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<h2 id="unit-conversions">Unit conversions</h2> <p>A power level of 0 dBm corresponds to a power of 1 milliwatt. A 10 dB increase in level is equivalent to a ten-fold increase in power. Therefore, a 20 dB increase in level is equivalent to a 100-fold increase in power. A 3 dB increase in level is approximately equivalent to doubling the power, which means that a level of 3 dBm corresponds roughly to a power of 2 mW. Similarly, for each 3 dB decrease in level, the power is reduced by about one half, making −3 dBm correspond to a power of about 0.5 mW. </p><p>To express an arbitrary power P in mW as x in dBm, the following expression may be used:<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6"><sup>6</sup></a> x = 10 log 10 P 1 mW {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}x&=10\log _{10}{\frac {P}{1~{\text{mW}}}}\end{aligned}}} Conversely, to express an arbitrary power level x in dBm, as P in mW: P = 1 mW ⋅ 10 x 10 {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}P&=1~{\text{mW}}\cdot 10^{\frac {x}{10}}\end{aligned}}} </p> <h2 id="table-of-examples">Table of examples</h2> <p>Below is a table summarizing useful cases: </p> <p class="note">Main article: <a href="/facts/Orders_of_magnitude_(power)/gRCB8jwM">Orders of magnitude (power)</a></p> <table><tbody><tr><th>Power level</th><th>Power</th><th>Notes</th></tr><tr><td>526 dBm</td><td>3.6×1049 W</td><td><a href="/facts/First_observation_of_gravitational_waves/7yep4aM0">Black hole collision</a>, the power radiated in gravitational waves following the collision <a href="/facts/First_observation_of_gravitational_waves/7yep4aM0">GW150914</a>, estimated at 50 times the power output of all the stars in the observable universe.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7"><sup>7</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8"><sup>8</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>420 dBm</td><td>1×1039 W</td><td><a href="/facts/Cygnus_A/wwmFp660">Cygnus A</a>, one of the most powerful radio sources in the sky</td></tr><tr><td>296 dBm</td><td>3.846×1026 W</td><td>Total power output of the Sun<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9"><sup>9</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>120 dBm</td><td>1 GW = 1,000,000,000 W</td><td>Experimental high-power microwave (HPM) generation system, 1 GW at 2.32 GHz for 38 ns<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10"><sup>10</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>105 dBm</td><td>32 MW</td><td><a href="/facts/Eglin_AFB_Site_C-6/utBwe7pj">AN/FPS-85 Phased Array Space Surveillance Radar</a>, claimed by the US Space Force as the most powerful radar in the world.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11"><sup>11</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>95.5 dBm</td><td>3,600 kW</td><td><a href="/facts/High-frequency_Active_Auroral_Research_Program/Xpcvu4z0">High-frequency Active Auroral Research Program</a> maximum power output, the most powerful shortwave station in 2012</td></tr><tr><td>80 dBm</td><td>100 kW</td><td>Typical <a href="/facts/Effective_radiated_power/tjnmEd03">transmission power</a> of <a href="/facts/FM_radio/TpKl3FJv">FM radio</a> station with 50-kilometre (31 mi) range</td></tr><tr><td>62 dBm</td><td>1.588 kW</td><td>1.5 kW is the maximum legal power output of a US <a href="/facts/Ham_radio/cBsMyamV">ham radio</a> station.