Islam

<h2 id="etymology">Etymology</h2>
See also: <a href="/facts/Muslims/W2ukq4pg">Muslims § Etymology</a>
In Arabic, Islam (<a href="/facts/Arabic_language/A1e66hVV">Arabic</a>: إسلام, <a href="/facts/Literal_translation/0cF1oFRh">lit.</a> 'submission [to God]')<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5">5</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6">6</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7">7</a> is the verbal noun of Form IV originating from the verb سلم (salama), from the <a href="/facts/Semitic_root/S73FvfPz">triliteral root</a> س-ل-م (<a href="/facts/%25C5%25A0-L-M/52r0SjIP">S-L-M</a>), which forms a large class of words mostly relating to concepts of submission, safeness, and peace.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8">8</a> In a religious context, it refers to the total surrender to the will of <a href="/facts/God/KAykGr3G">God</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9">9</a> A <a href="/facts/Muslims/W2ukq4pg">Muslim</a> (مُسْلِم), the word for a follower of Islam,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10">10</a> is the <a href="/facts/Participle/rYxXQKaG">active participle</a> of the same verb form, and means "submitter (to God)" or "one who surrenders (to God)". However, <a href="/facts/Quranic_studies/PRAVJASI">Quranic studies</a> scholar <a href="/facts/Mohsen_Goudarzi/3sxEhxWU">Mohsen Goudarzi</a> has argued that in the Quran the word <a href="/facts/D%25C4%25ABn/SGHhLu3p">dīn</a> means "<a href="/facts/Worship/Y9CGUlEd">worship</a>", the islām means "<a href="/facts/Monotheism/scRUM2It">monotheism</a>" and the muslim means "monotheist".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11">11</a> In the <a href="/facts/Hadith_of_Gabriel/ya2TDDKn">Hadith of Gabriel</a>, Islam is presented as one part of a triad that also includes <a href="/facts/Iman_(Islam)/gtEG6MFP">imān</a> (faith), and <a href="/facts/Ihsan/ggTMc5C2">ihsān</a> (excellence).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12">12</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13">13</a>
Islam itself was historically called <a href="/facts/Mohammedan/tWymoB3P">Mohammedanism</a> in the <a href="/facts/English-speaking_world/qaq1SXu4">English-speaking world</a>. This term has fallen out of use and is sometimes said to be <a href="/facts/Religious_offence/l95f12E6">offensive</a>, as it suggests that a human being, rather than God, is central to Muslims' religion.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14">14</a>

<h2 id="articles-of-faith">Articles of faith</h2>
Main articles: <a href="/facts/Aqidah/janLVvbA">Aqidah</a> and <a href="/facts/Iman_(Islam)/gtEG6MFP">Iman</a>
The Islamic <a href="/facts/Creed/GQuXuXgm">creed</a> (<a href="/facts/Aqidah/janLVvbA">aqidah</a>) requires belief in <a href="/facts/Iman_(Islam)/gtEG6MFP">six articles</a>: God, angels, revelation, prophets, the <a href="/facts/Day_of_Resurrection/a94fgIdV">Day of Resurrection</a>, and the divine predestination.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15">15</a>

<h3>God</h3>

Main article: <a href="/facts/God_in_Islam/L2VNNRJm">God in Islam</a>
The central concept of Islam is <a href="/facts/Tawhid/Svh5hgTS">tawḥīd</a> (Arabic: توحيد), the oneness of God. It is usually thought of as a precise <a href="/facts/Monotheism/scRUM2It">monotheism</a>, but is also <a href="/facts/Panentheism/0hu4rnDr">panentheistic</a> in Islamic mystical teachings.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16">16</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17">17</a> God is seen as incomparable and without multiplicity of persons such as in the <a href="/facts/Christian_Trinity/2eElg705">Christian Trinity</a>, and associating multiplicity to God or attributing God's attributes to others is seen as <a href="/facts/Idolatory/VRA0DKEd">idolatory</a>, called <a href="/facts/Shirk_(Islam)/gNIPBXkD">shirk</a>. Thus, Muslims are not <a href="/facts/Iconodule/ggbG3yCI">iconodules</a> and do not attribute forms to God. God is instead described and referred to by several <a href="/facts/Names_of_God_in_Islam/WncGGL9n">names or attributes</a>, the most common being Ar-Rahmān (الرحمان) meaning "The Entirely Merciful", and Ar-Rahīm (الرحيم) meaning "The Especially Merciful" which are invoked at the beginning of most chapters of the Quran.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18">18</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19">19</a>
Islam teaches that the creation of everything in the <a href="/facts/Universe/lfoqc5m6">universe</a> was brought into being by God's command as expressed by the wording, "<a href="/facts/Be%2c_and_it_is/RFsfUWby">Be, and it is</a>,"<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20">20</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21">21</a> and that the <a href="/facts/Purpose_of_life/YxbldkPE">purpose of existence</a> is to worship God.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22">22</a> He is viewed as a personal god<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23">23</a> and there are no intermediaries, such as <a href="/facts/Clergy/IzdAVmsT">clergy</a>, to contact God. Consciousness and awareness of God is referred to as <a href="/facts/Taqwa/yIfgp7Ad">Taqwa</a>. <a href="/facts/All%25C4%2581h/7U7KpU9p">Allāh</a> is a term with no <a href="/facts/Plural/3VjXP7VF">plural</a> or <a href="/facts/Gender/LfjRHcJy">gender</a> being ascribed to it and is also used by Muslims and Arabic-speaking Christians and Jews in reference to God, whereas <a href="/facts/%25CA%25BEil%25C4%2581h/uvXzRoun">ʾilāh</a> (إله) is a term used for a deity or a god in general.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24">24</a>

<h3>Angels</h3>

Main article: <a href="/facts/Angels_in_Islam/GjIhXyaK">Angels in Islam</a>
Angels (Arabic: ملك, malak) are beings described in the Quran<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25">25</a> and hadith.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26">26</a> They are described as created to worship God and also to serve in other specific duties such as communicating <a href="/facts/Revelation/xMygzvLv">revelations</a> from God, recording every person's actions, and taking a person's <a href="/facts/Soul/DJl01SxP">soul</a> at the time of death. They are described as being created variously from 'light' (<a href="/facts/N%25C5%25ABr_(Islam)/z3kRbwl4">nūr</a>)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27">27</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28">28</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29">29</a> or 'fire' (nār).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30">30</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31">31</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32">32</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33">33</a> Islamic angels are often represented in <a href="/facts/Anthropomorphism/foTf9q24">anthropomorphic forms</a> combined with <a href="/facts/Supernatural/qSlTK0Ss">supernatural</a> images, such as wings, being of great size or wearing heavenly articles.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34">34</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35">35</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36">36</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37">37</a> Common characteristics for angels include a lack of bodily needs and desires, such as eating and drinking.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38">38</a> Some of them, such as <a href="/facts/Gabriel/oELRTjkD">Gabriel</a> (Jibrīl) and <a href="/facts/Michael_(archangel)/tJWtDcGy">Michael</a> (Mika'il), are mentioned by name in the Quran. Angels play a significant role in literature about the <a href="/facts/Isra_and_Mi%2527raj/N9uAjSbM">Mi'raj</a>, where Muhammad encounters several angels during his journey through the heavens.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39">39</a> Further angels have often been featured in <a href="/facts/Islamic_eschatology/7EhMFc0o">Islamic eschatology</a>, <a href="/facts/Kalam/86GebkgK">theology</a> and <a href="/facts/Islamic_philosophy/QSzAKr2j">philosophy</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40">40</a>

<h3>Scriptures</h3>

Main articles: <a href="/facts/Islamic_holy_books/55nIK4Vh">Islamic holy books</a>, <a href="/facts/Quran/39rkStko">Quran</a>, and <a href="/facts/Wahy/0v5wtqvC">Wahy</a>
See also: <a href="/facts/History_of_the_Quran/gQTzsL8n">History of the Quran</a>
The pre-eminent holy text of Islam is the <a href="/facts/Quran/39rkStko">Quran</a>. Muslims believe that the verses of the Quran were revealed to Muhammad by God, through the <a href="/facts/Archangel/PnwD5bRE">archangel</a> Gabriel, on multiple occasions between 610 CE<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:41" href="#fn:41">41</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:42" href="#fn:42">42</a> and 632, the year Muhammad died.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:43" href="#fn:43">43</a> While Muhammad was alive, these revelations were written down by <a href="/facts/Muhammad%2527s_companions/ev5xGHLt">his companions</a>, although the primary method of transmission was orally through <a href="/facts/Hafiz_(Quran)/PhG0j3PD">memorization</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:44" href="#fn:44">44</a> The Quran is divided into 114 chapters (<a href="/facts/S%25C5%25ABrah/SlvRy3DG">sūrah</a>) which contain a combined 6,236 verses (<a href="/facts/Ayah/ohBUHBQ2">āyāt</a>). The chronologically earlier chapters, revealed at <a href="/facts/Mecca/udqyuk0k">Mecca</a>, are concerned primarily with spiritual topics, while the later <a href="/facts/Medina/nbDykVmK">Medinan</a> chapters discuss more social and legal issues relevant to the Muslim community.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:45" href="#fn:45">45</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:46" href="#fn:46">46</a> Muslim jurists consult the hadith ('accounts'), or the written record of Muhammad's life, to both supplement the Quran and assist with its interpretation. The science of Quranic commentary and exegesis is known as <a href="/facts/Tafsir/up84xNbN">tafsir</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:47" href="#fn:47">47</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:48" href="#fn:48">48</a> In addition to its religious significance, the Quran is widely regarded as the finest work in <a href="/facts/Arabic_literature/Psan6hLF">Arabic literature</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:49" href="#fn:49">49</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:50" href="#fn:50">50</a> and has influenced art and the Arabic language.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:51" href="#fn:51">51</a>
Islam also holds that God has sent revelations, called <a href="/facts/Wahy/0v5wtqvC">wahy</a>, to different prophets numerous times throughout history. However, Islam teaches that parts of the previously revealed scriptures, such as the <a href="/facts/Tawrat/PBbxyzy2">Tawrat</a> (<a href="/facts/Torah/BdJr9IFo">Torah</a>) and the <a href="/facts/Injil/u5FF9kn3">Injil</a> (<a href="/facts/Gospel_in_Islam/u5FF9kn3">Gospel</a>), have become <a href="/facts/Tahrif/rw4bI9Vl">distorted</a>—either in interpretation, in text, or both,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:52" href="#fn:52">52</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:53" href="#fn:53">53</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:54" href="#fn:54">54</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:55" href="#fn:55">55</a> while the Quran (lit. 'Recitation') is viewed as the final, verbatim and unaltered word of God.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:56" href="#fn:56">56</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:57" href="#fn:57">57</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:58" href="#fn:58">58</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:59" href="#fn:59">59</a>

