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Vowel breaking
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<h2 id="types">Types</h2> <p>Vowel breaking may be unconditioned or conditioned. It may be triggered by the presence of another sound, by stress, or in no particular way. </p> <h3>Assimilation</h3> <p>Vowel breaking is sometimes defined as a subtype of diphthongization, when it refers to harmonic (<a href="/facts/Assimilation_(linguistics)/YxIy0MBv">assimilatory</a>) process that involves diphthongization triggered by a following vowel or consonant. </p><p>The original pure vowel typically breaks into two segments. The first segment matches the original vowel, and the second segment is harmonic with the nature of the triggering vowel or consonant. For example, the second segment may be /u/ (a back vowel) if the following vowel or consonant is back (such as <a href="/facts/Velar_consonant/blWClp79">velar</a> or <a href="/facts/Pharyngeal_consonant/ypfYew9Y">pharyngeal</a>), and the second segment may be /i/ (a front vowel) if the following vowel or consonant is front (such as <a href="/facts/Palatal_consonant/KLcKyXE8">palatal</a>). </p><p>Thus, vowel breaking, in the restricted sense, can be viewed as an example of <a href="/facts/Assimilation_(linguistics)/YxIy0MBv">assimilation</a> of a vowel to a following vowel or consonant. </p> <h3>Unconditioned</h3> <p>Vowel breaking is sometimes not assimilatory and is then not triggered by a neighboring sound. That was the case with the <a href="/facts/Great_Vowel_Shift/WJKsaEcK">Great Vowel Shift</a> in <a href="/facts/English_language/tpkxGt7b">English</a> in which all cases of /iː/ and /uː/ changed to diphthongs. </p> <h3>Stress</h3> <p>Vowel breaking sometimes occurs only in stressed syllables. For instance, <a href="/facts/Vulgar_Latin/uR9BLlE5">Vulgar Latin</a> open-mid /ɛ/ and /ɔ/ changed to diphthongs only when they were stressed. </p> <h2 id="indo-european-languages">Indo-European languages</h2> <h3>English</h3> <p>Vowel breaking is a very common sound change in the history of the English language, occurring at least three times (with some varieties adding a fourth) listed here in reverse chronological order: </p> <h4>Southern American English</h4> <p class="note">Main article: <a href="/facts/Southern_American_English/m752MT8E">Southern American English</a></p> <p>Vowel breaking is characteristic of the "Southern drawl" of <a href="/facts/Southern_American_English/m752MT8E">Southern American English</a>, where the short <a href="/facts/Front_vowel/htKQs3AT">front vowels</a> have developed a glide up to [j], and then in some areas back down to schwa: <i>pat</i> [pæjət], <i>pet</i> [pɛjət], <i>pit</i> [pɪjət].<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:2" href="#fn:2"><sup>2</sup></a> </p> <h4>Great Vowel Shift</h4> <p>The <a href="/facts/Great_Vowel_Shift/WJKsaEcK">Great Vowel Shift</a> changed the long vowels /iː uː/ to diphthongs, which became <a href="/facts/Modern_English/etWbLYRj">Modern English</a> /aɪ aʊ/. </p> <ul><li>Old English <i><i>īs</i></i> > Modern English <i>ice</i> /aɪs/</li> <li>Old English <i><i>hūs</i></i> > Modern English <i>house</i> /haʊs/</li></ul> <h4>Middle English</h4> <p class="note">Main article: <a