evolution/Hj0qAaBk">evolution</a> in violation of a <a href="/facts/Tennessee/A3mLY9bu">Tennessee</a> state law, the "<a href="/facts/Butler_Act/mM4eyKaP">Butler Act</a>". He is found guilty and fined $100, though the verdict is later overturned on a technicality.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:3" href="#fn:3"><sup>3</sup></a></li> <li>September – Official opening of <a href="/facts/Thijsse%2527s_Hof/rwsl0t4v">Thijsse's Hof</a> (Garden of <a href="/facts/Jac._P._Thijsse/klarj1bt">Thijsse</a>), the first <a href="/facts/Wildlife_garden/DpfqYqVm">wildlife garden</a> in the Netherlands, in <a href="/facts/Bloemendaal/NXYMUz3A">Bloemendaal</a> near <a href="/facts/Haarlem/wB64bSCk">Haarlem</a>.</li> <li>Approximate date – <a href="/facts/Extinction/24p5NP2q">Extinction</a> of the <a href="/facts/Bubal_hartebeest/h01eHNIB">Bubal hartebeest</a> in <a href="/facts/North_Africa/ItxQAfs7">North Africa</a>.</li></ul> <h2 id="cartography">Cartography</h2> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Adams_hemisphere-in-a-square_projection/TppBKNos">Adams hemisphere-in-a-square projection</a> published by American cartographer <a href="/facts/Oscar_S._Adams/1ss0vLlI">Oscar S. Adams</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:4" href="#fn:4"><sup>4</sup></a></li></ul> <h2 id="chemistry">Chemistry</h2> <ul><li>May – <a href="/facts/Rhenium/TzyqJYEn">Rhenium</a> is discovered by <a href="/facts/Walter_Noddack/a75NHsrF">Walter Noddack</a> and <a href="/facts/Ida_Tacke/4Uve513s">Ida Tacke</a> in <a href="/facts/Berlin/pMTIRNXK">Berlin</a>, the last stable, non-radioactive naturally occurring <a href="/facts/Chemical_element/0jducgWD">element</a> to be found.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5"><sup>5</sup></a></li> <li>The <a href="/facts/Fischer%25E2%2580%2593Tropsch_process/qx8noLlC">Fischer–Tropsch process</a> for production of <a href="/facts/Hydrocarbon/Dcg95Ju5">hydrocarbons</a> is first developed by <a href="/facts/Franz_Joseph_Emil_Fischer/9SkSa9ar">Franz Fischer</a> and <a href="/facts/Hans_Tropsch/JxVet0hA">Hans Tropsch</a> at the Kaiser-Wilhelm-Institut für Kohlenforschung in Mülheim an der Ruhr, Germany.</li></ul> <h2 id="history-of-science">History of science</h2> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Museum_of_the_History_of_Science/A1ynPqIl">Museum of the History of Science</a> opens in the <a href="/facts/Ashmolean_Museum/zRl83sQY">Old Ashmolean</a> building in <a href="/facts/Oxford/kHvWDTXW">Oxford</a>, set up by <a href="/facts/Robert_Gunther/QV1lzkoH">Robert Gunther</a> based largely on the collection given by Dr <a href="/facts/Lewis_Evans_(collector)/z4JhdDqh">Lewis Evans</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6"><sup>6</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Pharmazie-Historisches_Museum_der_Universit%25C3%25A4t_Basel/M85Dy82V">Pharmazie-Historisches Museum der Universität Basel</a> established by donation of the collection of <a href="/facts/Pharmacist/YakY9Lk9">pharmacist</a> Josef Anton Häfliger.</li> <li><a href="/facts/Edwin_Arthur_Burtt/XoeYvRtF">Edwin Arthur Burtt</a>'s <i>The Metaphysical Foundations of Modern Physical Science</i> is published.