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12"><sup>12</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>60 dBm</td><td>1 kW = 1,000 W</td><td>Typical combined radiated RF power of <a href="/facts/Microwave_oven/nS1B3wp2">microwave oven</a> elements</td></tr><tr><td>55 dBm</td><td>~300 W</td><td>Typical single-channel RF output power of a <a href="/facts/Ku_band/czTuuqpT">Ku band</a> <a href="/facts/Geostationary_satellite/VBq1v5Kr">geostationary satellite</a></td></tr><tr><td>50 dBm</td><td>100 W</td><td>Typical total <a href="/facts/Black-body_radiation/K4YKPKXL">thermal radiation emitted by a human body</a>, peak at 31.5 THz (9.5 μm)<p>Typical maximum output RF power from a <a href="/facts/Ham_radio/cBsMyamV">ham radio</a> <a href="/facts/High_frequency/JmDJLR5I">HF</a> transceiver without power amplifier</p></td></tr><tr><td>40 dBm</td><td>10 W</td><td>Typical <a href="/facts/Power-line_communication/y0QpHy0V">power-line communication</a> (PLC) transmission power</td></tr><tr><td>37 dBm</td><td>5 W</td><td>Typical maximal output RF power from a handheld ham radio VHF/UHF transceiver</td></tr><tr><td>36 dBm</td><td>4 W</td><td>Typical maximal output power for a <a href="/facts/Citizens_band_radio/tCSXXuTb">citizens band radio</a> station (27 MHz) in many countries</td></tr><tr><td>33 dBm</td><td>2 W</td><td>Maximal output from a <a href="/facts/UMTS/lhy2RrMw">UMTS</a>/<a href="/facts/3G/K1noBd8n">3G</a> mobile phone (power class 1 mobiles)<p>Maximal output from a GSM850/900 mobile phone</p></td></tr><tr><td>30 dBm</td><td>1 W = 1000 <a href="/facts/Milliwatt/VK8oqRrm">mW</a></td><td><p>DCS or GSM 1,800/1,900 MHz mobile phone.<a href="/facts/EIRP/tjnmEd03">EIRP</a> IEEE 802.11a (20 MHz-wide channels) in either 5 GHz subband 2 (5,470–5,725 MHz) provided that transmitters are also IEEE 802.11h-compliant, <i>or</i> <a href="/facts/U-NII/TLU88FjD">U-NII</a>-3 (5,725–5,825 MHz). The former is EU only, the latter is US only. Also, maximal power allowed by the FCC for American amateur radio licensees to fly <a href="/facts/Radio-controlled_aircraft/QohJtvVM">radio-controlled aircraft</a> or operate RC models of any other type on the amateur radio bands in the US.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13"><sup>13</sup></a></p></td></tr><tr><td>29 dBm</td><td>794 mW</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>28 dBm</td><td>631 mW</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>27 dBm</td><td>500 mW</td><td>Typical <a href="/facts/Cellular_phone/H3EcqD9h">cellular phone</a> transmission power<p>Maximal output from a UMTS/3G mobile phone (power class 2 mobiles)</p></td></tr><tr><td>26 dBm</td><td>400 mW</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>25 dBm</td><td>316 mW</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>24 dBm</td><td>251 mW</td><td>Maximal output from a UMTS/3G mobile phone (power class 3 mobiles)<p>1,880–1,900 MHz <a href="/facts/DECT/CpPhUAWt">DECT</a> (250 mW per 1,728 kHz channel).<a href="/facts/EIRP/tjnmEd03">EIRP</a> for wireless LAN IEEE 802.11a (20 MHz-wide channels) in either the 5 GHz subband 1 (5,180–5,320 MHz) or <a href="/facts/U-NII/TLU88FjD">U-NII</a>-2 and -W ranges (5,250–5,350 MHz & 5,470–5,725 MHz, respectively). The former is EU only, the latter is US only.</p></td></tr><tr><td>23 dBm</td><td>200 mW</td><td><a href="/facts/EIRP/tjnmEd03">EIRP</a> for IEEE 802.11n wireless LAN 40 MHz-wide (5 mW/MHz) channels in 5 GHz subband 4 (5,735–5,835 MHz, US only) or 5 GHz subband 2 (5,470–5,725 MHz, EU only). Also applies to 20 MHz-wide (10 mW/MHz) IEEE 802.11a wireless LAN in 5 GHz subband 1 (5,180–5,320 MHz) <i>if</i> also IEEE 802.11h-compliant (otherwise only 3 mW/MHz → 60 mW when unable to dynamically adjust transmission power, and only 1.5 mW/MHz → 30 mW when a transmitter also cannot <a href="/facts/Dynamic_Frequency_Selection/6SRozsJ1">dynamically select frequency</a>).