<h3>Prophets</h3>
Main articles: <a href="/facts/Prophets_and_messengers_in_Islam/WPWy6Gdp">Prophets and messengers in Islam</a>, <a href="/facts/Sunnah/fmXN1E1q">Sunnah</a>, and <a href="/facts/Hadith/8aKKCttq">Hadith</a>

Prophets (Arabic: أنبياء, anbiyāʾ) are believed to have been chosen by God to preach a divine message. Some of these prophets additionally deliver a new book and are called "messengers" (رسول‎, rasūl).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:60" href="#fn:60">60</a> Muslims believe prophets are human and not divine. All of the prophets are said to have preached the same basic message of Islam – submission to the will of God – to various nations in the past, and this is said to account for many similarities among religions. The Quran recounts the names of numerous figures considered <a href="/facts/Prophets_in_Islam/WPWy6Gdp">prophets in Islam</a>, including <a href="/facts/Adam_in_Islam/vKJwD03M">Adam</a>, <a href="/facts/Noah_in_Islam/5vgz4h5C">Noah</a>, <a href="/facts/Abraham_in_Islam/5cMzq6Ez">Abraham</a>, <a href="/facts/Moses_in_Islam/n8Fq47qH">Moses</a> and <a href="/facts/Jesus_in_Islam/xPo4UDS8">Jesus</a>, among others.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:61" href="#fn:61">61</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:62" href="#fn:62">62</a> The stories associated with the prophets beyond the Quranic accounts are collected and explored in the <a href="/facts/Qisas_Al-Anbiya/PGKGIVm7">Qisas al-Anbiya</a> (Stories of the Prophets).
Muslims believe that God sent Muhammad as the final prophet ("<a href="/facts/Seal_of_the_prophets/Ks75jH3F">Seal of the prophets</a>") to convey the completed message of Islam.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:63" href="#fn:63">63</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:64" href="#fn:64">64</a> In Islam, the "normative" example of Muhammad's life is called the <a href="/facts/Sunnah/fmXN1E1q">sunnah</a> (literally "trodden path"). Muslims are encouraged to emulate Muhammad's moral behaviors in their daily lives, and the sunnah is seen as crucial to guiding interpretation of the Quran.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:65" href="#fn:65">65</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:66" href="#fn:66">66</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:67" href="#fn:67">67</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:68" href="#fn:68">68</a> This example is preserved in traditions known as <a href="/facts/Hadith/8aKKCttq">hadith</a>, which are accounts of his words, actions, and personal characteristics. <a href="/facts/Hadith_qudsi/8aKKCttq">Hadith Qudsi</a> is a sub-category of hadith, regarded as God's verbatim words quoted by Muhammad that are not part of the Quran. A hadith involves two elements: a chain of narrators, called <a href="/facts/Hadith_studies/2sb5HFc7">sanad</a>, and the actual wording, called <a href="/facts/Hadith_studies/2sb5HFc7">matn</a>. There are various methodologies to classify the authenticity of hadiths, with the commonly used grading scale being "authentic" or "correct" (صحيح, <a href="/facts/Authentic_hadith/nLrVkX23">ṣaḥīḥ</a>); "good" (حسن, <a href="/facts/Hasan_(hadith)/nLrVkX23">ḥasan</a>); or "weak" (ضعيف, <a href="/facts/Da%2527if/nLrVkX23">ḍaʻīf</a>), among others. The <a href="/facts/Kutub_al-Sittah/ujzPBYBa">Kutub al-Sittah</a> are a collection of six books, regarded as the most authentic reports in <a href="/facts/Sunni_Islam/WYo0zeq0">Sunni Islam</a>. Among them is <a href="/facts/Sahih_al-Bukhari/Ykjlrvh7">Sahih al-Bukhari</a>, often considered by Sunnis to be one of the most <a href="/facts/Hadith_terminology/nLrVkX23">authentic</a> sources after the Quran.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:69" href="#fn:69">69</a> Another well-known source of hadiths is known as <a href="/facts/The_Four_Books/fIlsGYyV">The Four Books</a>, which Shias consider as the most authentic hadith reference.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:70" href="#fn:70">70</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:71" href="#fn:71">71</a>

<h3>Resurrection and judgment</h3>

Main article: <a href="/facts/Islamic_eschatology/7EhMFc0o">Islamic eschatology</a>
Belief in the "Day of Resurrection" or <a href="/facts/Qiyamah/a94fgIdV">Yawm al-Qiyāmah</a> (Arabic: يوم القيامة) is also crucial for Muslims. It is believed that the time of Qiyāmah is preordained by God, but unknown to man. The Quran and the hadith, as well as the commentaries of <a href="/facts/Ulama/7vMcAgBV">scholars</a>, describe the trials and <a href="/facts/Great_Tribulation/BryQudMs">tribulations</a> preceding and during the Qiyāmah. The Quran emphasizes <a href="/facts/Universal_resurrection/FqLYv2mT">bodily resurrection</a>, a break from the <a href="/facts/Pre-Islamic_Arabia/v6TGYKyB">pre-Islamic Arabian</a> understanding of death.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:72" href="#fn:72">72</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:73" href="#fn:73">73</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:74" href="#fn:74">74</a>
On Yawm al-Qiyāmah, Muslims believe all humankind will be judged by their good and bad deeds and consigned to <a href="/facts/Jannah/RDlAlcS1">Jannah</a> (paradise) or <a href="/facts/Jahannam/9NzP2kon">Jahannam</a> (hell).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:75" href="#fn:75">75</a> The Quran in <a href="/facts/Surat_al-Zalzalah/5g1qh9wJ">Surat al-Zalzalah</a> describes this as: "So whoever does an atom's weight of good will see it. And whoever does an atom's weight of evil will see it." The Quran <a href="/facts/Islamic_views_of_sin/qsr4hrGX">lists several sins</a> that can condemn a person to <a href="/facts/Hell/2nIkoYTB">hell</a>. However, the Quran makes it clear that God will forgive the sins of those who repent if he wishes. Good deeds, like charity, prayer, and compassion towards animals<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:76" href="#fn:76">76</a> will be rewarded with entry to heaven. Muslims view heaven as a place of joy and blessings, with Quranic references describing its features. Mystical traditions in Islam place these heavenly delights in the context of an ecstatic awareness of God.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:77" href="#fn:77">77</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:78" href="#fn:78">78</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:79" href="#fn:79">79</a> Yawm al-Qiyāmah is also identified in the Quran as Yawm ad-Dīn (يوم الدين "Day of Religion");<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:80" href="#fn:80">80</a> as-Sāʿah (الساعة "the Last Hour");<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:81" href="#fn:81">81</a> and <a href="/facts/Al-Qaria/D5zjb3MG">al-Qāriʿah</a> (القارعة "The Clatterer").<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:82" href="#fn:82">82</a>

<h3>Divine predestination</h3>
Main article: <a href="/facts/Predestination_in_Islam/bl0VS10u">Predestination in Islam</a>
The concept of divine predestination in Islam (<a href="/facts/Arabic_language/A1e66hVV">Arabic</a>: القضاء والقدر, al-qadāʾ wa l-qadar) means that every matter, good or bad, is believed to have been decreed by God. Al-qadar, meaning "power", derives from a root that means "to measure" or "calculating".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:83" href="#fn:83">83</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:84" href="#fn:84">84</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:85" href="#fn:85">85</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:86" href="#fn:86">86</a> Muslims often express this belief in divine destiny with the phrase <a href="/facts/Inshallah/6aFcuUzG">"In-sha-Allah"</a> (<a href="/facts/Arabic_language/A1e66hVV">Arabic</a>: إن شاء الله) meaning "if God wills" when speaking on future events.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:87" href="#fn:87">87</a>

<h2 id="acts-of-worship">Acts of worship</h2>
Main articles: <a href="/facts/Five_Pillars_of_Islam/LmdL77oJ">Five Pillars of Islam</a> and <a href="/facts/Ibadah/SbMbIfRP">Ibadah</a>
There are five acts of worship that are considered <a href="/facts/Fard/Pytrmb8g">duties</a>–the <a href="/facts/Shahada/DH7A50mJ">Shahada</a> (declaration of faith), the five daily prayers, <a href="/facts/Zakat/yLQ4Mygk">Zakat</a> (almsgiving), <a href="/facts/Fasting_during_Ramadan/YfftP9ka">fasting during Ramadan</a>, and the <a href="/facts/Hajj/eDC5AalN">Hajj</a> pilgrimage–collectively known as "The Pillars of Islam" (Arkān al-Islām).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:88" href="#fn:88">88</a> In addition, Muslims also perform other optional <a href="/facts/Supererogation/PC4GEhNH">supererogatory</a> acts that are encouraged but not considered to be duties.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:89" href="#fn:89">89</a>

<h3>Declaration of faith</h3>

Main article: <a href="/facts/Shahada/DH7A50mJ">Shahada</a>
The <a href="/facts/Shahada/DH7A50mJ">shahadah</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:90" href="#fn:90">90</a> is an <a href="/facts/Oath/jswyhfwI">oath</a> declaring belief in Islam. The expanded statement is "ʾašhadu ʾal-lā ʾilāha ʾillā-llāhu wa ʾašhadu ʾanna muħammadan rasūlu-llāh" (أشهد أن لا إله إلا الله وأشهد أن محمداً رسول الله), or, "I testify that there is no <a href="/facts/Deity/doCvhDHj">deity</a> except <a href="/facts/God_in_Islam/L2VNNRJm">God</a> and I testify that Muhammad is the messenger of God."<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:91" href="#fn:91">91</a> Islam is sometimes argued to have a very simple creed with the shahada being the premise for the rest of the religion. Non-Muslims wishing to <a href="/facts/Convert_to_Islam/m3QeGpVw">convert to Islam</a> are required to recite the shahada in front of witnesses.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:92" href="#fn:92">92</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:93" href="#fn:93">93</a>

<h3>Prayer</h3>
Main article: <a href="/facts/Salah/XqKPp3vL">Salah</a>
See also: <a href="/facts/Mosque/U51uY78w">Mosque</a> and <a href="/facts/Jumu%2527ah/jzK4BAl6">Jumu'ah</a>

