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Manungal
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<h2 id="name">Name</h2> <p>Nungal's name means "Great Princess" in Sumerian.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:1" href="#fn:1"><sup>1</sup></a> A plural form of the name attested in some documents can be regarded as analogous to one of the collective terms for Mesopotamian deities, <a href="/facts/Igigi/5KI0zcPQ">Igigi</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:2" href="#fn:2"><sup>2</sup></a> </p><p>An alternate form of the name, Manungal, was possibly a contraction of the phrase <i>ama Nungal</i>, "mother Nungal."<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:3" href="#fn:3"><sup>3</sup></a> It is first attested in documents from the Ur III period, while in later times it commonly appears in place of the base form in texts written in <a href="/facts/Akkadian_language/esQDlrFw">Akkadian</a> or in the <a href="/facts/Emesal/LM6x88vp">Emesal</a> dialect of Sumerian.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:4" href="#fn:4"><sup>4</sup></a> A number of variant spellings of the name are attested in sources from <a href="/facts/Ugarit/Sf1o8AuK">Ugarit</a>, for example <i>dNun-gal-la</i>, <i>dMa-ga-la</i>, <i>dMa-nun-gal-la</i> or <i>dMa-nun-gal-an-na</i>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5"><sup>5</sup></a> </p><p>In the hymn <i>Nungal in the Ekur</i>, and in a fragment of an otherwise unknown composition, <a href="/facts/Ninegal/KGwmGQfC">Ninegal</a> functions as an epithet of Nungal.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6"><sup>6</sup></a> This name is otherwise attested either as an epithet of various goddesses, especially <a href="/facts/Inanna/vt9chb3G">Inanna</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7"><sup>7</sup></a> or as an independent minor deity, associated with royal palaces.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8"><sup>8</sup></a> </p><p>It is possible that Bēlet-balāṭi, "mistress of life," a goddess known from sources from the first millennium BCE, was a late form of Manungal.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9"><sup>9</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="character">Character</h2> <p>Jeremiah Peterson describes punishment and detention as the primary domain of Nungal.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10"><sup>10</sup></a> Her character is described in the hymn <i>Nungal in the Ekur</i>, known from a large number of Old Babylonian copies<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11"><sup>11</sup></a> thanks to its role in the scribal school curriculum.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12"><sup>12</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Miguel_Civil/nnkr7oXR">Miguel Civil</a> proposed that it was originally composed by a scribe accused of a crime which would warrant a severe penalty.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13"><sup>13</sup></a> It describes the fate of those who find themselves under the auspice of Nungal.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14"><sup>14</sup></a> According to this composition, the prison maintained by this goddess separates the guilty from the innocent, but also gives the former a chance to be redeemed, which is metaphorically compared to refining silver and to being born.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15"><sup>15</sup></a> The text likely reflected views about the idealized purpose and results of imprisonment, a punishment well attested in Mesopotamian records.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16"><sup>16</sup></a> The use of temporary imprisonment as part of the judicial process meant to help with determining if a person is guilty is also attested in the <a href="/facts/Code_of_Ur-Nammu/JTLPv4Gb">Code of Ur-Nammu</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17"><sup>17</sup></a> </p><p>Despite being the goddess of prisons, Nungal was regarded as a compassionate deity.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18"><sup>18</sup></a> Imprisonment was presumably viewed as compassionate compared to the death penalty,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19"><sup>19</sup></a> and it is likely that the goddess was regarded as capable of reducing the most severe punishments.