</li></ul> <h2 id="physics">Physics</h2> <ul><li>January – <a href="/facts/Wolfgang_Pauli/Ugk4ubXk">Wolfgang Pauli</a> announces his <a href="/facts/Pauli_exclusion_principle/lsBKGeHD">exclusion rule</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7"><sup>7</sup></a></li> <li>June – <a href="/facts/Werner_Heisenberg/n4qzYvj4">Werner Heisenberg</a> spends time on <a href="/facts/Heligoland/UJ5qgc0g">Heligoland</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8"><sup>8</sup></a> resulting in the September publication of his seminal paper, "<a href="/facts/%25C3%259Cber_quantentheoretische_Umdeutung_kinematischer_und_mechanischer_Beziehungen/PREv5Fxf">Über quantentheoretische Umdeutung kinematischer und mechanischer Beziehungen</a>" ("Quantum theoretical re-interpretation of kinematic and mechanical relations") in <i><a href="/facts/Zeitschrift_f%25C3%25BCr_Physik/B0VsWLSC">Zeitschrift für Physik</a></i>.</li> <li>September–November – Heisenberg, <a href="/facts/Max_Born/6VnUDWhA">Max Born</a> and <a href="/facts/Pascual_Jordan/YNLoGJ5d">Pascual Jordan</a> submit their papers "Zur Quantenmechanik" setting out their <a href="/facts/Matrix_mechanics/nJxC4pKP">matrix formulation</a> of <a href="/facts/Quantum_mechanics/BRc3Mzgr">quantum mechanics</a>, to <i>Zeitschrift für Physik</i>.</li></ul> <h2 id="technology">Technology</h2> <ul><li>June 13 – <a href="/facts/Charles_Francis_Jenkins/Uos3wqtC">Charles Francis Jenkins</a> achieves the first synchronized transmission of pictures and sound, using 48 lines, and a mechanical system. A 10-minute film of a miniature windmill in motion is sent across 5 miles from <a href="/facts/Anacostia/69TKBTMv">Anacostia</a> to <a href="/facts/Washington%2c_DC/enXPK156">Washington, DC</a>. The images are viewed by representatives of the <a href="/facts/Bureau_of_Standards/8o7wGeYg">Bureau of Standards</a>, the <a href="/facts/U.S._Navy/xYK0fUou">U.S. Navy</a>, the <a href="/facts/United_States_Department_of_Commerce/3sch0DLr">Department of Commerce</a> and others. Jenkins calls this "the first public demonstration of radiovision".</li> <li>October 2 – <a href="/facts/John_Logie_Baird/bkngND9Q">John Logie Baird</a> successfully transmits the first television pictures with a greyscale image, in London.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9"><sup>9</sup></a></li> <li>October 22 – <a href="/facts/Julius_Edgar_Lilienfeld/Rtxy9fd7">Julius Edgar Lilienfeld</a> files the first <a href="/facts/Patent/LjT2bG3A">patent</a> for a form of <a href="/facts/Field-effect_transistor/TerYC6Nz">field-effect transistor</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10"><sup>10</sup></a></li> <li>November 4 – <a href="/facts/Charles_F._Brannock/N7oBSfre">Charles F. Brannock</a> files a patent for the <a href="/facts/Brannock_Device/9z4zovX3">Brannock Device</a> for measuring shoe sizes.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11"><sup>11</sup></a></li> <li><i>late</i> 1925 <i>or early</i> <a href="/facts/1926_in_science/IYIaVGQD">1926</a> – <a href="/facts/Vladimir_K._Zworykin/K617CjfI">Vladimir K. Zworykin</a> demonstrates a <a href="/facts/Cathode-ray_tube/8NVGx5C7">cathode-ray tube</a> television system using Braun tubes at the <a href="/facts/Westinghouse_Electric_(1886)/Nln2BzI3">Westinghouse Electric</a> laboratories in <a href="/facts/Pittsburgh%2c_Pennsylvania/42yPHyS0">Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania</a>.