href="/facts/Middle_English_phonology/DpyeMGG5">Middle English phonology § Breaking</a></p> <p>In early <a href="/facts/Middle_English/dj1wHvwd">Middle English</a>, a vowel /i/ was inserted between a front vowel and a following /h/ (pronounced [ç] in this context), and a vowel /u/ was inserted between a back vowel and a following /h/ (pronounced [x] in this context). </p><p>That is a prototypical example of the narrow sense of "vowel breaking" as described above: the original vowel breaks into a diphthong that assimilates to the following consonant, gaining a front /i/ before a <a href="/facts/Palatal_consonant/KLcKyXE8">palatal consonant</a> and /u/ before a <a href="/facts/Velar_consonant/blWClp79">velar consonant</a>. </p> <h4>Old English</h4> <p class="note">Main articles: <a href="/facts/Phonological_history_of_Old_English/TqKCvKGL">Phonological history of Old English § Breaking and retraction</a>, and <a href="/facts/Phonological_history_of_Old_English/TqKCvKGL">Phonological history of Old English § Back mutation</a></p> <p>In <a href="/facts/Old_English/9rsmQG2a">Old English</a>, two forms of harmonic vowel breaking occurred: breaking and retraction and back mutation. </p><p>In prehistoric Old English, breaking and retraction changed stressed short and long front vowels <i>i, e, æ</i> to short and long diphthongs spelled <i>io, eo, ea</i> when followed by <i>h</i> or by <i>r, l</i> + another consonant (short vowels only), and sometimes <i>w</i> (only for certain short vowels):<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:3" href="#fn:3"><sup>3</sup></a> </p> <ul><li>Proto-Germanic *fallan > Anglo-Frisian *fællan > Old English <i>feallan</i> "fall"</li> <li>PG *erþō > OE <i>eorþe</i> "earth"</li> <li>PG *lizaną > OE <i>liornian</i> "learn"</li></ul> <p>In late prehistoric Old English, back mutation changed short front <i>i, e, æ</i> to short diphthongs spelled <i>io, eo, ea</i> before a back vowel in the next syllable if the intervening consonant was of a certain nature. The specific nature of the consonants that trigger back umlaut or block it varied from dialect to dialect. </p> <h3>Old Norse</h3> <p class="note">Main article: <a href="/facts/Old_Norse/3dIvgsm5">Old Norse phonological processes</a></p> <p><a href="/facts/Proto-Germanic_language/LJrKRx5A">Proto-Germanic</a> stressed short <i>e</i> becomes <i>ja</i> or (before <i>u</i>) <i>jǫ</i> regularly in <a href="/facts/Old_Norse_language/3dIvgsm5">Old Norse</a> except after <i>w, r, l</i>. Examples are: </p> <ul><li>PG *<i>ek(a)</i> "I" → (east) ON <i>jak</i>, <a href="/facts/Swedish_language/1DkSIXkH">Swedish</a> <i>jag</i>, <a href="/facts/Danish_language/sTcGXTMJ">Danish</a> and <a href="/facts/Bokm%C3%A5l/9HkIMEGV">Norwegian Bokmål</a> <i>jeg</i>, and <a href="/facts/Icelandic_language/4GmzhaoT">Icelandic</a> <i>ek</i> → <i>ég</i> (but <a href="/facts/Jutlandic/y10CcnNE">Jutlandic</a> <i>æ, a</i>, <a href="/facts/Nynorsk/9eLmL1Lu">Nynorsk</a> <i>eg</i>). <ul><li><a href="/facts/Faroese_language/1nf145FG">Faroese</a> has both. The standard form is <i>eg</i>, while the dialects of <a href="/facts/Su%C3%B0uroy/LTelyTdF">Suðuroy</a> have <i>jeg</i>.