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20"><sup>20</sup></a> She was also portrayed in various less fearsome roles, for example as a goddess of justice or as one associated with medicine and perhaps birth.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21"><sup>21</sup></a> </p><p>Nungal was also an underworld goddess, as evidenced by her association with Ereshkigal and by the epithet <i>Ninkurra</i>, "lady of the underworld," applied to her in incantations.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22"><sup>22</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="worship">Worship</h2> <p><a href="/facts/Wilfred_G._Lambert/dNVc1bqJ">Wilfred G. Lambert</a> proposed that originally Manungal and her spouse Birtum were worshiped in a presently unknown city which declined in the third millennium BCE, leading to the transfer of its tutelary deities to Nippur.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23"><sup>23</sup></a> An analogous process likely occurred also when it comes to other deities, such as <a href="/facts/Nisaba/BqxSB9y7">Nisaba</a>, whose cult was transferred from Eresh, which disappears from records after the Ur III period, to Nippur.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24"><sup>24</sup></a> </p><p>While Nungal is already attested in the <a href="/facts/Early_Dynastic_Period_(Mesopotamia)/BcFtVWBQ">Early Dynastic</a> god list from <a href="/facts/Shuruppak/0NtXYzgQ">Fara</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25"><sup>25</sup></a> worship of her is best attested in the Ur III period, when she was worshiped in <a href="/facts/Lagash/SQwkGota">Lagash</a>, Nippur, Umma, <a href="/facts/Susa/9zlRMpKX">Susa</a>, <a href="/facts/Ur/buNPcTEL">Ur</a> and possibly <a href="/facts/Uruk/8VY9FLDW">Uruk</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26"><sup>26</sup></a> In Nippur she was worshiped as one of the deities belonging to the court and family of <a href="/facts/Enlil/3QNQC0kc">Enlil</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27"><sup>27</sup></a> while in Ur she received offerings as one of the members of the circle of <a href="/facts/Gula_(goddess)/yLCo31HP">Gula</a> instead.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28"><sup>28</sup></a> A single attestation of Nungal receiving offerings in an Inanna temple, alongside <a href="/facts/Anu/0mVuI1q2">Anu</a>, <a href="/facts/Ninshubur/466xUIT1">Ninshubur</a>, <a href="/facts/Nanaya/aI4HdPnv">Nanaya</a>, <a href="/facts/Geshtinanna/rFND1QYw">Geshtinanna</a> and <a href="/facts/Dumuzid/ky1CmtJt">Dumuzi</a> is known too.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29"><sup>29</sup></a> There are also records of offerings being made to her alongside Inanna, Ninegal and <a href="/facts/Annunitum/7z9EtH7V">Annunitum</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30"><sup>30</sup></a> </p><p>According to <a href="/facts/Miguel_Civil/nnkr7oXR">Miguel Civil</a>, it is unlikely that the Ekur mentioned in the <i>Hymn to Nungal</i> was one and the same as the <a href="/facts/Ekur/n4IHI9SH">temple of Enlil in Nippur</a>, contrary to early assumptions in scholarship.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31"><sup>31</sup></a> Other locations proposed for it include the Egalmah temple in Ur, or the city of Lagash.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32"><sup>32</sup></a> </p><p>In the Old Babylonian period she was also worshiped in <a href="/facts/Sippar/RhUouSAp">Sippar</a>, where she had a temple, as well as a city gate named in her honor,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33"><sup>33</sup></a> and possibly in <a href="/facts/Dilbat/o9UYI1sw">Dilbat</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34"><sup>34</sup></a> In the last location there was a temple known as Esapar, "house of the net," dedicated to Ninegal.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35"><sup>35</sup></a> However, in a document listing various temples Esapar is instead said to be the name of a temple of Nungal, with no location listed.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36"><sup>36</sup></a> Due to the existence of a well attested association between these two goddesses it is possible that there was only one Esapar.