Prayer in Islam, called <a href="/facts/Salah/XqKPp3vL">as-salah</a> or aṣ-ṣalāt (Arabic: الصلاة), is seen as a personal communication with God and consists of repeating units called <a href="/facts/Rakat/lXMErAWr">rakat</a> that include <a href="/facts/Ruku/Qfmyh2po">bowing</a> and <a href="/facts/Sujud/FMJLqS7P">prostrating</a> to God. There are five timed prayers each day that are considered duties. The prayers are recited in the Arabic language and performed in <a href="/facts/Qibla/yh7VHnjU">the direction</a> of the <a href="/facts/Kaaba/HtXr4Knl">Kaaba</a>. The act also requires a state of ritual purity achieved by means of either a routine <a href="/facts/Wudu/sDJgAn7M">wudu</a> ritual wash or, in certain circumstances, a <a href="/facts/Ghusl/JR7MvJUf">ghusl</a> full body ritual wash.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:94" href="#fn:94">94</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:95" href="#fn:95">95</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:96" href="#fn:96">96</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:97" href="#fn:97">97</a>
A <a href="/facts/Mosque/U51uY78w">mosque</a> is a <a href="/facts/Places_of_worship/bXK4L8RC">place of worship</a> for Muslims, who often refer to it by its Arabic name masjid. Although the primary purpose of the mosque is to serve as a place of prayer, it is also an important social centre for the <a href="/facts/Ummah/WCfqSyKF">Muslim community</a>. For example, the <a href="/facts/Al-Masjid_an-Nabawi/hGgFSt7m">Masjid an-Nabawi</a> ("Prophetic Mosque") in Medina, <a href="/facts/Saudi_Arabia/uyUpe1J2">Saudi Arabia</a>, used to also serve as a shelter for the poor.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:98" href="#fn:98">98</a> <a href="/facts/Minaret/4f9J9Gsq">Minarets</a> are towers used to call the <a href="/facts/Adhan/y1X7VAUa">adhan</a>, a vocal call to signal the prayer time.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:99" href="#fn:99">99</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:100" href="#fn:100">100</a>

<h3>Almsgiving</h3>
Main article: <a href="/facts/Zakat/yLQ4Mygk">Zakat</a>
See also: <a href="/facts/Sadaqah/Mbw3Uyqh">Sadaqah</a>

<a href="/facts/Zakat/yLQ4Mygk">Zakat</a> (<a href="/facts/Arabic_language/A1e66hVV">Arabic</a>: زكاة, zakāh), also spelled Zakāt or Zakah, is a type of <a href="/facts/Almsgiving/DCkr5ELM">almsgiving</a> characterized by the giving of a fixed portion (2.5% annually)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:101" href="#fn:101">101</a> of <a href="/facts/Financial_capital/xlkBpxfD">accumulated wealth</a> by those who can afford it to help the poor or needy, such as for freeing captives, those in <a href="/facts/Bonded_labour/QtsbSol0">debt</a>, or for (stranded) travellers, and for those employed to collect zakat. It acts as a form of <a href="/facts/Welfare_spending/awUwQxkd">welfare</a> in Muslim societies.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:102" href="#fn:102">102</a> It is considered a religious obligation that the well-off owe the needy because their wealth is seen as a trust from God's bounty,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:103" href="#fn:103">103</a> and is seen as a purification of one's excess wealth.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:104" href="#fn:104">104</a> The total annual value contributed due to zakat is 15 times greater than global humanitarian aid donations, using conservative estimates.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:105" href="#fn:105">105</a> <a href="/facts/Sadaqah/Mbw3Uyqh">Sadaqah</a>, as opposed to Zakat, is a much-encouraged optional charity.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:106" href="#fn:106">106</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:107" href="#fn:107">107</a> A <a href="/facts/Waqf/cKFuejpP">waqf</a> is a perpetual <a href="/facts/Charitable_trust/7wNPIBHV">charitable trust</a>, which finances hospitals and schools in Muslim societies.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:108" href="#fn:108">108</a>

<h3>Fasting</h3>

Main article: <a href="/facts/Fasting_in_Islam/bYpG2Vn8">Fasting in Islam</a>
See also: <a href="/facts/Fasting_during_Ramadan/YfftP9ka">Fasting during Ramadan</a>
In Islam, fasting (<a href="/facts/Arabic_language/A1e66hVV">Arabic</a>: صوم, ṣawm) precludes food and drink, as well as other forms of consumption, such as <a href="/facts/Smoking_in_Islam/qvSq5Brk">smoking</a>, and is performed from dawn to sunset. During the month of <a href="/facts/Ramadan/eBpGEkst">Ramadan</a>, it is considered a duty for Muslims to fast.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:109" href="#fn:109">109</a> The fast is to encourage a feeling of nearness to God by restraining oneself for God's sake from what is otherwise permissible and to think of the needy. In addition, there are other days, such as the <a href="/facts/Day_of_Arafah/sovf6fsJ">Day of Arafah</a>, when fasting is optional.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:110" href="#fn:110">110</a>

<h3>Pilgrimage</h3>
Main articles: <a href="/facts/Hajj/eDC5AalN">Hajj</a> and <a href="/facts/Umrah/xYoFxhDq">Umrah</a>
See also: <a href="/facts/Holiest_sites_in_Islam/7ojI7NmR">Holiest sites in Islam</a>

The Islamic <a href="/facts/Pilgrimage/e0Gvd7TV">pilgrimage</a>, called the ḥajj (Arabic: حج), is to be done at least once a lifetime by every Muslim with the means to do so during the <a href="/facts/Islamic_calendar/7n4UBAYy">Islamic month</a> of <a href="/facts/Dhu_al-Hijjah/fXfMFUeQ">Dhu al-Hijjah</a>. Rituals of the Hajj mostly imitate the story of the family of <a href="/facts/Abraham_in_Islam/5cMzq6Ez">Abraham</a>. In <a href="/facts/Mecca/udqyuk0k">Mecca</a>, pilgrims walk seven times around the <a href="/facts/Kaaba/HtXr4Knl">Kaaba</a>, which Muslims believe Abraham built as a place of worship, and they walk seven times between Mount <a href="/facts/Safa_and_Marwa/yFCIGIA5">Safa and Marwa</a>, recounting the steps of Abraham's wife, <a href="/facts/Hagar/LpJyz6xU">Hagar</a>, who was looking for water for her baby <a href="/facts/Ishmael_in_Islam/E7pkxwIq">Ishmael</a> in the desert before Mecca developed into a settlement.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:111" href="#fn:111">111</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:112" href="#fn:112">112</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:113" href="#fn:113">113</a> The pilgrimage also involves spending a day praying and worshipping in the plain of <a href="/facts/Mount_Arafat/bonClAAA">Mount Arafat</a> as well as symbolically <a href="/facts/Stoning_of_the_Devil/WQYFuHtz">stoning the Devil</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:114" href="#fn:114">114</a> All Muslim men wear only two simple white unstitched pieces of cloth called <a href="/facts/Ihram_clothing/ll4oWhrC">ihram</a>, intended to bring continuity through generations and uniformity among pilgrims despite class or origin.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:115" href="#fn:115">115</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:116" href="#fn:116">116</a> Another form of pilgrimage, <a href="/facts/Umrah/xYoFxhDq">Umrah</a>, is optional and can be undertaken at any time of the year. Other sites of Islamic pilgrimage are <a href="/facts/Medina/nbDykVmK">Medina</a>, where Muhammad died, as well as <a href="/facts/Jerusalem/PKJ8LT0Y">Jerusalem</a>, a city of many Islamic prophets and the site of <a href="/facts/Al-Aqsa/cmqRc8JJ">Al-Aqsa</a>, which was the direction of prayer before Mecca.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:117" href="#fn:117">117</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:118" href="#fn:118">118</a>

<h3>Other acts of worship</h3>

See also: <a href="/facts/Quran/39rkStko">Quran § Recitation</a>, <a href="/facts/Dua/9G0HqvJc">Dua</a>, and <a href="/facts/Dhikr/AHB5t8Sg">Dhikr</a>
Muslims recite and memorize the whole or parts of the Quran as acts of virtue. <a href="/facts/Tajwid/g7glrTaX">Tajwid</a> refers to the set of rules for the proper <a href="/facts/Elocution/DN2VNE6f">elocution</a> of the Quran.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:119" href="#fn:119">119</a> Many Muslims recite the whole Quran during the month of Ramadan.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:120" href="#fn:120">120</a> One who has memorized the whole Quran is called a hafiz ("memorizer"), and hadiths mention that these individuals will be able to intercede for others on Judgment Day.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:121" href="#fn:121">121</a>
Supplication to God, called in Arabic duʿāʾ (<a href="/facts/Arabic_language/A1e66hVV">Arabic</a>: دعاء IPA: [dʊˈʕæːʔ]) has its own etiquette such as <a href="/facts/Raising_hands_in_dua/yxXcWu2r">raising hands</a> as if begging.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:122" href="#fn:122">122</a>

Remembrance of God (ذكر, Dhikr') refers to phrases repeated referencing God. Commonly, this includes Tahmid, declaring <a href="/facts/Alhamdulillah/e0JFP3ay">praise be due to God</a> (الحمد لله, al-Ḥamdu lillāh) during prayer or when feeling thankful, <a href="/facts/Tasbih/lWroS2Yd">Tasbih</a>, declaring glory to God during prayer or when in awe of something and saying '<a href="/facts/Basmala/8o6SHzBD">in the name of God</a>' (بسملة, basmalah) before starting an act such as eating.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:123" href="#fn:123">123</a>

<h2 id="history">History</h2>
Main article: <a href="/facts/History_of_Islam/E3tqBlMm">History of Islam</a>
For a chronological guide, see <a href="/facts/Timeline_of_the_history_of_Islam/9AyAtVu9">Timeline of the history of Islam</a>.
See also: <a href="/facts/List_of_Muslim_empires_and_dynasties/DVfgkBu3">List of Muslim empires and dynasties</a>
A panoramic view of <a href="/facts/Al-Masjid_al-Nabawi/hGgFSt7m">Al-Masjid al-Nabawi</a> (the Mosque of the Prophet) in <a href="/facts/Medina/nbDykVmK">Medina</a>, <a href="/facts/Hejaz/elkPdQyh">Hejaz</a> region, today's <a href="/facts/Saudi_Arabia/uyUpe1J2">Saudi Arabia</a>, the second most sacred mosque in Islam
<h3>Muhammad and the beginning of Islam (570–632)</h3>
Main articles: <a href="/facts/Muhammad/5VcA7XrT">Muhammad</a> and <a href="/facts/Muhammad_in_Islam/fqeL2kAm">Muhammad in Islam</a>
Further information: <a href="/facts/Muhammad_in_Mecca/SbJc9PGu">Muhammad in Mecca</a>, <a href="/facts/Early_social_changes_under_Islam/sJLD5koT">Early social changes under Islam</a>, and <a href="/facts/First_Islamic_state/W2KCkIvr">First Islamic state</a>