</li> <li><a href="/facts/Jonas_Hesselman/y9LjzbrV">Jonas Hesselman</a> introduces the <a href="/facts/Hesselman_engine/2mrJStNB">Hesselman engine</a>.</li></ul> <h2 id="other-events">Other events</h2> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Sinclair_Lewis/QsbDcpCE">Sinclair Lewis</a>'s novel <i><a href="/facts/Arrowsmith_(novel)/fch8qm8B">Arrowsmith</a></i> is published in the <a href="/facts/United_States/P0sCdLe5">United States</a>, notable in having the culture of medical science as a principal theme.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12"><sup>12</sup></a></li></ul> <h2 id="awards">Awards</h2> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Nobel_Prize/3z1Y3oFL">Nobel Prizes</a> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics/o6w1nCbr">Physics</a> – <a href="/facts/James_Franck/SooVoCUz">James Franck</a>, <a href="/facts/Gustav_Ludwig_Hertz/uudggEgb">Gustav Ludwig Hertz</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry/8Nb8Ajjy">Chemistry</a> – <a href="/facts/Richard_Adolf_Zsigmondy/UBHPehV1">Richard Adolf Zsigmondy</a></li></ul></li></ul> <h2 id="births">Births</h2> <ul><li>January 7 – <a href="/facts/Gerald_Durrell/1l2PRhPA">Gerald Durrell</a> (died <a href="/facts/1995_in_science/D99HJHFY">1995</a>), <a href="/facts/India/1kKHcnxM">Indian</a>-born <a href="/facts/British_people/xn7cqlzV">British</a> <a href="/facts/Wildlife_conservation/XzdYfcEz">wildlife conservationist</a>.</li> <li>January 30 – <a href="/facts/Douglas_Engelbart/gHT4dFLS">Douglas Engelbart</a> (died <a href="/facts/2013_in_science/WueRPaAd">2013</a>), <a href="/facts/Americans/srd9GJ5U">American</a> pioneer in <a href="/facts/Human%25E2%2580%2593computer_interaction/EkmIxGCx">human–computer interaction</a>.</li> <li>February 1 – <a href="/facts/John_F._Yardley/yJMB5rne">John F. Yardley</a> (died <a href="/facts/2001_in_science/BeRcDMev">2001</a>), American aeronautical engineer.</li> <li>February 25 – <a href="/facts/Elliott_Organick/3FTuCTUt">Elliott Organick</a> (died <a href="/facts/1985_in_science/uwrMxH5k">1985</a>), American computer scientist and educator.</li> <li>February 28 – <a href="/facts/Louis_Nirenberg/cgWIVxEs">Louis Nirenberg</a> (died <a href="/facts/2020_in_science/t6HkpHEr">2020</a>), <a href="/facts/Canadians/9y5ceYgk">Canadian</a>-born American mathematician.</li> <li>March 1 – <a href="/facts/Solomon_Marcus/tktu0geJ">Solomon Marcus</a> (died <a href="/facts/2016_in_science/xaChyHmT">2016</a>), <a href="/facts/Romanians/CzdFLDpf">Romanian</a> mathematician.</li> <li>March 20 – <a href="/facts/David_Warren_(inventor)/gnJcWtpV">David Warren</a> (died <a href="/facts/2010_in_science/8YFfjV39">2010</a>), <a href="/facts/Australians/hCxBM7cd">Australian</a> aviation scientist.</li> <li>April 12 – <a href="/facts/Evelyn_Berezin/95p5v5XM">Evelyn Berezin</a> (died <a href="/facts/2018_in_science/Sdha6SfH">2018</a>), American computer scientist.</li> <li>May 1 – <a href="/facts/Scott_Carpenter/aBQVYh49">Scott Carpenter</a> (died 2013), American <a href="/facts/Astronaut/HB1bd6Lz">astronaut</a>.</li> <li>May 16 – <a href="/facts/Nancy_Roman/sYSdHhxj">Nancy Roman</a> (died <a href="/facts/2018_in_science/Sdha6SfH">2018</a>), American astronomer.