</li></ul></li> <li>PG *<i>hertōn</i> "heart" → ON <i>hjarta</i>, <a href="/facts/Swedish_language/1DkSIXkH">Swedish</a> <i>hjärta</i>, <a href="/facts/Faroese_language/1nf145FG">Faroese</a> <i>hjarta</i>, <a href="/facts/Nynorsk/9eLmL1Lu">Norwegian Nynorsk</a> <i>hjarta</i>, <a href="/facts/Danish_language/sTcGXTMJ">Danish</a> <i>hjerte</i></li> <li>PG *<i>erþō</i> "earth" → Proto-Norse *<i>erþū</i> → ON <i>jǫrð</i>, <a href="/facts/Swedish_language/1DkSIXkH">Swedish</a>, <a href="/facts/Danish_language/sTcGXTMJ">Danish</a>, <a href="/facts/Norwegian_language/TGEyeerM">Norwegian</a> <i>jord</i>, <a href="/facts/Faroese_language/1nf145FG">Faroese</a> <i>jørð</i></li></ul> <p>According to some scholars,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:4" href="#fn:4"><sup>4</sup></a> the diphthongisation of <i>e</i> is an unconditioned sound change, whereas other scholars speak about <a href="/facts/Epenthesis/DEJE6nKS">epenthesis</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5"><sup>5</sup></a> or <a href="/facts/Germanic_umlaut/wG1CIfBC">umlaut</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6"><sup>6</sup></a> </p> <h3>German and Yiddish</h3> <p>The long high vowels of <a href="/facts/Middle_High_German/LI9JRDIu">Middle High German</a> underwent breaking during the transition to <a href="/facts/Early_New_High_German/uNAnVEq4">Early New High German</a>: /iː yː uː/ → /aɪ̯ ɔʏ̯ aʊ̯/. In <a href="/facts/Yiddish/VfmsR6pW">Yiddish</a>, the diphthongization affected the long mid vowels as well: /ɛː oː øː iː yː uː/ → /ɛɪ̯ ɔɪ̯ ɛɪ̯ aɪ̯ aɪ̯ ɔɪ̯/ </p> <ul><li>MHG <i><i>êwic</i></i> → NHG <i><i>ewig</i></i>, <a href="/facts/Yiddish_language/VfmsR6pW">Yiddish</a>: אייביק, <a href="/facts/Romanization_of_Yiddish/x1CIbANg">romanized</a>: <i>eybik</i> ("eternal")</li> <li>MHG <i><i>hôch</i></i> → NHG <i><i>hoch</i></i>, <a href="/facts/Yiddish_language/VfmsR6pW">Yiddish</a>: הויך, <a href="/facts/Romanization_of_Yiddish/x1CIbANg">romanized</a>: <i>hoykh</i> ("high")</li> <li>MHG <i><i>schœne</i></i> → NHG <i><i>schön</i></i>, <a href="/facts/Yiddish_language/VfmsR6pW">Yiddish</a>: שיין, <a href="/facts/Romanization_of_Yiddish/x1CIbANg">romanized</a>: <i>sheyn</i> ("nice")</li> <li>MHG <i><i>snîden</i></i> → NHG <i><i>schneiden</i></i>, <a href="/facts/Yiddish_language/VfmsR6pW">Yiddish</a>: שנײַדן, <a href="/facts/Romanization_of_Yiddish/x1CIbANg">romanized</a>: <i>shnaydn</i> ("to cut")</li> <li>MHG <i><i>vriunt</i></i> → NHG <i><i>Freund</i></i>, <a href="/facts/Yiddish_language/VfmsR6pW">Yiddish</a>: פֿרײַנד, <a href="/facts/Romanization_of_Yiddish/x1CIbANg">romanized</a>: <i>fraynd</i> ("friend")</li> <li>MHG <i><i>hût</i></i> → NHG <i><i>Haut</i></i>, <a href="/facts/Yiddish_language/VfmsR6pW">Yiddish</a>: הויט, <a href="/facts/Romanization_of_Yiddish/x1CIbANg">romanized</a>: <i>hoyt</i> ("skin")</li></ul> <p>This change started as early as the 12th century in Upper Bavarian and reached Moselle Franconian only in the 16th century. It did not affect Alemannic or Ripuarian dialects, which still retain the original long vowels. </p><p>In Yiddish, the diphthongization applied not only to MHG long vowels but also to /ɛː oː/ in words of <a href="/facts/Hebrew/hqKCSy9d">Hebrew</a> (in stressed open syllables) or <a href="/facts/Slavic_languages/b5GaeFx1">Slavic</a> origin: </p> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Hebrew_language/hqKCSy9d">Hebrew</a>: פסח, <a