</td></tr><tr><td>22 dBm</td><td>158 mW</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>21 dBm</td><td>125 mW</td><td>Maximal output from a UMTS/3G mobile phone (power class 4 mobiles)</td></tr><tr><td>20 dBm</td><td>100 mW</td><td><a href="/facts/EIRP/tjnmEd03">EIRP</a> for IEEE 802.11b/g wireless LAN 20 MHz-wide channels in the 2.4 GHz <a href="/facts/Wi-Fi/u94quCsx">Wi-Fi</a>/<a href="/facts/ISM_band/8r8D1WB7">ISM band</a> (5 mW/MHz).<p><a href="/facts/Bluetooth/sWAjpMrj">Bluetooth</a> Class 1 radio.Maximal output power from unlicensed AM transmitter per US <a href="/facts/Federal_Communications_Commission/Ueghz8W0">FCC</a> rules 15.219<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14"><sup>14</sup></a></p></td></tr><tr><td>19 dBm</td><td>79 mW</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>18 dBm</td><td>63 mW</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>17 dBm</td><td>50 mW</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>15 dBm</td><td>32 mW</td><td>Typical <a href="/facts/Wireless_LAN/ooq0WA45">wireless LAN</a> transmission power in laptops</td></tr><tr><td>10 dBm</td><td>10 mW</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>7 dBm</td><td>5.0 mW</td><td>Common power level required to test the <a href="/facts/Automatic_gain_control/qY7qWtC7">automatic gain control</a> circuitry in an AM receiver</td></tr><tr><td>6 dBm</td><td>4.0 mW</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>5 dBm</td><td>3.2 mW</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>4 dBm</td><td>2.5 mW</td><td>Bluetooth Class 2 radio, 10 m range</td></tr><tr><td>3 dBm</td><td>2.0 mW</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>2 dBm</td><td>1.6 mW</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>1 dBm</td><td>1.3 mW</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>0 dBm</td><td>1.0 mW = 1000 μW</td><td>Bluetooth standard (Class 3) radio, 1 m range</td></tr><tr><td>−1 dBm</td><td>794 μW</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>−3 dBm</td><td>501 μW</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>−5 dBm</td><td>316 μW</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>−10 dBm</td><td>100 μW</td><td>Maximal received signal power of <a href="/facts/Wireless_network/yr4SWTdl">wireless network</a> (802.11 variants)</td></tr><tr><td>−13 dBm</td><td>50.12 μW</td><td>Dial tone for the <a href="/facts/Precise_tone_plan/dSdLLpdD">precise tone plan</a> found on <a href="/facts/Public_switched_telephone_network/eVrCTDU7">public switched telephone networks</a> in <a href="/facts/North_America/djNjCQIl">North America</a></td></tr><tr><td>−20 dBm</td><td>10 μW</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>−30 dBm</td><td>1.0 μW = 1000 <a href="/facts/Watt/VK8oqRrm">nW</a></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>−40 dBm</td><td>100 <a href="/facts/Watt/VK8oqRrm">nW</a></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>−50 dBm</td><td>10 nW</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>−60 dBm</td><td>1.0 nW = 1000 <a href="/facts/Watt/VK8oqRrm">pW</a></td><td>The <a href="/facts/Earth/HLLmDfj0">Earth</a> receives one nanowatt per square metre from a <a href="/facts/Apparent_magnitude/7pCTF1Me">magnitude</a> +3.5 <a href="/facts/Star/PFbd6ICx">star</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15"><sup>15</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>−70 dBm</td><td>100 <a href="/facts/Watt/VK8oqRrm">pW</a></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>−73 dBm</td><td>50.12 pW</td><td>"S9" signal strength, a strong signal, on the <a href="/facts/S_meter/fzSYgv2K">S meter</a> of a typical <a