</li> <li>May 27 – <a href="/facts/John_L._Harper/2vTnwraS">John L. Harper</a> (died <a href="/facts/2009_in_science/m9t2hRa2">2009</a>), British <a href="/facts/Biologist/yJJGXyKR">biologist</a>, specializing in <a href="/facts/Ecology/YE8upuJU">ecology</a> and <a href="/facts/Plant/X5BMDMvS">plant</a> <a href="/facts/Population_biology/Gh6HyaHq">population biology</a>.</li> <li>June 17 – <a href="/facts/Alexander_Shulgin/DK7CAPtu">Alexander Shulgin</a> (died <a href="/facts/2014_in_science/mD8EVD7S">2014</a>), American <a href="/facts/Psychopharmacologist/INVubgKI">psychopharmacologist</a>.</li> <li>July 8 – <a href="/facts/Norbert_Pfennig/L2RU9DBN">Norbert Pfennig</a> (died <a href="/facts/2008_in_science/NLKwU0lC">2008</a>), <a href="/facts/Germans/F7mBCrJ4">German</a> <a href="/facts/Microbiologist/cqEyJwNK">microbiologist</a>.</li> <li>July 26 – <a href="/facts/Joseph_Engelberger/HVTaN9Iu">Joseph Engelberger</a> (died <a href="/facts/2015_in_science/ztLIsTpJ">2015</a>), American <a href="/facts/Robotics/wkmvodJz">robotics</a> engineer.</li> <li>August 10 – <a href="/facts/Stanislav_Brebera/pFSofXGL">Stanislav Brebera</a> (died <a href="/facts/2012_in_science/LJKMAdSd">2012</a>), <a href="/facts/Czechs/PsqFMBxp">Czech</a> <a href="/facts/Chemist/N09K7Bdm">chemist</a>.</li> <li>August 19 – <a href="/facts/Frederic_Richards/cf3u4f2y">Frederic Richards</a> (died <a href="/facts/2009_in_science/m9t2hRa2">2009</a>), American <a href="/facts/Biochemist/gAWNAY5v">biochemist</a> and <a href="/facts/Biophysics/l9u5gqCy">biophysicist</a> known for solving the <a href="/facts/Crystallography/9B5toeqG">crystal structure</a> of the <a href="/facts/Ribonuclease_S/sWUaPw8B">ribonuclease S</a> <a href="/facts/Enzyme/DSI1Fh7y">enzyme</a> in 1967 and for defining the concept of <a href="/facts/Solvent-accessible_surface/5khd22je">solvent-accessible surface</a>.</li> <li>September 16 – <a href="/facts/Eugene_Garfield/zNbuzHuj">Eugene Garfield</a> (died <a href="/facts/2017_in_science/qFe0XI9H">2017</a>), American pioneer of <a href="/facts/Bibliometrics/PaWjjRuW">bibliometrics</a> and <a href="/facts/Scientometrics/629weNc5">scientometrics</a>.</li> <li>September 27 – <a href="/facts/Robert_Edwards_(physiologist)/U1np5MSm">Robert Edwards</a> (died <a href="/facts/2013_in_science/WueRPaAd">2013</a>), <a href="/facts/British_people/xn7cqlzV">British</a> <a href="/facts/Physiologist/fh25y2pQ">physiologist</a> and pioneer of <a href="/facts/In_vitro_fertilisation/kQNMtaBu"><i>in vitro</i> fertilisation</a>, recipient of the 2010 <a href="/facts/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine/rlnpJX84">Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine</a>.</li> <li>September 28 – <a href="/facts/Seymour_Cray/uDpXUsXc">Seymour Cray</a> (died <a href="/facts/1996_in_science/zqglTHCW">1996</a>), American supercomputer architect.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13"><sup>13</sup></a></li> <li>September 30 – <a href="/facts/Arkady_Ostashev/ByfMD1JK">Arkady Ostashev</a> (died <a href="/facts/1998_in_science/5r43b43U">1998</a>), Soviet, Russian <a href="/facts/Scientist/JDvthEFM">scientist</a>, participant in the launch of the first artificial <a href="/facts/Earth/HLLmDfj0">Earth</a> <a href="/facts/Sputnik_1/GQ5KLlNC">satellite</a> and the <a href="/facts/Yuri_Gagarin/ucwoarjc">first cosmonaut</a>, <a href="/facts/Kandidat/3SjAwMdK">Candidate of Technical Sciences</a>, <a href="/facts/Docent/KCh8vk77">Docent</a>, <a href="/facts/Laureate/PpTtTWlx">laureate</a> of the <a href="/facts/Lenin_Prize/Yf40Ltcf">Lenin</a> and <a href="/facts/USSR_State_Prize/9fu2Ewjt">state</a> <a href="/facts/Prize/0FJPCVx9">prizes</a>.