According to Islamic tradition, Muhammad was born in <a href="/facts/Mecca/udqyuk0k">Mecca</a> in <a href="/facts/570/alT7GsTW">570</a> <a href="/facts/Common_Era/e5DpqUoe">CE</a> and was orphaned early in life. Growing up as a trader, he became known as the "<a href="/facts/Amin_(name)/hdD2Akff">trusted one</a>" (<a href="/facts/Arabic_language/A1e66hVV">Arabic</a>: الامين) and was sought after as an impartial arbitrator. He later married his employer, the businesswoman <a href="/facts/Khadija_bint_Khuwaylid/B5SDs4MH">Khadija</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:124" href="#fn:124">124</a> In the year 610 CE, troubled by the moral decline and idolatry prevalent in Mecca and seeking seclusion and spiritual contemplation, Muhammad retreated to the <a href="/facts/Cave_of_Hira/BoQ65ako">Cave of Hira</a> in the mountain <a href="/facts/Jabal_al-Nour/BoQ65ako">Jabal al-Nour</a>, near Mecca. It was during his time in the cave that he is said to have <a href="/facts/Muhammad%2527s_first_revelation/5ShYXfax">received the first revelation</a> of the <a href="/facts/Quran/39rkStko">Quran</a> from the angel <a href="/facts/Gabriel/oELRTjkD">Gabriel</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:125" href="#fn:125">125</a> The event of Muhammad's retreat to the cave and subsequent revelation is known as the "<a href="/facts/Night_of_Power/jvPda6wY">Night of Power</a>" (Laylat al-Qadr) and is considered a significant event in Islamic history. During the next 22 years of his life, from age 40 onwards, Muhammad continued to receive revelations from God, becoming the last or <a href="/facts/Seal_of_the_prophets/Ks75jH3F">seal of the prophets</a> sent to mankind.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:126" href="#fn:126">126</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:127" href="#fn:127">127</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:128" href="#fn:128">128</a>

During this time, <a href="/facts/Muhammad_in_Mecca/SbJc9PGu">while in Mecca, Muhammad</a> preached first in secret and then in public, imploring his listeners to abandon <a href="/facts/Arab_polytheism/o6PGSzCm">polytheism</a> and worship one God. Many <a href="/facts/Early_Muslims/u3lBqdYN">early converts to Islam</a> were women, the poor, foreigners, and slaves like the first <a href="/facts/Muezzin/m2L5P4ax">muezzin</a> <a href="/facts/Bilal_ibn_Rabah_al-Habashi/DGbWk2tT">Bilal ibn Rabah al-Habashi</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:129" href="#fn:129">129</a> The Meccan elite felt Muhammad was <a href="/facts/Early_social_changes_under_Islam/sJLD5koT">destabilizing their social order</a> by preaching about one God and giving questionable ideas to the poor and slaves because they profited from the pilgrimages to the idols of the Kaaba.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:130" href="#fn:130">130</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:131" href="#fn:131">131</a>
After 12 years of the <a href="/facts/Persecution_of_Muslims_by_the_Meccans/I4B8NSza">persecution of Muslims by the Meccans</a>, Muhammad and his <a href="/facts/Sahaba/ev5xGHLt">companions</a> performed the <a href="/facts/Hegira/xQdbr0JY">Hijra</a> ("emigration") in 622 to the city of Yathrib (current-day Medina). He established the <a href="/facts/First_Islamic_state/W2KCkIvr">first Islamic state</a> there with the Medinan converts (the <a href="/facts/Ansar_(Islam)/2nrVBb9V">Ansar</a>) and the Meccan migrants (the <a href="/facts/Muhajirun/Spke0QVC">Muhajirun</a>). The <a href="/facts/Constitution_of_Medina/qxdDz0LY">Constitution of Medina</a> was signed by all the tribes of Medina. This established religious freedoms and freedom to use their own laws among the Muslim and non-Muslim communities as well as an agreement to defend Medina from external threats.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:132" href="#fn:132">132</a> Meccan forces and their allies lost against the Muslims at the <a href="/facts/Battle_of_Badr/gFzq2WWU">Battle of Badr</a> in 624 and then fought an inconclusive battle in the <a href="/facts/Battle_of_Uhud/uQCf8Kht">Battle of Uhud</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:133" href="#fn:133">133</a> before unsuccessfully besieging Medina in the <a href="/facts/Battle_of_the_Trench/KcqgMPEQ">Battle of the Trench</a> (March–April 627). In 628, the <a href="/facts/Treaty_of_Hudaybiyyah/NwwF4phM">Treaty of Hudaybiyyah</a> was signed between Mecca and the Muslims, but it was broken by Mecca two years later. As more tribes converted to Islam, Meccan trade routes were cut off by the Muslims.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:134" href="#fn:134">134</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:135" href="#fn:135">135</a> By 629 Muhammad was victorious in the nearly bloodless <a href="/facts/Conquest_of_Mecca/AATm9j4u">conquest of Mecca</a>, and by the time of his death in 632 (at age 62) he had united the <a href="/facts/Tribes_of_Arabia/cvmhXfvY">tribes of Arabia</a> into a single religious <a href="/facts/Polity/0R8Wr4CL">polity</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:136" href="#fn:136">136</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:137" href="#fn:137">137</a>

<h3>Early Islamic period (632–750)</h3>
Further information: <a href="/facts/Succession_to_Muhammad/vpF82GCs">Succession to Muhammad</a> and <a href="/facts/Early_Muslim_conquests/HyPkljcc">Early Muslim conquests</a>
See also: <a href="/facts/Ghadir_Khumm/RssjH0sV">Ghadir Khumm</a> and <a href="/facts/Saqifa/CqYH71FS">Saqifa</a>

Muhammad died in 632 and the first successors, called <a href="/facts/Caliph/qQ6hCspe">Caliphs</a> – <a href="/facts/Abu_Bakr/oIJ8E4fm">Abu Bakr</a>, <a href="/facts/Umar/cIfqERQW">Umar</a>, <a href="/facts/Uthman_ibn_al-Affan/26tpuvcF">Uthman ibn al-Affan</a>, <a href="/facts/Ali_ibn_Abi_Talib/YwM7b73C">Ali ibn Abi Talib</a> and sometimes <a href="/facts/Hasan_ibn_Ali/FnaD4tHS">Hasan ibn Ali</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:138" href="#fn:138">138</a> – are known in Sunni Islam as al-khulafā' ar-rāshidūn ("<a href="/facts/Rightly_Guided_Caliphs/TAb6NYWq">Rightly Guided Caliphs</a>").<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:139" href="#fn:139">139</a> Some tribes left Islam and rebelled under leaders who declared themselves new prophets but were crushed by Abu Bakr in the <a href="/facts/Ridda_wars/CFHGYhes">Ridda wars</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:140" href="#fn:140">140</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:141" href="#fn:141">141</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:142" href="#fn:142">142</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:143" href="#fn:143">143</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:144" href="#fn:144">144</a> Local populations of Jews and indigenous Christians, persecuted as religious minorities and heretics and taxed heavily, often helped Muslims take over their lands,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:145" href="#fn:145">145</a> resulting in rapid expansion of the caliphate into the <a href="/facts/Sassanid_Empire/JvbRevkA">Persian</a> and <a href="/facts/Byzantine/njEELXWF">Byzantine</a> empires.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:146" href="#fn:146">146</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:147" href="#fn:147">147</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:148" href="#fn:148">148</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:149" href="#fn:149">149</a> Uthman <a href="/facts/Election_of_Uthman/YEzJy1u9">was elected in 644</a> and his assassination by rebels led to Ali being elected the next Caliph. In the <a href="/facts/First_Fitna/cRTab021">First Civil War</a>, Muhammad's widow, <a href="/facts/Aisha/k9Yhj6vj">Aisha</a>, raised an army against Ali, attempting to avenge the death of Uthman, but was defeated at the <a href="/facts/Battle_of_the_Camel/1wWQuXFR">Battle of the Camel</a>. Ali attempted to remove the governor of Syria, <a href="/facts/Mu%2527awiya/fPd7EBN1">Mu'awiya</a>, who was seen as corrupt. Mu'awiya then declared war on Ali and was defeated in the <a href="/facts/Battle_of_Siffin/yTeF4dx3">Battle of Siffin</a>. Ali's decision to arbitrate angered the <a href="/facts/Kharijites/RSYbTWSf">Kharijites</a>, an extremist sect, who felt that by not fighting a sinner, Ali became a sinner as well. The Kharijites rebelled and were defeated in the <a href="/facts/Battle_of_Nahrawan/CfsStAAw">Battle of Nahrawan</a> but a Kharijite assassin later killed Ali. Ali's son, Hasan ibn Ali, was elected Caliph and signed a <a href="/facts/Hasan%25E2%2580%2593Muawiya_treaty/MreG5hHz">peace treaty</a> to avoid further fighting, abdicating to Mu'awiya in return for Mu'awiya not appointing a successor.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:150" href="#fn:150">150</a> Mu'awiya began the <a href="/facts/Umayyad_dynasty/C1MQWVfU">Umayyad dynasty</a> with the appointment of his son <a href="/facts/Yazid_I/RyxVlc5w">Yazid I</a> as successor, sparking the <a href="/facts/Second_Fitna/8Nu80Muf">Second Civil War</a>. During the <a href="/facts/Battle_of_Karbala/vwouBjKH">Battle of Karbala</a>, <a href="/facts/Husayn_ibn_Ali/hXoUh3Pe">Husayn ibn Ali</a> was killed by Yazid's forces; the event has been <a href="/facts/Ashura/0P9vAW6t">annually commemorated</a> by Shias ever since. Sunnis, led by <a href="/facts/Ibn_al-Zubayr/da3rYo9H">Ibn al-Zubayr</a> and opposed to a dynastic caliphate, were defeated in the <a href="/facts/Siege_of_Mecca_(692)/gfx4yvaA">siege of Mecca</a>. These disputes over leadership would give rise to the <a href="/facts/Sunni/WYo0zeq0">Sunni</a>-<a href="/facts/Shia/JIQl7ooz">Shia</a> schism,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:151" href="#fn:151">151</a> with the Shia believing leadership belongs to Muhammad's family through Ali, called the <a href="/facts/Ahl_al-bayt/GtYDcqpF">ahl al-bayt</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:152" href="#fn:152">152</a>
Abu Bakr's leadership oversaw the beginning of the compilation of the Quran. The Caliph <a href="/facts/Umar_ibn_Abd_al-Aziz/tV4ud9vz">Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz</a> set up the committee, <a href="/facts/The_Seven_Fuqaha_of_Medina/dNEuIRS4">The Seven Fuqaha of Medina</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:153" href="#fn:153">153</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:154" href="#fn:154">154</a> and <a href="/facts/Malik_ibn_Anas/pmP91FDa">Malik ibn Anas</a> wrote one of the earliest books on Islamic jurisprudence, the <a href="/facts/Muwatta_Imam_Malik/oLS5IjDg">Muwatta</a>, as a consensus of the opinion of those jurists.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:155" href="#fn:155">155</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:156" href="#fn:156">156</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:157" href="#fn:157">157</a> The <a href="/facts/Kharijites/RSYbTWSf">Kharijites</a> believed there was no compromised middle ground between good and evil, and any Muslim who committed a grave sin would become an unbeliever. The term "kharijites" would also be used to refer to later groups such as <a href="/facts/ISIS/agpVzR4K">ISIS</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:158" href="#fn:158">158</a> The <a href="/facts/Murji%2527ah/dFXmrMu0">Murji'ah</a> taught that people's righteousness could be judged by God alone. Therefore, wrongdoers might be considered misguided, but not denounced as unbelievers.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:159" href="#fn:159">159</a> This attitude came to prevail into mainstream Islamic beliefs.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:160" href="#fn:160">160</a>
The Umayyad dynasty conquered the <a href="/facts/Maghreb/oIcU24Mz">Maghreb</a>, the <a href="/facts/Iberian_Peninsula/ztFXI8zt">Iberian Peninsula</a>, <a href="/facts/Gallia_Narbonensis/gwEh60NN">Narbonnese Gaul</a> and <a href="/facts/Sindh/1cbCeMv8">Sindh</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:161" href="#fn:161">161</a> The Umayyads struggled with a lack of legitimacy and relied on a heavily patronized military.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:162" href="#fn:162">162</a> Since the <a href="/facts/Jizya/phJKpSlE">jizya</a> tax was a tax paid by non-Muslims which exempted them from military service, the Umayyads denied recognizing the conversion of non-Arabs, as it reduced revenue.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:163" href="#fn:163">163</a> While the Rashidun Caliphate emphasized austerity, with Umar even requiring an inventory of each official's possessions,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:164" href="#fn:164">164</a> Umayyad luxury bred dissatisfaction among the pious.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:165" href="#fn:165">165</a> The Kharijites led the <a href="/facts/Berber_Revolt/eSfBMzpY">Berber Revolt</a>, leading to the first Muslim states independent of the Caliphate. In the <a href="/facts/Abbasid_Revolution/h3EMV4Qn">Abbasid Revolution</a>, non-Arab converts (<a href="/facts/Mawali/6QBbzSbu">mawali</a>), Arab clans pushed aside by the Umayyad clan, and some Shi'a rallied and overthrew the Umayyads, inaugurating the more cosmopolitan Abbasid dynasty in 750.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:166" href="#fn:166">166</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:167" href="#fn:167">167</a>