href="/facts/Romanization_of_Hebrew/lqWNLwgA">romanized</a>: <i>pésach</i> → <a href="/facts/Yiddish_language/VfmsR6pW">Yiddish</a>: פּסח, <a href="/facts/Romanization_of_Yiddish/x1CIbANg">romanized</a>: <i>peysekh</i> ("<a href="/facts/Pesach/klu4sC0g">Pesach</a>")</li> <li><a href="/facts/Hebrew_language/hqKCSy9d">Hebrew</a>: מנורה, <a href="/facts/Romanization_of_Hebrew/lqWNLwgA">romanized</a>: <i>m'norá</i> → <a href="/facts/Yiddish_language/VfmsR6pW">Yiddish</a>: מנורה, <a href="/facts/Romanization_of_Yiddish/x1CIbANg">romanized</a>: <i>mnoyre</i> ("menorah")</li> <li><a href="/facts/Old_Czech/3t8KuJfR">Old Czech</a>: <i>chřěn</i> → <a href="/facts/Yiddish_language/VfmsR6pW">Yiddish</a>: כריין, <a href="/facts/Romanization_of_Yiddish/x1CIbANg">romanized</a>: <i>khreyn</i> ("<a href="/facts/Chrain/E0z8Wckb">chrain</a>")</li> <li><a href="/facts/Polish_language/lzpvYDvV">Polish</a>: <i>kosz</i> → <a href="/facts/Yiddish_language/VfmsR6pW">Yiddish</a>: קויש, <a href="/facts/Romanization_of_Yiddish/x1CIbANg">romanized</a>: <i>koysh</i> ("basket")</li></ul> <h3>Scottish Gaelic</h3> <p>Vowel breaking is present in Scottish Gaelic with the following changes occurring often but variably between dialects: Archaic Irish <i>eː</i> → Scottish Gaelic <i>iə</i> and Archaic Irish <i>oː</i> → Scottish Gaelic <i>uə</i> <a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7"><sup>7</sup></a> Specifically, central dialects have more vowel breaking than others. </p> <h3>Romance languages</h3> <p>Many <a href="/facts/Romance_languages/TMK4KHI3">Romance languages</a> underwent vowel breaking. The <a href="/facts/Vulgar_Latin/uR9BLlE5">Vulgar Latin</a> open vowels <i>e</i> /ɛ/ and <i>o</i> /ɔ/ in <a href="/facts/Stress_(linguistics)/rsHpCK5H">stressed</a> position underwent breaking only in open syllables in <a href="/facts/French_language/qe1DnaQh">French</a> and <a href="/facts/Italian_language/YXsmvlQG">Italian</a>, but in both open and closed syllables in <a href="/facts/Spanish_language/95BgYNfv">Spanish</a>. Vowel breaking was mostly absent in <a href="/facts/Catalan_language/W2uTbK8Q">Catalan</a>, in which /ɛ/ and /ɔ/ became diphthongs only before a palatal consonant: Latin coxa 'thigh', octō 'eight', lectum 'bed' > Old Catalan */kuoiʃa/, */uoit/, */lieit/. The middle vowel was subsequently lost if a triphthong was produced: Modern Catalan cuixa, vuit, llit (cf. Portuguese coxa, oito, leito). Vowel breaking was completely absent in <a href="/facts/Portuguese_language/vr3Fwzw3">Portuguese</a>. The result of breaking varies between languages: <i>e</i> and <i>o</i> became <i>ie</i> and <i>ue</i> in Spanish, <i>ie</i> and <i>uo</i> in Italian and <i>ie</i> and <i>eu</i> /ø/ in French. </p><p>In the table below, words with breaking are bolded. </p> <table><tbody><tr><th><a href="/facts/Syllable/Ylt7pyJe">Syllable shape</a></th><th>Latin</th><th>Spanish</th><th>French</th><th>Italian</th><th>Portuguese</th><th>Catalan</th></tr><tr><th><a href="/facts/Syllable/Ylt7pyJe">Open</a></th><td>petram, focum</td><th>piedra, fuego</th><th>pierre, feu</th><th>pietra, fuoco</th><td>pedra, fogo</td><td>pedra, foc</td></tr><tr><th><a href="/facts/Syllable/Ylt7pyJe">Closed</a></th><td>festam, portam</td><th>fiesta, puerta</th><td>fête, porte</td><td>festa, porta</td><td>festa, porta</td><td>festa, porta</td></tr></tbody></table> <h4>Romanian</h4> <p