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37"><sup>37</sup></a> </p><p>Under the name Bēlet-balāṭi Nungal continued to be worshiped in Nippur in the first millennium BCE, for example in the temple of the local goddess <a href="/facts/Ninimma/IeWx7RFE">Ninimma</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38"><sup>38</sup></a> She is also attested in sources linked to <a href="/facts/Babylon/Iz0TwTXS">Babylon</a>, <a href="/facts/Borsippa/IfaNgK6a">Borsippa</a>, <a href="/facts/Der_(Sumer)/9hg68Bmk">Der</a> and Uruk.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39"><sup>39</sup></a> According to an economic document from the late first millennium BCE, in the last of those cities she was worshiped in the temple Egalmah (Sumerian: "exalted palace"), which instead appears in association with <a href="/facts/Ninisina/A96Fvcy5">Ninisina</a> in an inscription of king <a href="/facts/S%25C3%25AEn-k%25C4%2581%25C5%25A1id/2nk89Swr">Sîn-kāšid</a> from the Old Babylonian period.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40"><sup>40</sup></a> In the so-called "Standard Babylonian" version of the <i><a href="/facts/Epic_of_Gilgamesh/38VrUaDY">Epic of Gilgamesh</a></i> it is described as a temple of <a href="/facts/Ninsun/pFrat4gb">Ninsun</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:41" href="#fn:41"><sup>41</sup></a> According to <a href="/facts/Andrew_R._George/VBzg3xhQ">Andrew R. George</a>, it is possible to reconcile the different accounts by assuming all three of these goddesses were connected with <a href="/facts/Gula_(goddess)/yLCo31HP">Gula</a> and possibly functioned as her manifestations.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:42" href="#fn:42"><sup>42</sup></a> </p><p>Theophoric names invoking Nungal are known from records from the Ur III period, one example being Ur-Manungal.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:43" href="#fn:43"><sup>43</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="associations-with-other-deities">Associations with other deities</h2> <p>Nungal's spouse was <a href="/facts/Birtum/LVa3wphE">Birtum</a>, whose name means "fetter" or "shackle" in Akkadian.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:44" href="#fn:44"><sup>44</sup></a> While the word is grammatically feminine, the deity was regarded as male.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:45" href="#fn:45"><sup>45</sup></a> Birtum also appears among underworld gods linked to <a href="/facts/Nergal/78zSBYDc">Nergal</a> in god lists.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:46" href="#fn:46"><sup>46</sup></a> As Nungal is called a daughter in law of Enlil, Birtum was likely his son.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:47" href="#fn:47"><sup>47</sup></a> Nungal was also called the "true stewardess of Enlil," <i>agrig-zi-dEn-lil-lá</i>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:48" href="#fn:48"><sup>48</sup></a> In the god list <i><a href="/facts/An_%253D_Anum/sh9wTxu8">An = Anum</a></i> the deity Dullum, whose name has been translated as "<a href="/facts/Serfdom/HyajBMeR">serfdom</a>" ("Frondienst") by Antoine Cavigneaux and Manfred Krebernik, appears as Nungal's son.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:49" href="#fn:49"><sup>49</sup></a> According to the <i>Hymn to Nungal</i>, her mother is <a href="/facts/Ereshkigal/Jv4HHVBX">Ereshkigal</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:50" href="#fn:50"><sup>50</sup></a> while her father is Anu, though it is possible the later statement is not literal.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:51" href="#fn:51"><sup>51</sup></a> </p><p>Various courtiers of Nungal are attested in Sumerian and Akkadian texts. Her <a href="/facts/Sukkal/jT69AG4G">sukkal</a> (attendant deity) was Nindumgul ("lady/lord <a href="/facts/Mooring/3Pl1EkqM">mooring</a> pole"<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:52" href="#fn:52"><sup>52</sup></a>), possibly regarded as a female deity.