<h3>Classical era (750–1258)</h3>
Further information: <a href="/facts/Hadith_studies/2sb5HFc7">Hadith studies</a> and <a href="/facts/Islamic_philosophy/QSzAKr2j">Islamic philosophy</a>
See also: <a href="/facts/Islamic_world_contributions_to_Medieval_Europe/P7zIeHP9">Islamic world contributions to Medieval Europe</a> and <a href="/facts/Turco-Persian_tradition/cxmgd6Cn">Turco-Persian tradition</a>
Al-Shafi'i codified a method to determine the reliability of hadith.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:168" href="#fn:168">168</a> During the early Abbasid era, scholars such as <a href="/facts/Muhammad_al-Bukhari/VRUqSepx">Muhammad al-Bukhari</a> and <a href="/facts/Muslim_ibn_al-Hajjaj/v1X6xktx">Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj</a> compiled the major <a href="/facts/Six_major_Hadith_collections/ujzPBYBa">Sunni hadith collections</a> while scholars like <a href="/facts/Muhammad_ibn_Ya%2527qub_al-Kulayni/KfdypIAR">Al-Kulayni</a> and <a href="/facts/Ibn_Babawayh/4nRCjm3u">Ibn Babawayh</a> compiled major Shia hadith collections. The four Sunni <a href="/facts/Madh%2527hab/NNVKbWQ1">Madh'habs</a>, the Hanafi, Hanbali, Maliki, and Shafi'i, were established around the teachings of <a href="/facts/Ab%25C5%25AB_%25E1%25B8%25A4an%25C4%25ABfa/Ij7MdbW5">Abū Ḥanīfa</a>, <a href="/facts/Ahmad_ibn_Hanbal/sjyTu1Mq">Ahmad ibn Hanbal</a>, Malik ibn Anas and <a href="/facts/Al-Shafi%2527i/XrJ9AtcW">al-Shafi'i</a>. In contrast, the teachings of <a href="/facts/Ja%2527far_al-Sadiq/nhhk87TX">Ja'far al-Sadiq</a> formed the <a href="/facts/Ja%2527fari_jurisprudence/XxAbeRt0">Ja'fari jurisprudence</a>. In the 9th century, <a href="/facts/Al-Tabari/cmM0W6IK">Al-Tabari</a> completed the first commentary of the Quran, the <a href="/facts/Tafsir_al-Tabari/HMyLY9n5">Tafsir al-Tabari</a>, which became one of the most cited commentaries in Sunni Islam. Some Muslims began questioning the piety of indulgence in worldly life and emphasized poverty, humility, and avoidance of sin based on renunciation of bodily desires. Ascetics such as <a href="/facts/Hasan_al-Basri/EjyJNHp6">Hasan al-Basri</a> inspired a movement that would evolve into tasawwuf or <a href="/facts/Sufism/NFcCu5gP">Sufism</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:169" href="#fn:169">169</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:170" href="#fn:170">170</a>
At this time, theological problems, notably on free will, were prominently tackled, with Hasan al Basri holding that although God knows people's actions, good and evil come from abuse of free will and the <a href="/facts/Iblis/fBFXCV6H">devil</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:171" href="#fn:171">171</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:172" href="#fn:172">172</a> Greek rationalist philosophy influenced a speculative school of thought known as <a href="/facts/Mu%25CA%25BFtazila/yGG9mk6Q">Muʿtazila</a>, who famously advocated the notion of free-will originated by <a href="/facts/Wasil_ibn_Ata/KvxtAFx0">Wasil ibn Ata</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:173" href="#fn:173">173</a> Caliph <a href="/facts/Mamun_al_Rashid/aaHmoQ9g">Mamun al Rashid</a> made it an official creed and unsuccessfully attempted to force this position on the majority.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:174" href="#fn:174">174</a> Caliph <a href="/facts/Al-Mu%2527tasim/StMmSPBX">Al-Mu'tasim</a> carried out <a href="/facts/Mihna/sHHKhQV5">inquisitions</a>, with the traditionalist <a href="/facts/Ahmad_ibn_Hanbal/sjyTu1Mq">Ahmad ibn Hanbal</a> notably refusing to conform to the Muʿtazila idea that the Quran was <a href="/facts/Quranic_createdness/ezbPXFVl">created rather than being eternal</a>, which resulted in him being tortured and kept in an unlit prison cell for nearly thirty months.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:175" href="#fn:175">175</a> However, other <a href="/facts/Schools_of_Islamic_theology/Fa93y9T9">schools</a> of <a href="/facts/Kalam/86GebkgK">speculative theology</a> – <a href="/facts/Maturidi/FtdkCJ9t">Māturīdism</a> founded by <a href="/facts/Abu_Mansur_al-Maturidi/4PMh68uR">Abu Mansur al-Maturidi</a> and <a href="/facts/Ash%2527ari/Rj57d1HI">Ash'ari</a> founded by <a href="/facts/Al-Ash%2527ari/35Ubh7ut">Al-Ash'ari</a> – were more successful in being widely adopted. Philosophers such as <a href="/facts/Al-Farabi/8tnl33pR">Al-Farabi</a>, <a href="/facts/Avicenna/EYKG4Vez">Avicenna</a> and <a href="/facts/Averroes/kPezHDV7">Averroes</a> sought to harmonize Aristotle's ideas with the teachings of Islam, similar to later <a href="/facts/Scholasticism/8AWMNsgV">scholasticism</a> within <a href="/facts/Christianity_in_Europe/E2DqzFKC">Christianity in Europe</a> and <a href="/facts/Maimonides/fGyQDPC8">Maimonides</a>' work within Judaism, while others like <a href="/facts/Al-Ghazali/haPCCftt">Al-Ghazali</a> argued against such <a href="/facts/Syncretism/q4IMH40F">syncretism</a> and ultimately prevailed.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:176" href="#fn:176">176</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:177" href="#fn:177">177</a>