class="note">Main articles: <a href="/facts/History_of_Romanian/mgHMhTjX">History of Romanian § Breaking of stressed open e</a>, and <a href="/facts/History_of_Romanian/mgHMhTjX">History of Romanian § Breaking of e and o</a></p> <p><a href="/facts/Romanian_language/zAY3GnkL">Romanian</a> underwent the general Romance breaking only with /ɛ/, as it did not have /ɔ/: </p> <ul><li>Latin <i>pellis</i> > Romanian <i>piele</i> "skin"</li></ul> <p>It underwent a later breaking of stressed <i>e</i> and <i>o</i> to <i>ea</i> and <i>oa</i> before a mid or open vowel: </p> <ul><li>Latin <i>porta</i> > Romanian <i>poartă</i> "gate"</li> <li>Latin <i>flōs</i> (stem <i>flōr-</i>) > Romanian <i>floare</i> "flower"</li></ul> <p>Sometimes a word underwent both forms of breaking in succession: </p> <ul><li>Latin <i>petra</i> > Early Romanian <i>pietră</i> > Romanian <i>piatră</i> "stone" (where <i>ia</i> results from hypothetical *<i>iea</i>)</li></ul> <p>The diphthongs that resulted from the Romance and the Romanian breakings were modified when they occurred after palatalized consonants. </p> <h4>Quebec French</h4> <p class="note">Main article: <a href="/facts/Quebec_French_phonology/pBryWH4H">Quebec French phonology</a></p> <p>In <a href="/facts/Quebec_French/WG9pg3Tf">Quebec French</a>, long vowels are generally diphthongized when followed by a consonant in the same syllable (even when a final [ʁ] is optionally made silent). </p> <ul><li><i>tard</i> [tɑːʁ] → [tɑɔ̯ʁ]; but not in <i>tardif</i> (because short a)</li> <li><i>père</i> [pɛːʁ] → [paɛ̯ʁ]</li> <li><i>fleur</i> [flœːʁ] → [flɶœ̯ʁ]; but not in <i>fleuriste</i> (long œ is at end of syllable)</li> <li><i>fort</i> [fɔːʁ] → [fɑɔ̯ʁ]; but not <i>forte</i> (short o)</li> <li><i>autre</i> [oːtʁ̥] → [ou̯tʁ̥]; but not <i>autrement</i> (long o is at end of syllable)</li> <li><i>neutre</i> [nøːtʁ̥] → [nøy̯tʁ̥]; but not <i>neutralité</i> (long ø is at end of syllable)</li> <li><i>pince</i> [pɛ̃ːs] → [pãɛ̃s]; or [pẽːs] → [pẽɪ̯̃s]; but not <i>pincer</i></li> <li><i>onze</i> [õːz] → [õʊ̯̃z]; but not <i>onzième</i></li></ul> <h3>Proto-Indo-European</h3> <p>Some scholars<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8"><sup>8</sup></a> believe that <a href="/facts/Proto-Indo-European_language/cVLNoM3p">Proto-Indo-European</a> (PIE) <i>i, u</i> had vowel-breaking before an original <a href="/facts/Laryngeal_theory/WzwJPK3U">laryngeal</a> in <a href="/facts/Ancient_Greek_language/LIK7NlUh">Greek</a>, <a href="/facts/Armenian_language/tELuE2wG">Armenian</a> and <a href="/facts/Tocharian_languages/zCILXC6E">Tocharian</a> but that the other Indo-European languages kept the monophthongs: </p> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Proto_Indo-European_language/cVLNoM3p">PIE</a> *<i>gʷih3wos</i> → *<i>gʷioHwos</i> "alive" → <a href="/facts/Ancient_Greek_language/LIK7NlUh">Gk.</a> ζωός <i>zōós</i>, <a href="/facts/Tocharian_languages/zCILXC6E">Toch. B</a> <i>śāw-, śāy-</i> (but <a href="/facts/Sanskrit/ychfjhlx">Skt.</a> <i>jīvá-</i>, <a href="/facts/Latin/pM3Kge85">Lat.</a> <i>vīvus</i>)</li> <li><a href="/facts/Proto_Indo-European_language/cVLNoM3p">PIE</a> *<i>protih3kʷom</i> → *<i>protioHkʷom</i> "front side" → <a href="/facts/Ancient_Greek_language/LIK7NlUh">Gk.