</li> <li>October 13 – <a href="/facts/Margaret_Thatcher/E4JKgfJE">Margaret Roberts</a> (died <a href="/facts/2013_in_science/WueRPaAd">2013</a>), chemist and <a href="/facts/Prime_Minister_of_the_United_Kingdom/Uf40UlBb">Prime Minister of the United Kingdom</a>.</li> <li>October 29 – <a href="/facts/Klaus_Roth/exBd7vDU">Klaus Roth</a> (died 2015), German-born mathematician.</li> <li>October 31 – <a href="/facts/John_Pople/1UmPknsL">John Pople</a> (died <a href="/facts/2004_in_science/Hv6XlPBW">2004</a>), British <a href="/facts/Theoretical_chemist/uqcyS5KH">theoretical chemist</a>, recipient of the 1998 <a href="/facts/Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry/8Nb8Ajjy">Nobel Prize in Chemistry</a>.</li> <li>November 16 – <a href="/facts/Michel_Jouvet/A8YWjCWt">Michel Jouvet</a> (died <a href="/facts/2017_in_science/qFe0XI9H">2017</a>), <a href="/facts/French_people/984axQ8y">French</a> <a href="/facts/Oneirology/mEaks2DP">oneirologist</a>.</li> <li>December 1 – <a href="/facts/Martin_Rodbell/NHNLcFgG">Martin Rodbell</a> (died <a href="/facts/1998_in_science/5r43b43U">1998</a>), American biochemist, recipient of the <a href="/facts/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine/rlnpJX84">Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine</a>.</li> <li>December 11 – <a href="/facts/Paul_Greengard/rTFYolrX">Paul Greengard</a> (died <a href="/facts/2019_in_science/kw3fMjnA">2019</a>), American neuroscientist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine.</li></ul> <h2 id="deaths">Deaths</h2> <ul><li>February 3 – <a href="/facts/Oliver_Heaviside/ktYBpAt7">Oliver Heaviside</a> (born <a href="/facts/1850_in_science/ftR77CAq">1850</a>), English <a href="/facts/Physicist/cQcgvSIm">physicist</a>.</li> <li>February 22 – Sir <a href="/facts/Clifford_Allbutt/lfJ2swtP">Clifford Allbutt</a> (born <a href="/facts/1836_in_science/nb0FPxUj">1836</a>), English <a href="/facts/Physician/qJ3woFvG">physician</a>, inventor of the clinical thermometer.</li> <li>May 5 – <a href="/facts/Catharine_van_Tussenbroek/qDH7qooV">Catharine van Tussenbroek</a> (born <a href="/facts/1852_in_science/BSfIEwWG">1852</a>), Dutch physician.</li> <li>June 3 – <a href="/facts/Camille_Flammarion/tFgJ6SRk">Camille Flammarion</a> (born <a href="/facts/1842_in_science/cTr4lNw4">1842</a>), French <a href="/facts/Astronomer/ronF8j4a">astronomer</a>.</li> <li>June 22 – <a href="/facts/Felix_Klein/WmL9guqK">Felix Klein</a> (born <a href="/facts/1849_in_science/mmaQsEug">1849</a>), <a href="/facts/Germans/F7mBCrJ4">German</a> <a href="/facts/Mathematician/eaFSR8Fx">mathematician</a>.</li> <li>July 26 – <a href="/facts/Gottlob_Frege/FXyStVYj">Gottlob Frege</a> (born <a href="/facts/1848_in_science/A16HGzWh">1848</a>), German philosopher, logician and mathematician.</li> <li>October 31 – <a href="/facts/Jos%25C3%25A9_Ingenieros/1JeqyrpS">José Ingenieros</a> (born <a href="/facts/1877_in_science/PvF8wXrx">1877</a>), Argentine <a href="/facts/Polymath/eqIfjQRu">polymath</a>.