This era is sometimes called the "<a href="/facts/Islamic_Golden_Age/yAeG2rBA">Islamic Golden Age</a>".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:178" href="#fn:178">178</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:179" href="#fn:179">179</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:180" href="#fn:180">180</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:181" href="#fn:181">181</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:182" href="#fn:182">182</a> Islamic scientific achievements spanned a wide range of subject areas including <a href="/facts/Medicine_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world/svhFmaDr">medicine</a>, <a href="/facts/Mathematics_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world/TACUEnlp">mathematics</a>, <a href="/facts/Astronomy_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world/hw8HxDHz">astronomy</a>, and <a href="/facts/Arab_Agricultural_Revolution/fyzPl7cJ">agriculture</a> as well as <a href="/facts/Physics_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world/VbUCtwNK">physics</a>, <a href="/facts/History_of_Islamic_economics/eYyYqGPK">economics</a>, <a href="/facts/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world/0RkuQHVL">engineering</a> and <a href="/facts/Ibn_al-Haytham/Q5H9hm4J">optics</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:183" href="#fn:183">183</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:184" href="#fn:184">184</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:185" href="#fn:185">185</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:186" href="#fn:186">186</a> <a href="/facts/Avicenna/EYKG4Vez">Avicenna</a> was a pioneer in <a href="/facts/Medical_research/lSVBFxDJ">experimental medicine</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:187" href="#fn:187">187</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:188" href="#fn:188">188</a> and his <a href="/facts/The_Canon_of_Medicine/54g1wRX7">The Canon of Medicine</a> was used as a standard medicinal text in the Islamic world and <a href="/facts/Europe/DTAtrKfh">Europe</a> for centuries. <a href="/facts/Rhazes/PC32Rzes">Rhazes</a> was the first to identify the diseases <a href="/facts/Smallpox/cxNeetP4">smallpox</a> and <a href="/facts/Measles/tepQCUIG">measles</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:189" href="#fn:189">189</a> <a href="/facts/Public_hospital/htrSvVII">Public hospitals</a> of the time issued the first medical diplomas to license doctors.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:190" href="#fn:190">190</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:191" href="#fn:191">191</a> <a href="/facts/Ibn_al-Haytham/Q5H9hm4J">Ibn al-Haytham</a> is regarded as the father of the modern <a href="/facts/Scientific_method/182j8RWE">scientific method</a> and often referred to as the "world's first true scientist", in particular regarding his work in <a href="/facts/Optics/p0vq4S1T">optics</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:192" href="#fn:192">192</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:193" href="#fn:193">193</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:194" href="#fn:194">194</a> In engineering, the <a href="/facts/Ban%25C5%25AB_M%25C5%25ABs%25C4%2581/Taj5kewc">Banū Mūsā</a> brothers' <a href="/facts/Automaton/SXtErQr2">automatic</a> <a href="/facts/Flute/sux7paa7">flute</a> player is considered to have been the first <a href="/facts/Program_(machine)/2e2GCRFA">programmable machine</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:195" href="#fn:195">195</a> In <a href="/facts/Islamic_mathematics/TACUEnlp">mathematics</a>, the concept of the <a href="/facts/Algorithm/fnl5NmRt">algorithm</a> is named after <a href="/facts/Muhammad_ibn_Musa_al-Khwarizmi/24KdxyEQ">Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi</a>, who is considered a founder of <a href="/facts/Algebra/nMdqczjo">algebra</a>, which is named after his book <a href="/facts/The_Compendious_Book_on_Calculation_by_Completion_and_Balancing/lxWsG6WD">al-jabr</a>, while others developed the concept of a <a href="/facts/Function_(mathematics)/CdReEKCh">function</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:196" href="#fn:196">196</a> The government paid scientists the equivalent salary of professional athletes today.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:197" href="#fn:197">197</a> <a href="/facts/Guinness_World_Records/Az88wVWk">Guinness World Records</a> recognizes the <a href="/facts/University_of_Al_Karaouine/MXg1baPQ">University of Al Karaouine</a>, founded in 859, as the world's oldest degree-granting university.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:198" href="#fn:198">198</a> Many non-Muslims, such as <a href="/facts/Christians/15hE11VR">Christians</a>, <a href="/facts/Jews/T9Y4wE6A">Jews</a> and <a href="/facts/Sabians/WRNQIoY9">Sabians</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:199" href="#fn:199">199</a> <a href="/facts/Christian_influences_on_the_Islamic_world/KMsy6PUA">contributed to the Islamic civilization</a> in various fields,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:200" href="#fn:200">200</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:201" href="#fn:201">201</a> and the institution known as the <a href="/facts/House_of_Wisdom/Iyo9lg8a">House of Wisdom</a> employed <a href="/facts/List_of_Christian_scientists_and_scholars_of_the_medieval_Islamic_world/Mwe4sIwh">Christian</a> and <a href="/facts/List_of_pre-modern_Iranian_scientists_and_scholars/2QCymHox">Persian scholars</a> to both translate works into Arabic and to develop new knowledge.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:202" href="#fn:202">202</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:203" href="#fn:203">203</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:204" href="#fn:204">204</a>
Soldiers broke away from the Abbasid empire and established their own dynasties, such as the <a href="/facts/Tulunid/UTHVfSC8">Tulunids</a> in 868 in Egypt<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:205" href="#fn:205">205</a> and the <a href="/facts/Ghaznavid/SvV50a1J">Ghaznavid dynasty</a> in 977 in Central Asia.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:206" href="#fn:206">206</a> In this fragmentation came the <a href="/facts/Shi%2527a_Century/aedDX7Y6">Shi'a Century</a>, roughly between 945 and 1055, which saw the rise of the <a href="/facts/Millennialist/gytbhF03">millennialist</a> <a href="/facts/Isma%2527ili/e6uySs0b">Isma'ili</a> Shi'a missionary movement. One Isma'ili group, the <a href="/facts/Fatimid_dynasty/jgmF2I5C">Fatimid dynasty</a>, took control of North Africa in the 10th century<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:207" href="#fn:207">207</a> and another Isma'ili group, the <a href="/facts/Qarmatians/grlw2Wed">Qarmatians</a>, sacked Mecca and stole the <a href="/facts/Black_Stone/carCNGtk">Black Stone</a>, a rock placed within the Kaaba, in their unsuccessful rebellion.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:208" href="#fn:208">208</a> Yet another Isma'ili group, the <a href="/facts/Buyid_dynasty/70QR31qF">Buyid dynasty</a>, conquered Baghdad and turned the Abbasids into a figurehead monarchy. The Sunni Seljuk dynasty campaigned to <a href="/facts/Sunni_Revival/Gf57txbP">reassert Sunni Islam</a> by promulgating the scholarly opinions of the time, notably with the construction of educational institutions known as <a href="/facts/Nezamiyeh/Po0KrU98">Nezamiyeh</a>, which are associated with Al-Ghazali and <a href="/facts/Saadi_Shirazi/760yXlru">Saadi Shirazi</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:209" href="#fn:209">209</a>
The expansion of the Muslim world continued with religious missions converting <a href="/facts/Volga_Bulgaria/wGgbDSTn">Volga Bulgaria</a> to Islam. The <a href="/facts/Delhi_Sultanate/19oLzpBF">Delhi Sultanate</a> reached deep into the <a href="/facts/Indian_Subcontinent/0XUWGXpx">Indian Subcontinent</a> and many converted to Islam,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:210" href="#fn:210">210</a> in particular <a href="/facts/Dalit/Hfr6AtzY">low-caste Hindus</a> whose descendants make up the vast majority of Indian Muslims.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:211" href="#fn:211">211</a> Trade brought many <a href="/facts/Islam_in_China/jdCJcdnx">Muslims to China</a>, where they virtually dominated the import and export industry of the <a href="/facts/Song_dynasty/FxV5bXS5">Song dynasty</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:212" href="#fn:212">212</a> Muslims were recruited as a <a href="/facts/Semu/8Y5yyhKy">governing minority class</a> in the <a href="/facts/Yuan_dynasty/mQl0o0XN">Yuan dynasty</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:213" href="#fn:213">213</a>

<h3>Pre-modern era (1258 – 18th century)</h3>
Further information: <a href="/facts/Safavid_conversion_of_Iran_to_Shia_Islam/Pbud0xlU">Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam</a>

Through Muslim trade networks and the activity of Sufi orders,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:214" href="#fn:214">214</a> Islam spread into new areas<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:215" href="#fn:215">215</a> and Muslims assimilated into new cultures.
Under the <a href="/facts/Ottoman_Empire/6QvfTRsg">Ottoman Empire</a>, Islam spread to <a href="/facts/Southeast_Europe/zxgEvCdQ">Southeast Europe</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:216" href="#fn:216">216</a> Conversion to Islam often involved a degree of <a href="/facts/Syncretism/q4IMH40F">syncretism</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:217" href="#fn:217">217</a> as illustrated by Muhammad's appearance in <a href="/facts/Hinduism/oxV9YvQh">Hindu</a> folklore.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:218" href="#fn:218">218</a> Muslim Turks incorporated elements of <a href="/facts/Tengrism/3xyWck36">Turkish Shamanism beliefs</a> to Islam.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:219" href="#fn:219">219</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:220" href="#fn:220">220</a> <a href="/facts/Islam_during_the_Ming_dynasty/3aX1bBxQ">Muslims in Ming Dynasty China</a> who were descended from earlier immigrants were assimilated, sometimes through laws mandating assimilation,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:221" href="#fn:221">221</a> by adopting Chinese names and <a href="/facts/Chinese_culture/tetHMHsK">culture</a> while <a href="/facts/Nanjing/WennCVWt">Nanjing</a> became an important centre of Islamic study.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:222" href="#fn:222">222</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:223" href="#fn:223">223</a>
Cultural shifts were evident with the decrease in Arab influence after the <a href="/facts/Mongol_invasions_and_conquests/dVfUoc9J">Mongol destruction</a> of the Abbasid Caliphate.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:224" href="#fn:224">224</a> The Muslim Mongol Khanates in <a href="/facts/Ilkhanate/ukltWdQk">Iran</a> and <a href="/facts/Chagatai_Khanate/gzff8xUM">Central Asia</a> benefited from increased cross-cultural access to East Asia under <a href="/facts/Pax_Mongolica/uSthNjmV">Mongol rule</a> and thus flourished and developed more distinctively from Arab influence, such as the <a href="/facts/Timurid_Renaissance/CdpnSpmU">Timurid Renaissance</a> under the <a href="/facts/Timurid_dynasty/J4SwmtSR">Timurid dynasty</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:225" href="#fn:225">225</a> <a href="/facts/Nasir_al-Din_al-Tusi/BFScoqbf">Nasir al-Din al-Tusi</a> (1201–1274) proposed the <a href="/facts/Tusi_couple/KRFS1q9y">mathematical model</a> that was later argued to be adopted by <a href="/facts/Copernicus/RvzhHNQR">Copernicus</a> unrevised in his <a href="/facts/Heliocentrism/4hoCMs7P">heliocentric</a> model,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:226" href="#fn:226">226</a> and <a href="/facts/Jamsh%25C4%25ABd_al-K%25C4%2581sh%25C4%25AB/BHJWSgKK">Jamshīd al-Kāshī</a>'s estimate of <a href="/facts/Pi/vC0UBj1q">pi</a> would not be surpassed for 180 years.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:227" href="#fn:227">227</a>
After the introduction of gunpowder weapons, large and centralized Muslim states consolidated around <a href="/facts/Gunpowder_empires/CfxvRd0h">gunpowder empires</a>, these had been previously splintered amongst various territories. The <a href="/facts/Ottoman_Caliphate/Gw2v4wyj">caliphate</a> was claimed by the <a href="/facts/Ottoman_dynasty/YXgSxwGj">Ottoman dynasty</a> of the Ottoman Empire and its claims were strengthened in 1517 as <a href="/facts/Selim_I/aVcgQv8C">Selim I</a> became the <a href="/facts/Custodian_of_the_Two_Holy_Mosques/Nt8vpPIn">ruler of Mecca and Medina</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:228" href="#fn:228">228</a> The Shia <a href="/facts/Safavid_dynasty/QmhkbI06">Safavid dynasty</a> rose to power in 1501 and later conquered all of Iran.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:229" href="#fn:229">229</a> In South Asia, <a href="/facts/Babur/2PnFxN3z">Babur</a> founded the <a href="/facts/Mughal_Empire/yRg2kAy5">Mughal Empire</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:230" href="#fn:230">230</a>
The religion of the centralized states of the gunpowder empires influenced the religious practice of their constituent populations. A <a href="/facts/Symbiosis/MrBArRGa">symbiosis</a> between <a href="/facts/List_of_sultans_of_the_Ottoman_Empire/kEpbIIMQ">Ottoman rulers</a> and Sufism strongly influenced Islamic reign by the Ottomans from the beginning. The <a href="/facts/Mevlevi_Order/QfHPfvsn">Mevlevi Order</a> and the <a href="/facts/Bektashis/eR1neGA7">Bektashis</a> had a close relation to the sultans,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:231" href="#fn:231">231</a> as Sufi-mystical as well as <a href="/facts/Heterodox/QBtVnfXz">heterodox</a> and <a href="/facts/Syncretic/q4IMH40F">syncretic</a> approaches to Islam flourished.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:232" href="#fn:232">232</a> The often forceful <a href="/facts/Safavid_conversion_of_Iran_to_Shia_Islam/Pbud0xlU">Safavid conversion of Iran</a> to the Twelver Shia Islam of the Safavid Empire ensured the final dominance of the <a href="/facts/Twelver/sUejq9pd">Twelver sect</a> within Shia Islam. Persian migrants to South Asia, as influential bureaucrats and landholders, helped spread Shia Islam, forming some of the largest Shia populations outside Iran.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:233" href="#fn:233">233</a> <a href="/facts/Nader_Shah/4UAm64wF">Nader Shah</a>, who overthrew the Safavids, attempted to improve relations with Sunnis by propagating the integration of Twelverism into Sunni Islam as a fifth madhhab, called Ja'farism,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:234" href="#fn:234">234</a> which failed to gain recognition from the Ottomans.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:235" href="#fn:235">235</a>