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:53" href="#fn:53"><sup>53</sup></a> She appears to play the role of a prosecutor in the <i>Hymn to Nungal</i>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:54" href="#fn:54"><sup>54</sup></a> Another of her courtiers was <a href="/facts/Igalimma/9WhU0tWS">Igalimma</a>, a god who originated as a son of <a href="/facts/Ningirsu/fyT4hshk">Ningirsu</a> in the pantheon of <a href="/facts/Lagash/SQwkGota">Lagash</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:55" href="#fn:55"><sup>55</sup></a> The deity Eḫ (Akkadian: Uplum), a deification of the <a href="/facts/Louse/xuKMIK5M">louse</a>, also appears in her circle, for example in the Nippur god list.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:56" href="#fn:56"><sup>56</sup></a> It is also assumed that the goddess <a href="/facts/Bizila/Rr7R13v1">Bizila</a>, associated with the love goddess <a href="/facts/Nanaya/aI4HdPnv">Nanaya</a>, occurs in the court of Nungal in some sources too,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:57" href="#fn:57"><sup>57</sup></a> though Jeremiah Peterson considers it possible that there might have been two deities with similar names, one associated with Nungal and the other with Nanaya.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:58" href="#fn:58"><sup>58</sup></a> </p><p>In the <a href="/facts/Isin/WM00jJFS">Isin</a>, <i>An = Anum</i> and Weidner god lists Nungal is classified as one of the <a href="/facts/Ancient_Mesopotamian_underworld/xfjRsqsT">underworld</a> deities.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:59" href="#fn:59"><sup>59</sup></a> A fragmentary literary texts associates her with <a href="/facts/Nintinugga/A96Fvcy5">Nintinugga</a> and Ereshkigal.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:60" href="#fn:60"><sup>60</sup></a> With the exception of <i>Nungal in the Ekur</i> and this fragment she is very rare in known works of Mesopotamian literature.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:61" href="#fn:61"><sup>61</sup></a> The <a href="/facts/Weidner_god_list/z4mTIllJ">Weidner god list</a> places the beer deities <a href="/facts/Ninkasi/4S7vBdlm">Ninkasi</a> and <a href="/facts/Siris_(goddess)/5vzbb7Be">Siraš</a> between Maungal and <a href="/facts/La%25E1%25B9%25A3/5QeX5vEC">Laṣ</a>, the wife of Nergal, who was also a deity associated with the underworld.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:62" href="#fn:62"><sup>62</sup></a> Similarly, the goddess dKAŠ.DIN.NAM, most likely to be read as Kurunnītu,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:63" href="#fn:63"><sup>63</sup></a> who is assumed to be a late form of Ninkasi<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:64" href="#fn:64"><sup>64</sup></a> appears in association with Bēlet-balāṭi.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:65" href="#fn:65"><sup>65</sup></a> It has been proposed that the possible connection between beer and underworld deities was meant to serve as a reflection of negative effects of alcohol consumption.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:66" href="#fn:66"><sup>66</sup></a> </p><p>The text <i><a href="/facts/Ninisina/A96Fvcy5">Nin-Isina</a> and the Gods</i> appears to syncretise Nungal with the eponymous goddess.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:67" href="#fn:67"><sup>67</sup></a> Similarly, Bēlet-balāṭi is attested as a form or member of the entourage of another medicine goddess, <a href="/facts/Gula_(goddess)/yLCo31HP">Gula</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:68" href="#fn:68"><sup>68</sup></a> </p><p>Nungal appears in the description of a cultic journey of <a href="/facts/Pabilsa%25C4%259D/G5nlbS3F">Pabilsag</a> to Lagash.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:69" href="#fn:69"><sup>69</sup></a> It has been proposed that he was associated with her as a judge deity, but it is also possible that he acquired a connection to the underworld because of her.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:70" href="#fn:70"><sup>70</sup></a> </p> <h3>Bibliography</h3> <ul><li>Asher-Greve, Julia M.; Westenholz, Joan G. 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Münster: Ugarit Verlag. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-3-86835-019-7. <a href="/facts/OCLC_(identifier)/Yqad8waq">OCLC</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/460044951">460044951</a>.