</a> πρόσωπον <i>prósōpon</i> "face", <a href="/facts/Tocharian_languages/zCILXC6E">Toch. B</a> <i>pratsāko</i> "breast" (but <a href="/facts/Sanskrit/ychfjhlx">Skt.</a> <i>prátīka-</i>)</li> <li><a href="/facts/Proto_Indo-European_language/cVLNoM3p">PIE</a> *<i>duh2ros</i> → *<i>duaHros</i> "long" → <a href="/facts/Ancient_Greek_language/LIK7NlUh">Gk.</a> δηρός <i>dērós</i>, <a href="/facts/Armenian_language/tELuE2wG">Arm.</a> *<i>twār</i> → <i>erkar</i> (<a href="/facts/Sanskrit/ychfjhlx">Skt.</a> <i>dūrá-</i>, <a href="/facts/Latin/pM3Kge85">Lat.</a> <i>dūrus</i>).</li></ul> <p>However, the hypothesis has not been widely adopted. </p> <h2 id="austronesian-languages">Austronesian languages</h2> <p>Some languages in <a href="/facts/Sumatra/Fo192kJb">Sumatra</a> have vowel breaking processes, almost exclusively in syllable-final position. In <a href="/facts/Minangkabau_language/TfpkT8tS">Minangkabau</a>, the <a href="/facts/Proto-Malayic_language/7rWz6m8k">Proto-Malayic</a> vowels <i>*i</i> and <i>*u</i> are broken to <i>ia</i> and <i>ua</i> before word-final <i>*h</i>, <i>*k</i>, <i>*l</i>, <i>*ŋ</i>, <i>*r</i> (<i>*təlur</i> > <i>*təluar</i> > <i>talua</i> "egg").<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9"><sup>9</sup></a> In <a href="/facts/Rejang_language/C1hQnkHh">Rejang</a>, the <a href="/facts/Proto-Malayo-Polynesian_language/vdtfHQFW">Proto-Malayo-Polynesian</a> vowels <i>*ə</i>, <i>i</i>, and <i>u</i> are broken to <i>êa</i>, <i>ea</i>, and <i>oa</i> before any of word-final consonants above except <i>*k</i> and <i>*ŋ</i> (<i>*tənur</i> > <i>*tənoar</i> > <i>tênoa</i> "egg").<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10"><sup>10</sup></a> This process has been <a href="/facts/Transphonologization/0uJnY6hT">transphonologized</a> by loss of <i>*l</i> and <i>*r</i> and merging of several word-final consonants into a <a href="/facts/Glottal_stop/Xfqy2ArP">glottal stop</a> (<i>*p</i>, <i>*t</i>, <i>*k</i> in Minangkabau, or <i>*k</i>, <i>*h</i> in most dialects of Rejang except Kebanagung). </p><p>Word-final Proto-Malayo-Polynesian <i>*-i</i> and <i>*-u</i> were also broken in Sumatra. In Rejang, these vowels are broken into <i>-ai</i> and <i>-au</i> in <i>Pesisir</i> dialect, or into <i>-êi</i> and <i>-êu</i> elsewhere.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11"><sup>11</sup></a> </p><p>Although <a href="/facts/Acehnese_language/zNFToqgf">Acehnese</a> is also spoken in Sumatra, the entire <a href="/facts/Chamic_languages/RjFSsSAq">Chamic family</a> has undergone vowel breaking separately. Final open <i>*-i</i> and <i>*-u</i> were broken in Proto-Chamic into <i>*-ɛy</i> and <i>*-ɔw</i>. However, they remained when closed by another consonant (final <i>*-r</i> was lost in native words). The following are the outcomes for the diphthongs:<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12"><sup>12</sup></a> </p> <table><tbody><tr><th></th><th><a href="/facts/Acehnese_language/zNFToqgf">Acehnese</a></th><th><a href="/facts/Rade_language/V8seWJpW">Rade</a></th><th><a href="/facts/Jarai_language/mqm8uWMh">Jarai</a></th><th><a href="/facts/Chru_language/n7oVcqxF">Chru</a></th><th><a href="/facts/Northern_Roglai_language/51dPJVs0">Northern Roglai</a></th><th><a