<h3>Modern era (18th–20th centuries)</h3>

Earlier in the 14th century, <a href="/facts/Ibn_Taymiyya/UIRPbN8T">Ibn Taymiyya</a> promoted a <a href="/facts/Puritan/BJQsWCfT">puritanical</a> form of Islam,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:236" href="#fn:236">236</a> rejecting philosophical approaches in favour of simpler theology,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:237" href="#fn:237">237</a> and called to open the gates of <a href="/facts/Itjihad/ybz5zRJv">itjihad</a> rather than blind imitation of scholars.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:238" href="#fn:238">238</a> He called for a jihad against those he deemed heretics,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:239" href="#fn:239">239</a> but his writings only played a marginal role during his lifetime.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:240" href="#fn:240">240</a> During the 18th century in Arabia, <a href="/facts/Muhammad_ibn_Abd_al-Wahhab/IfmQ5gfu">Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab</a>, influenced by the works of Ibn Taymiyya and <a href="/facts/Ibn_al-Qayyim/XdpWwkPM">Ibn al-Qayyim</a>, founded a movement called <a href="/facts/Wahhabi/FGAPQ20M">Wahhabi</a> to return to what he saw as unadultered Islam.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:241" href="#fn:241">241</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:242" href="#fn:242">242</a> He condemned many local Islamic customs, such as visiting the grave of Muhammad or saints, as later <a href="/facts/Bidah/Jrrm6sGT">innovations</a> and sinful<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:243" href="#fn:243">243</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:244" href="#fn:244">244</a> and destroyed sacred rocks and trees, Sufi shrines, the <a href="/facts/Destruction_of_early_Islamic_heritage_sites_in_Saudi_Arabia/2XYHpXpx">tombs of Muhammad and his companions</a> and the tomb of Husayn at Karbala, a major Shia pilgrimage site.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:245" href="#fn:245">245</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:246" href="#fn:246">246</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:247" href="#fn:247">247</a> He formed an alliance with the <a href="/facts/House_of_Saud/9egk15WK">Saud family</a>, which, by the 1920s, completed their conquest of the area that would become <a href="/facts/Saudi_Arabia/uyUpe1J2">Saudi Arabia</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:248" href="#fn:248">248</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:249" href="#fn:249">249</a> <a href="/facts/Ma_Wanfu/5MwaGXJl">Ma Wanfu</a> and Ma Debao promoted salafist movements in the 19th century such as <a href="/facts/Sailaifengye/U3KIUzDk">Sailaifengye</a> in China after returning from Mecca but were eventually persecuted and forced into hiding by Sufi groups.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:250" href="#fn:250">250</a> Other groups sought to reform Sufism rather than reject it, with the <a href="/facts/Senusiyya/gT0XydQN">Senusiyya</a> and <a href="/facts/Muhammad_Ahmad/4eEN3ppt">Muhammad Ahmad</a> both waging war and establishing states in Libya and Sudan respectively.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:251" href="#fn:251">251</a> In India, <a href="/facts/Shah_Waliullah_Dehlawi/E3j3peGX">Shah Waliullah Dehlawi</a> attempted a more conciliatory style against Sufism and influenced the <a href="/facts/Deobandi/amIAQIgM">Deobandi</a> movement.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:252" href="#fn:252">252</a> In response to the Deobandi movement, the <a href="/facts/Barelwi/Fpcx0hIz">Barelwi</a> movement was founded as a mass movement, defending popular <a href="/facts/Sufism/NFcCu5gP">Sufism</a> and reforming its practices.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:253" href="#fn:253">253</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:254" href="#fn:254">254</a>
The <a href="/facts/Muslim_world/n9vVGogr">Muslim world</a> was generally in political decline starting the 1800s, especially compared to non-Muslim European powers. Earlier, in the 15th century, the <a href="/facts/Reconquista/N1yFfeWf">Reconquista</a> succeeded in ending the <a href="/facts/Taifa/TSJNh9MX">Muslim presence in Iberia</a>. By the 19th century, the British <a href="/facts/Company_rule_in_India/Y4EqFHr0">East India Company</a> had formally annexed the <a href="/facts/Mughal_dynasty/5VqYddK1">Mughal dynasty</a> in India.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:255" href="#fn:255">255</a> As a response to <a href="/facts/Imperialism/JvofndS2">Western Imperialism</a>, many intellectuals sought to <a href="/facts/Islamic_revival/JJyDq25R">reform Islam</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:256" href="#fn:256">256</a> <a href="/facts/Islamic_modernism/H657Th7r">Islamic modernism</a>, initially labelled by Western scholars as <a href="/facts/Salafi_movement/FxuCQj4K">Salafiyya</a>, embraced modern values and institutions such as democracy while being scripture oriented. Notable forerunners in the movement include <a href="/facts/Muhammad_Abduh/ynCrFrGo">Muhammad 'Abduh</a> and <a href="/facts/Jamal_al-Din_al-Afghani/eILz4hRL">Jamal al-Din al-Afghani</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:257" href="#fn:257">257</a> <a href="/facts/Abul_A%2527la_Maududi/Taff9WvA">Abul A'la Maududi</a> helped influence modern <a href="/facts/Political_Islam/VzojFnNS">political Islam</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:258" href="#fn:258">258</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:259" href="#fn:259">259</a> Similar to contemporary <a href="/facts/Civil_code/aRH3U7VC">codification</a>, sharia was for the first time partially codified into law in 1869 in the Ottoman Empire's <a href="/facts/Mecelle/V2UIopDn">Mecelle</a> code.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:260" href="#fn:260">260</a>
The <a href="/facts/Fall_of_the_Ottoman_Empire/bVR0w48o">Ottoman Empire dissolved</a> after <a href="/facts/World_War_I/vITTUanQ">World War I</a>, the <a href="/facts/Ottoman_Caliphate/Gw2v4wyj">Ottoman Caliphate</a> <a href="/facts/Abolition_of_the_Caliphate/jycbKs26">was abolished in 1924</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:261" href="#fn:261">261</a> and the subsequent <a href="/facts/Sharifian_Caliphate/X2kKkE1A">Sharifian Caliphate</a> fell quickly,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:262" href="#fn:262">262</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:263" href="#fn:263">263</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:264" href="#fn:264">264</a> thus leaving Islam without a <a href="/facts/Caliphate/qQ6hCspe">Caliph</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:265" href="#fn:265">265</a> <a href="/facts/Pan-Islam/DH7VURGL">Pan-Islamists</a> attempted to unify Muslims and competed with growing nationalist forces, such as <a href="/facts/Pan-Arabism/7AH9WCrb">pan-Arabism</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:266" href="#fn:266">266</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:267" href="#fn:267">267</a> The <a href="/facts/Organisation_of_Islamic_Cooperation/wWSQSzfF">Organisation of Islamic Cooperation</a> (OIC), consisting of <a href="/facts/Islam_by_country/8Qs2Hcm7">Muslim-majority countries</a>, was established in 1969 after the burning of the <a href="/facts/Qibli_Mosque/2ExWrCpD">Al-Aqsa Mosque</a> in <a href="/facts/Jerusalem/PKJ8LT0Y">Jerusalem</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:268" href="#fn:268">268</a>
Contact with industrialized nations brought Muslim populations to new areas through economic migration. Many Muslims migrated as indentured servants (mostly from India and Indonesia) to the Caribbean, forming the largest Muslim populations by percentage in the Americas.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:269" href="#fn:269">269</a> Migration from Syria and Lebanon contributed to the <a href="/facts/Islam_in_Latin_America/MEQtR9cs">Muslim population in Latin America</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:270" href="#fn:270">270</a> The resulting urbanization and increase in trade in sub-Saharan Africa brought Muslims to settle in new areas and spread their faith,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:271" href="#fn:271">271</a> likely doubling its Muslim population between 1869 and 1914.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:272" href="#fn:272">272</a>