href="/facts/Amateur_radio/cBsMyamV">ham</a> or <a href="/facts/Shortwave_radio_receiver/Vus1lC0o">shortwave radio receiver</a></td></tr><tr><td>−80 dBm</td><td>10 pW</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>−100 dBm</td><td>0.1 pW</td><td>Minimal received signal power of <a href="/facts/Wireless_network/yr4SWTdl">wireless network</a> (802.11 variants)</td></tr><tr><td>−111 dBm</td><td>0.008 pW = 8 <a href="/facts/Watt/VK8oqRrm">fW</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Johnson%25E2%2580%2593Nyquist_noise/ur238TgX">Thermal noise floor</a> for commercial <a href="/facts/GPS/DKVLnzF3">GPS</a> single-channel signal bandwidth (2 MHz)</td></tr><tr><td>−127.5 dBm</td><td>0.178 fW = 178 <a href="/facts/Watt/VK8oqRrm">aW</a></td><td>Typical received signal power from a <a href="/facts/GPS_satellite/d4R6InYK">GPS satellite</a></td></tr><tr><td>−174 dBm</td><td>0.004 aW = 4 <a href="/facts/Watt/VK8oqRrm">zW</a></td><td>Thermal noise floor for 1 Hz bandwidth at room temperature (20 °C)</td></tr><tr><td>−192.5 dBm</td><td>0.056 <a href="/facts/Watt/VK8oqRrm">zW</a> = 56 <a href="/facts/Watt/VK8oqRrm">yW</a></td><td>Thermal noise floor for 1 Hz bandwidth in outer space (4 <a href="/facts/Kelvin/E3trzC4C">kelvins</a>)</td></tr><tr><td>−∞ dBm</td><td>0 W</td><td>Zero power is not well-expressed in dBm (value is <a href="/facts/Negative_infinity/65Gs7QS0">negative infinity</a>)</td></tr></tbody></table> <h2 id="standards">Standards</h2> <p>The signal intensity (power per unit area) can be converted to received signal power by multiplying by the square of the wavelength and dividing by 4π (see <a href="/facts/Free-space_path_loss/wQccyFS3">Free-space path loss</a>). </p><p>In <a href="/facts/United_States_Department_of_Defense/dWAvf7e3">United States Department of Defense</a> practice, <a href="/facts/Weighting_filter/CM88XjPC">unweighted</a> measurement is normally understood, applicable to a certain <a href="/facts/Bandwidth_(signal_processing)/7eMDzfJI">bandwidth</a>, which must be stated or implied. </p><p>In European practice, <a href="/facts/Psophometric_weighting/RQKyuRC9">psophometric weighting</a> may be, as indicated by context, equivalent to dBm0p, which is preferred. </p><p>In audio, 0 dBm often corresponds to approximately 0.775 volts, since 0.775 V dissipates 1 mW in a 600 Ω load.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16"><sup>16</sup></a> The corresponding voltage level is 0 <a href="/facts/Decibel/0LyxAPXh">dBu</a>, without the 600 Ω restriction. Conversely, for RF situations with a 50 Ω load, 0 dBm corresponds to approximately 0.224 volts, since 0.224 V dissipates 1 mW in a 50 Ω load. </p><p>In general the relationship between the power level P in dBm and the <a href="/facts/Root_mean_square/Cfmg7dws">RMS</a> voltage V in volts across a load of resistance R (typically used to terminate a transmission line with impedance Z) is: V = R 10 P / 10 1000 . {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}V&={\sqrt {R{\frac {10^{P/10}}{1000}}}}\,.\end{aligned}}} </p><p>Expression in dBm is typically used for optical and electrical power measurements, not for other types of power (such as thermal). A <a href="/facts/Orders_of_magnitude_(power)/gRCB8jwM">listing by power levels in watts</a> is available that includes a variety of examples not necessarily related to electrical or optical power. </p><p>The dBm was first proposed as an industry standard<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17"><sup>17</sup></a> in 1940.