</li></ul> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>Payne, Cecilia H. (1925). Stellar Atmospheres: a Contribution to the Observational Study of High Temperature in the Reversing Layers of Stars (PhD). Radcliffe College. Bibcode:1925PhDT.........1P. OCLC 1443459. ProQuest 301786588. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>"January 1, 1925: Cecilia Payne-Gaposchkin and the Day the Universe Changed". American Physical Society. January 2015. Retrieved 2021-04-01. <a href="https://www.aps.org/publications/apsnews/201501/physicshistory.cfm" target="_blank">https://www.aps.org/publications/apsnews/201501/physicshistory.cfm</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>Moran, Jeffrey P. (2002). The Scopes Trial: A Brief History with Documents. Bedford/St. Martin's. <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:4"><p>Fenna, Donald (2006), Cartographic Science: A Compendium of Map Projections, with Derivations, Boca Raton: CRC Press, p. 357, ISBN 9780849381690. <a href="9780849381690" target="_blank">9780849381690</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:5"><p>Emsley, John (2001). "Rhenium". Nature's Building Blocks: An A-Z Guide to the Elements. Oxford University Press. pp. 358–360. ISBN 0-19-850340-7. <a href="0-19-850340-7" target="_blank">0-19-850340-7</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:6"><p>Simcock, A. V., ed. (1985). Robert T. Gunther and the Old Ashmolean. Oxford: Museum of the History of Science. ISBN 0-903364-04-2. <a href="0-903364-04-2" target="_blank">0-903364-04-2</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:7"><p>"This Month in Physics History – January 1925: Wolfgang Pauli announces the exclusion principle". APS News. 16 (1). American Physical Society. January 2007. Retrieved 2011-06-25. <a href="http://www.aps.org/publications/apsnews/200701/history.cfm" target="_blank">http://www.aps.org/publications/apsnews/200701/history.cfm</a> <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:8"><p>Rovelli, Carlo (2020). Helgoland. <a href="/wiki/Carlo_Rovelli" target="_blank">/wiki/Carlo_Rovelli</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:9"><p>Burns, R. W. Television: An International History of the Formative Years. London: Institution of Electrical Engineers. p. 264. ISBN 9780852969144. <a href="9780852969144" target="_blank">9780852969144</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:10"><p>U.S. patent 1,745,175 Method and apparatus for controlling electric currents, first filed in Canada, describing a device similar to a MESFET. Granted 28 January 1930. Lee, Thomas H. (2004). The Design of CMOS Radio-Frequency Integrated Circuits (New ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 167ff. ISBN 9780521835398. <a href="9780521835398" target="_blank">9780521835398</a> <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:11"><p>"Foot-Measuring Instrument." U.S. Patent 1,682,366. <a href="https://patents.google.com/patent/US1682366" target="_blank">https://patents.google.com/patent/US1682366</a> <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:12"><p>Fangerau, H. M. (2006). 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