href="/facts/Tsat_language/XRrJQAxA">Tsat</a></th><th><a href="/facts/Cham_language/YI3TaPg2">Western Cham</a></th><th>Phan Rang Cham</th></tr><tr><td><i>*ɛy</i></td><td><i>ɔə</i></td><td><i>ɛi</i></td><td colspan="3"><i>əi</i></td><td><i>ai</i></td><td><i>ay</i></td><td><i>ɛ̆y</i></td></tr><tr><td><i>*ɔw</i></td><td><i>ɛə</i></td><td><i>ău</i></td><td colspan="3"><i>əu</i></td><td><i>au</i>~<i>ə</i></td><td><i>au</i></td><td><i>ɔ̆w</i></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Following its split from Proto-Chamic, several daughter languages have undergone further vowel breaking. In Acehnese, <i>*a:</i> normally became <i>ɯə</i>, but when preceded by a nasal, it became <i>ɯ</i> instead.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13"><sup>13</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="see-also">See also</h2> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Smoothing_(phonetics)/GW9wqUrX">Smoothing (phonetics)</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Unpacking_(linguistics)/uwUmnyp1">Unpacking (linguistics)</a></li></ul> <h2 id="bibliography">Bibliography</h2> <ul><li>Crowley, Terry. (1997) <i>An Introduction to Historical Linguistics.</i> 3rd edition. Oxford University Press.</li> <li>Thurgood, Graham (1999). <a href="https://www.scribd.com/document/512808378/From-Ancient-Cham-to-Modern-Dialects"><i>From Ancient Cham to Modern Dialects: Two Thousand Years of Language Contact and Change: With an Appendix of Chamic Reconstructions and Loanwords</i></a>. Oceanic Linguistics Special Publications. University of Hawai'i Press. pp. i, iii–vii, ix–xiii, xv–xvii, 1–259, 261–275, 277–397, 399–407. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 0824821319. <a href="/facts/JSTOR_(identifier)/YTeVmaJ7">JSTOR</a> <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20006770">20006770</a>.</li></ul> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition 2000 by Houghton Mifflin Company. <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>Kathryn LaBouff, Singing and Communicating in English, Oxford University Press, 2007, p. 268. <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>Robert B. Howell 1991. Old English breaking and its Germanic analogues (Linguistische Arbeiten, 253.). Tübingen: Max Niemeyer <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:4"><p>J. Svensson, Diftongering med palatalt förslag i de nordiska språken, Lund 1944. <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:5"><p>H. Paul, "Zur Geschichte des germanischen Vocalismus", Beiträge zur Geschichte der deutschen Sprache und Kultur 6 (1879) 16-30. <a href="/wiki/Hermann_Paul" target="_blank">/wiki/Hermann_Paul</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:6"><p>K. M. Nielsen, Acta Philologica Scandinavica 24 (1957) 33-45. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Karl_Martin_Nielsen&action=edit&redlink=1" target="_blank">/w/index.php?title=Karl_Martin_Nielsen&action=edit&redlink=1</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:7"><p>Martin John Ball, James Fife (1993). The Celtic Languages. Psychology Press. p. 152. ISBN 9780415010351. <a href="9780415010351" target="_blank">9780415010351</a> <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:8"><p>F. Normier, in: Zeitschrift für vergleichende Sprachforschung 91 (1977) 171-218; J.S. Klein, in: Die Laryngaltheorie und die Rekonstruktion des indogermanischen Laut- und Formensystems, Heidelberg 1988, 257-279; Olsen, Birgit Anette, in: Proceedings of the fourth international conference on Armenian linguistics, Cleveland's State University, Cleveland, Ohio, September 14–18, 1991, Delmar (NY) 1992, 129-146; J.E. Rasmussen, in: Selected Papers on Indo-European Linguistics, Copenhagen 1999, 442-458. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Francis_Normier&action=edit&redlink=1" target="_blank">/w/index.php?title=Francis_Normier&action=edit&redlink=1</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:9"><p>Adelaar, K. Alexander (1992). Proto-Malayic: The Reconstruction of its Phonology and Parts of its Lexicon and Morphology. Pacific Linguistics, Series C, no. 119. Canberra: Dept. of Linguistics, Research School of Pacific Studies, The Australian National University. doi:10.15144/PL-C119. hdl:1885/145782. ISBN 978-0-85883-408-8. <a href="978-0-85883-408-8" target="_blank">978-0-85883-408-8</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:10"><p>"Some Irregular Reflexes of Proto-Malayo-Polynesian Vowels in the Rejang Language of Sumatra" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-08-08. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170808113107/http://www.ohio.edu/people/mcginn/Irreg_Reflex.pdf" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20170808113107/http://www.ohio.edu/people/mcginn/Irreg_Reflex.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:11"><p>"Some Irregular Reflexes of Proto-Malayo-Polynesian Vowels in the Rejang Language of Sumatra" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-08-08. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170808113107/http://www.ohio.edu/people/mcginn/Irreg_Reflex.pdf" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20170808113107/http://www.ohio.edu/people/mcginn/Irreg_Reflex.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:12"><p>Thurgood 1999, p. 114. - Thurgood, Graham (1999). From Ancient Cham to Modern Dialects: Two Thousand Years of Language Contact and Change: With an Appendix of Chamic Reconstructions and Loanwords. Oceanic Linguistics Special Publications. University of Hawai'i Press. pp. i, iii–vii, ix–xiii, xv–xvii, 1–259, 261–275, 277–397, 399–407. ISBN 0824821319. JSTOR 20006770. <a href="https://www.scribd.com/document/512808378/From-Ancient-Cham-to-Modern-Dialects" target="_blank">https://www.scribd.com/document/512808378/From-Ancient-Cham-to-Modern-Dialects</a> <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:13"><p>Thurgood 1999, p. 124. - Thurgood, Graham (1999). From Ancient Cham to Modern Dialects: Two Thousand Years of Language Contact and Change: With an Appendix of Chamic Reconstructions and Loanwords. Oceanic Linguistics Special Publications. University of Hawai'i Press. pp. i, iii–vii, ix–xiii, xv–xvii, 1–259, 261–275, 277–397, 399–407. ISBN 0824821319. JSTOR 20006770. <a href="https://www.scribd.com/document/512808378/From-Ancient-Cham-to-Modern-Dialects" target="_blank">https://www.scribd.com/document/512808378/From-Ancient-Cham-to-Modern-Dialects</a> <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> </ol>