</li> <li>Reid, John Nicholas (2015). <a href="https://www.academia.edu/16162745">"Runaways and Fugitive-Catchers during the Third Dynasty of Ur"</a>. <i>Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient</i>. 58 (4). Brill: 576–605. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F15685209-12341383">10.1163/15685209-12341383</a>. <a href="/facts/ISSN_(identifier)/DPAflDvU">ISSN</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0022-4995">0022-4995</a>.</li> <li>Reid, John Nicholas (2016). <a href="https://www.academia.edu/35384443">"The Birth of the Prison: The Functions of Imprisonment in Early Mesopotamia"</a>. <i>Journal of Ancient Near Eastern History</i>. 3 (2). Walter de Gruyter GmbH: 81–115. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2Fjaneh-2017-0008">10.1515/janeh-2017-0008</a>. <a href="/facts/ISSN_(identifier)/DPAflDvU">ISSN</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2328-9562">2328-9562</a>. <a href="/facts/S2CID_(identifier)/ldJsHa2Y">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:165703190">165703190</a>.</li> <li>Sjöberg, Åke W. (1973). <a href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/41637722">"Nungal in the Ekur"</a>. <i>Archiv für Orientforschung</i>. 24. Archiv für Orientforschung (AfO)/Institut für Orientalistik: 19–46. <a href="/facts/ISSN_(identifier)/DPAflDvU">ISSN</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0066-6440">0066-6440</a>. <a href="/facts/JSTOR_(identifier)/YTeVmaJ7">JSTOR</a> <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/41637722">41637722</a>. Retrieved 2022-02-23.</li></ul> <h2 id="external-links">External links</h2> <ul><li><i><a href="https://etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk/section4/tr4281.htm">A hymn to Nungal</a></i> in the <a href="/facts/Electronic_Text_Corpus_of_Sumerian_Literature/XvECWwHY">Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature</a></li> <li><i><a href="https://etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk/cgi-bin/etcsl.cgi?text=t.4.22.6#">Nin-Isina and the Gods</a></i> in the Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature</li></ul> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>Cavigneaux & Krebernik 1998, p. 615. - Cavigneaux, Antoine; Krebernik, Manfred (1998), "Nungal", Reallexikon der Assyriologie (in German), retrieved 2022-02-22 <a href="http://publikationen.badw.de/en/rla/index#9174" target="_blank">http://publikationen.badw.de/en/rla/index#9174</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>Cavigneaux & Krebernik 1998, p. 615. - Cavigneaux, Antoine; Krebernik, Manfred (1998), "Nungal", Reallexikon der Assyriologie (in German), retrieved 2022-02-22 <a href="http://publikationen.badw.de/en/rla/index#9174" target="_blank">http://publikationen.badw.de/en/rla/index#9174</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>Cavigneaux & Krebernik 1998, p. 615. - Cavigneaux, Antoine; Krebernik, Manfred (1998), "Nungal", Reallexikon der Assyriologie (in German), retrieved 2022-02-22 <a href="http://publikationen.badw.de/en/rla/index#9174" target="_blank">http://publikationen.badw.de/en/rla/index#9174</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:4"><p>Cavigneaux & Krebernik 1998, p. 615. - Cavigneaux, Antoine; Krebernik, Manfred (1998), "Nungal", Reallexikon der Assyriologie (in German), retrieved 2022-02-22 <a href="http://publikationen.badw.de/en/rla/index#9174" target="_blank">http://publikationen.badw.de/en/rla/index#9174</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:5"><p>Cavigneaux & Krebernik 1998, p. 616. - Cavigneaux, Antoine; Krebernik, Manfred (1998), "Nungal", Reallexikon der Assyriologie (in German), retrieved 2022-02-22 <a href="http://publikationen.badw.de/en/rla/index#9174" target="_blank">http://publikationen.badw.de/en/rla/index#9174</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:6"><p>Behrens & Klein 1998, p. 345. - Behrens, Herman; Klein, Jacob (1998), "Ninegalla", Reallexikon der Assyriologie, retrieved 2022-02-22 <a href="http://publikationen.badw.de/en/rla/index#8599" target="_blank">http://publikationen.badw.de/en/rla/index#8599</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:7"><p>Behrens & Klein 1998, p. 344. - Behrens, Herman; Klein, Jacob (1998), "Ninegalla", Reallexikon der Assyriologie, retrieved 2022-02-22 <a href="http://publikationen.badw.de/en/rla/index#8599" target="_blank">http://publikationen.badw.de/en/rla/index#8599</a> <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:8"><p>Behrens & Klein 1998, pp. 342–343. - Behrens, Herman; Klein, Jacob (1998), "Ninegalla", Reallexikon der Assyriologie, retrieved 2022-02-22 <a href="http://publikationen.badw.de/en/rla/index#8599" target="_blank">http://publikationen.badw.de/en/rla/index#8599</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:9"><p>Beaulieu 2003, p. 312. - Beaulieu, Paul-Alain (2003). The pantheon of Uruk during the neo-Babylonian period. Leiden Boston: Brill STYX. ISBN 978-90-04-13024-1. OCLC 51944564. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/51944564" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/51944564</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:10"><p>Peterson 2009, p. 236. - Peterson, Jeremiah (2009). "Two New Sumerian Texts Involving The Netherworld and Funerary Offerings". Zeitschrift für Assyriologie und Vorderasiatische Archäologie. 99 (2). doi:10.1515/ZA.2009.006. S2CID 162329196. <a href="https://www.academia.edu/2286620" target="_blank">https://www.academia.edu/2286620</a> <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:11"><p>Sjöberg 1973, p. 19. - Sjöberg, Åke W. (1973). "Nungal in the Ekur". Archiv für Orientforschung. 24. Archiv für Orientforschung (AfO)/Institut für Orientalistik: 19–46. ISSN 0066-6440. JSTOR 41637722. Retrieved 2022-02-23. <a href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/41637722" target="_blank">http://www.jstor.org/stable/41637722</a> <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:12"><p>Civil 2017, p. 573. - Civil, Miguel (2017). Studies in Sumerian Civilization. Selected writings of Miguel Civil. Publicacions i Edicions de la Universitat de Barcelona. ISBN 978-84-9168-237-0. OCLC 1193017085. <a href="http://diposit.ub.edu/dspace/handle/2445/129686" target="_blank">http://diposit.ub.edu/dspace/handle/2445/129686</a> <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:13"><p>Civil 2017, p. 573. - Civil, Miguel (2017). Studies in Sumerian Civilization. Selected writings of Miguel Civil. Publicacions i Edicions de la Universitat de Barcelona. ISBN 978-84-9168-237-0. 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ISSN 0022-4995. <a href="https://www.academia.edu/16162745" target="_blank">https://www.academia.edu/16162745</a> <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:16"><p>Reid 2016, pp. 99–101. - Reid, John Nicholas (2016). "The Birth of the Prison: The Functions of Imprisonment in Early Mesopotamia". Journal of Ancient Near Eastern History. 3 (2). Walter de Gruyter GmbH: 81–115. doi:10.1515/janeh-2017-0008. ISSN 2328-9562. S2CID 165703190. <a href="https://www.academia.edu/35384443" target="_blank">https://www.academia.edu/35384443</a> <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:17"><p>Reid 2016, p. 108. - Reid, John Nicholas (2016). "The Birth of the Prison: The Functions of Imprisonment in Early Mesopotamia". Journal of Ancient Near Eastern History. 3 (2). Walter de Gruyter GmbH: 81–115. doi:10.1515/janeh-2017-0008. ISSN 2328-9562. 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(1973). "Nungal in the Ekur". Archiv für Orientforschung. 24. Archiv für Orientforschung (AfO)/Institut für Orientalistik: 19–46. ISSN 0066-6440. JSTOR 41637722. Retrieved 2022-02-23. <a href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/41637722" target="_blank">http://www.jstor.org/stable/41637722</a> <a href="#fnref:27" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:28"><p>Sjöberg 1973, p. 25. - Sjöberg, Åke W. (1973). "Nungal in the Ekur". Archiv für Orientforschung. 24. Archiv für Orientforschung (AfO)/Institut für Orientalistik: 19–46. ISSN 0066-6440. JSTOR 41637722. Retrieved 2022-02-23. <a href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/41637722" target="_blank">http://www.jstor.org/stable/41637722</a> <a href="#fnref:28" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:29"><p>Sjöberg 1973, pp. 25–26. - Sjöberg, Åke W. (1973). "Nungal in the Ekur". Archiv für Orientforschung. 24. Archiv für Orientforschung (AfO)/Institut für Orientalistik: 19–46. ISSN 0066-6440. JSTOR 41637722. 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