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18"><sup>18</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="see-also">See also</h2> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Decibel_watt/77EjupnK">Decibel watt</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/DBm0/uUNLdJRU">dBm0</a></li></ul> <p> This article incorporates <a href="/facts/Copyright_status_of_works_by_the_federal_government_of_the_United_States/Q1jvr96g">public domain material</a> from <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220122224547/https://www.its.bldrdoc.gov/fs-1037/fs-1037c.htm"><i>Federal Standard 1037C</i></a>. <a href="/facts/General_Services_Administration/Np3opv9x">General Services Administration</a>. Archived from <a href="https://www.its.bldrdoc.gov/fs-1037/fs-1037c.htm">the original</a> on 2022-01-22. (in support of <a href="/facts/MIL-STD-188/D5rsvdsW">MIL-STD-188</a>). </p> <h2 id="external-links">External links</h2> <ul><li><a href="http://www.sengpielaudio.com/calculator-volt.htm">The dBm calculator for impedance matching</a></li> <li><a href="http://cgi.www.telestrian.co.uk/cgi-bin/www.telestrian.co.uk/dBm.pl">Convert dBm to watts</a></li></ul> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>Green, Lynne D. (2019). Fiber Optic Communications. CRC Press. p. 181. ISBN 9781000694512. <a href="9781000694512" target="_blank">9781000694512</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>Kosatsky, Tom (2013). Radiofrequency Toolkit for Environmental Health Practitioners (PDF). British Columbia Centre for Disease Control. p. 8. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-10-09. <a href="http://www.bccdc.ca/resource-gallery/Documents/Educational%20Materials/EH/Radiofrequency-Toolkit.pdf#page=14" target="_blank">http://www.bccdc.ca/resource-gallery/Documents/Educational%20Materials/EH/Radiofrequency-Toolkit.pdf#page=14</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>Thompson and Taylor 2008, Guide for the Use of the International System of Units (SI), NIST Special Publication SP811 Archived 2016-06-03 at the Wayback Machine. <a href="http://physics.nist.gov/cuu/pdf/sp811.pdf" target="_blank">http://physics.nist.gov/cuu/pdf/sp811.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:4"><p>Bigelow, Stephen (2001). Understanding Telephone Electronics. Newnes. pp. 16. ISBN 978-0750671750. <a href="978-0750671750" target="_blank">978-0750671750</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:5"><p>Carr, Joseph (2002). RF Components and Circuits. Newnes. pp. 45–46. ISBN 978-0750648448. <a href="978-0750648448" target="_blank">978-0750648448</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:6"><p>Sobot, Robert (2012). Wireless Communication Electronics: Introduction to RF Circuits and Design. Springer. p. 252. ISBN 9783030486303. <a href="9783030486303" target="_blank">9783030486303</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:7"><p>"OBSERVATION OF GRAVITATIONAL WAVES FROM A BINARY BLACK HOLE MERGER" (PDF). LSC (Ligo Scientific Collaboration). Caltech. 2015. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-10-09. Retrieved 10 April 2021. <a href="https://www.ligo.caltech.edu/system/media_files/binaries/301/original/detection-science-summary.pdf" target="_blank">https://www.ligo.caltech.edu/system/media_files/binaries/301/original/detection-science-summary.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:8"><p>"Found! Gravitational Waves, or a Wrinkle in Spacetime". National Geographic. 2016-02-11. Archived from the original on February 24, 2021. Retrieved 2021-04-10. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210224182310/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/160211-gravitational-waves-found-spacetime-science" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20210224182310/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/160211-gravitational-waves-found-spacetime-science</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:9"><p>"Ask Us: Sun". Cosmicopia. NASA. 2012. Archived from the original on 2000-08-16. Retrieved 13 July 2017. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20000816180724/http://helios.gsfc.nasa.gov/qa_sun.html" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20000816180724/http://helios.gsfc.nasa.gov/qa_sun.html</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:10"><p>Li, Wei; Li, Zhi-qiang; Sun, Xiao-liang; Zhang, Jun (2015-11-01). "A reliable, compact, and repetitive-rate high power microwave generation system". Review of Scientific Instruments. 86 (11): 114704. Bibcode:2015RScI...86k4704L. doi:10.1063/1.4935500. ISSN 0034-6748. PMID 26628156. <a href="https://aip.scitation.org/doi/full/10.1063/1.4935500" target="_blank">https://aip.scitation.org/doi/full/10.1063/1.4935500</a> <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:11"><p>"AN/FPS-85". US Air Force Fact Sheet. United States Dept. of Defense. Retrieved May 19, 2017. <a href="http://www.radomes.org/museum/equip/fps-85.html" target="_blank">http://www.radomes.org/museum/equip/fps-85.html</a> <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:12"><p>"Part 97 - Amateur Radio". ARRL. Archived from the original on 2012-10-09. Retrieved 2012-09-21. <a href="http://www.arrl.org/part-97-amateur-radio" target="_blank">http://www.arrl.org/part-97-amateur-radio</a> <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:13"><p>[1] Archived 2016-12-22 at the Wayback Machine FCC Part 97 Amateur Radio Service - Rule 97.215, Telecommand of model craft, section (c). <a href="http://www.ecfr.gov/cgi-bin/text-idx?c=ecfr&SID=336ab7469b61ecbfa15086dbf1bf2c59&rgn=div5&view=text&node=47:5.0.1.1.6&idno=47#se47.5.97_1215" target="_blank">http://www.ecfr.gov/cgi-bin/text-idx?c=ecfr&SID=336ab7469b61ecbfa15086dbf1bf2c59&rgn=div5&view=text&node=47:5.0.1.1.6&idno=47#se47.5.97_1215</a> <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:14"><p>FCC Web Documents citing 15.219 Archived 2011-11-06 at the Wayback Machine. <a href="http://www.hallikainen.org/FCC/FccRules/CiteFind/015219.htm" target="_blank">http://www.hallikainen.org/FCC/FccRules/CiteFind/015219.htm</a> <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:15"><p>"Radiant Flux of a Magnitude +3.5 Star". Archived from the original on 2012-06-30. Retrieved 2009-07-22. <a href="https://archive.today/20120630221250/http://webhome.cs.uvic.ca/~pearson/files/radiant_flux.html" target="_blank">https://archive.today/20120630221250/http://webhome.cs.uvic.ca/~pearson/files/radiant_flux.html</a> <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:16"><p>Davis, Gary (1988). The Sound Reinforcement Handbook. Yamaha. p. 22. ISBN 0881889008. <a href="0881889008" target="_blank">0881889008</a> <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:17"><p>Davis, Gary (1988). The Sound Reinforcement Handbook. Yamaha. p. 22. ISBN 0881889008. <a href="0881889008" target="_blank">0881889008</a> <a href="#fnref:17" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:18"><p>Chinn, H. A.; D. K. Gannett; R. M. Moris (January 1940). "A New Standard Volume Indicator and Reference Level" (PDF). Proceedings of the Institute of Radio Engineers. 28 (1): 1–17. doi:10.1109/JRPROC.1940.228815. S2CID 15458694. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2012-02-13. Retrieved 2012-08-04. <a href="http://www.aes.org/aeshc/pdf/chinn_a-new-svi.pdf" target="_blank">http://www.aes.org/aeshc/pdf/chinn_a-new-svi.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:18" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> </ol>