<h3>Contemporary era (20th century–present)</h3>

Forerunners of Islamic modernism influenced Islamist political movements such as the <a href="/facts/Muslim_Brotherhood/Asoct77P">Muslim Brotherhood</a> and related parties in the Arab world,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:273" href="#fn:273">273</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:274" href="#fn:274">274</a> which performed well in elections following the <a href="/facts/Arab_Spring/IJrjLoll">Arab Spring</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:275" href="#fn:275">275</a> <a href="/facts/Jamaat-e-Islami/pkKkcGva">Jamaat-e-Islami</a> in South Asia and the <a href="/facts/Justice_and_Development_Party_(Turkey)/KsEDCKeD">AK Party</a>, which has democratically been in power in Turkey for decades. In <a href="/facts/Iran/24yukge8">Iran</a>, <a href="/facts/Iranian_Revolution/frTYhJ0F">revolution</a> replaced a <a href="/facts/Secularism/QEGcV0XI">secular</a> monarchy with an <a href="/facts/Islamic_state/1307qum3">Islamic state</a>. Others such as <a href="/facts/Rashid_Rida/KfCon1Bn">Sayyid Rashid Rida</a> broke away from Islamic modernists<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:276" href="#fn:276">276</a> and pushed against embracing what he saw as Western influence.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:277" href="#fn:277">277</a> The group <a href="/facts/Islamic_State_of_Iraq_and_the_Levant/agpVzR4K">Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant</a> would even attempt to recreate the modern gold dinar as their monetary system. While some of those who broke away were <a href="/facts/Political_quietism_in_Islam/EXwDrEoR">quietist</a>, others believed in violence against those opposing them, even against other Muslims.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:278" href="#fn:278">278</a>
In opposition to Islamic political movements, in 20th century Turkey, the military carried out <a href="/facts/1997_Turkish_military_memorandum/y1h9ub8u">coups</a> to oust Islamist governments, and headscarves were legally restricted, as also happened in Tunisia.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:279" href="#fn:279">279</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:280" href="#fn:280">280</a> In other places, religious authority was co-opted and is now often seen as puppets of the state. For example, in Saudi Arabia, the state monopolized religious scholarship<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:281" href="#fn:281">281</a> and, in Egypt, the state nationalized <a href="/facts/Al-Azhar_University/eMNhDbNF">Al-Azhar University</a>, previously an independent voice checking state power.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:282" href="#fn:282">282</a> Salafism was funded in the Middle East for its quietism.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:283" href="#fn:283">283</a> Saudi Arabia campaigned against revolutionary Islamist movements in the Middle East, in opposition to Iran.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:284" href="#fn:284">284</a>
Muslim minorities of various ethnicities have been persecuted as a religious group.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:285" href="#fn:285">285</a> This has been undertaken by communist forces like the <a href="/facts/Khmer_Rouge/fEDLaMwY">Khmer Rouge</a>, who viewed them as their primary enemy to be exterminated since their religious practice made them stand out from the rest of the population,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:286" href="#fn:286">286</a> the <a href="/facts/Chinese_Communist_Party/MwS3Togt">Chinese Communist Party</a> in <a href="/facts/Xinjiang_internment_camps/ejU9DHUG">Xinjiang</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:287" href="#fn:287">287</a> and by nationalist forces such as during the <a href="/facts/Bosnian_genocide/D3kH5KsF">Bosnian genocide</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:288" href="#fn:288">288</a> Myanmar military's <a href="/facts/Tatmadaw/vvHCjRnb">Tatmadaw</a> targeting of <a href="/facts/Rohingya_people/GaGBFoWA">Rohingya Muslims</a> has been labeled as a crime against humanity by the UN and Amnesty International,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:289" href="#fn:289">289</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:290" href="#fn:290">290</a> while the <a href="/facts/Office_of_the_United_Nations_High_Commissioner_for_Human_Rights/s43BaRNL">OHCHR</a> Fact-Finding Mission identified <a href="/facts/Rohingya_genocide/nQ60Re9t">genocide</a>, ethnic cleansing, and other crimes against humanity.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:291" href="#fn:291">291</a>
The advancement of global communication has facilitated the widespread dissemination of religious knowledge. The adoption of the <a href="/facts/Hijab/9AABhGEk">hijab</a> has grown more common<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:292" href="#fn:292">292</a> and some Muslim intellectuals are increasingly striving to separate scriptural Islamic beliefs from cultural traditions.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:293" href="#fn:293">293</a> Among other groups, this access to information has led to the rise of popular "<a href="/facts/Televangelist/M3lrlbmX">televangelist</a>" preachers, such as <a href="/facts/Amr_Khaled/p0Yn4zgp">Amr Khaled</a>, who compete with the traditional <a href="/facts/Ulema/7vMcAgBV">ulema</a> in their reach and have decentralized religious authority.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:294" href="#fn:294">294</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:295" href="#fn:295">295</a> More "individualized" interpretations of Islam<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:296" href="#fn:296">296</a> notably involve <a href="/facts/Liberal_Muslims/vzWC1g2r">Liberal Muslims</a> who attempt to align religious traditions with contemporary secular governance,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:297" href="#fn:297">297</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:298" href="#fn:298">298</a> an approach that has been criticized by some regarding its compatibility.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:299" href="#fn:299">299</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:300" href="#fn:300">300</a> Moreover, secularism is perceived as a foreign ideology imposed by invaders and perpetuated by post-colonial <a href="/facts/Ruling_class/6brqEKFD">ruling elites</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:301" href="#fn:301">301</a> and is frequently understood to be equivalent to <a href="/facts/Antireligion/PUCXdEj0">anti-religion</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:302" href="#fn:302">302</a>

<h2 id="demographics">Demographics</h2>
Main articles: <a href="/facts/Muslim_world/n9vVGogr">Muslim world</a> and <a href="/facts/Ummah/WCfqSyKF">Ummah</a>
See also: <a href="/facts/Islam_by_country/8Qs2Hcm7">Islam by country</a> and <a href="/facts/Muslim_population_growth/l0Wm6Q62">Muslim population growth</a>

As of 2020, about 25.6% of the global population, or about 2 billion people, are Muslims.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:303" href="#fn:303">303</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:304" href="#fn:304">304</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:305" href="#fn:305">305</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:306" href="#fn:306">306</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:307" href="#fn:307">307</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:308" href="#fn:308">308</a> In 1900, this estimate was 12.3%,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:309" href="#fn:309">309</a> in 1990 it was 19.9%<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:310" href="#fn:310">310</a> and projections suggest the proportion will be 29.7% by 2050.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:311" href="#fn:311">311</a> A Pew study from 2020 found that the global Muslim population was the fastest-growing religious group over the decade, mainly because Muslims tend to be younger on average and have higher birth rates—two key factors driving natural population growth.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:312" href="#fn:312">312</a>
Pew Research estimates that 87–90% of Muslims are Sunni and 10–13% are Shia.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:313" href="#fn:313">313</a> Approximately 49 countries are <a href="/facts/List_of_Muslim_majority_countries/n9vVGogr">Muslim-majority</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:314" href="#fn:314">314</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:315" href="#fn:315">315</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:316" href="#fn:316">316</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:317" href="#fn:317">317</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:318" href="#fn:318">318</a> with 62% of the world's Muslims living in Asia, and 683 million adherents in <a href="/facts/Islam_in_Indonesia/RJyy1px2">Indonesia</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:319" href="#fn:319">319</a> <a href="/facts/Islam_in_Pakistan/P9z3lGKb">Pakistan</a>, <a href="/facts/Islam_in_India/uIEMAxJ8">India</a>, and <a href="/facts/Islam_in_Bangladesh/0pyBUxFp">Bangladesh</a> alone.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:320" href="#fn:320">320</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:321" href="#fn:321">321</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:322" href="#fn:322">322</a> <a href="/facts/Arab_Muslims/3RXSJzh1">Arab Muslims</a> form the <a href="/facts/List_of_contemporary_ethnic_groups/e0YktI37">largest ethnic group among Muslims</a> in the world,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:323" href="#fn:323">323</a> followed by <a href="/facts/Bengali_Muslims/UJF9SIfj">Bengalis</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:324" href="#fn:324">324</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:325" href="#fn:325">325</a> and <a href="/facts/Punjabi_Muslims/5Y36P2bV">Punjabis</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:326" href="#fn:326">326</a> Most estimates indicate <a href="/facts/Islam_in_China/jdCJcdnx">China</a> has approximately 20 to 30 million Muslims (1.5% to 2% of the population).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:327" href="#fn:327">327</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:328" href="#fn:328">328</a> <a href="/facts/Islam_in_Europe/lH1JPn25">Islam in Europe</a> is the second-largest religion after <a href="/facts/Christianity/nKyJHlqq">Christianity</a> in many countries, with growth rates due primarily to immigration and higher birth rates of Muslims in 2005,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:329" href="#fn:329">329</a> accounting for 4.9% of all of Europe's population in 2016.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:330" href="#fn:330">330</a>
<a href="/facts/Conversion_to_Islam/m3QeGpVw">Religious conversion</a> has no net impact on the Muslim population growth as "the number of people who <a href="/facts/Convert_to_Islam/m3QeGpVw">become Muslims through conversion</a> seems to be roughly equal to the number of Muslims who leave the faith."<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:331" href="#fn:331">331</a> Although, Islam is expected to experience a modest gain of 3 million through religious conversion between 2010 and 2050, mostly from <a href="/facts/Sub_Saharan_Africa/p4u389aa">Sub Saharan Africa</a> (2.9 million).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:332" href="#fn:332">332</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:333" href="#fn:333">333</a> According to a 2020 Pew study, about 1% of adults raised Muslim leave the faith, while an equal proportion —about 1%— convert to Islam from other religions, resulting in low levels of religious switching both into and out of Islam.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:334" href="#fn:334">334</a>
According to a report by <a href="/facts/CNN/kEYsUQqr">CNN</a>, "Islam has drawn converts from all walks of life, most notably African-Americans".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:335" href="#fn:335">335</a> <a href="/facts/Islam_in_Britain/WUeP3du8">In Britain</a>, around 6,000 people convert to Islam per year and, according to an article in the British Muslims Monthly Survey, the majority of new Muslim converts in Britain were women.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:336" href="#fn:336">336</a> According to The Huffington Post, "observers estimate that as many as 20,000 Americans convert to Islam annually", most of them being <a href="/facts/Women_in_Islam/uenPbe9I">women</a> and <a href="/facts/African-American_Muslims/VzbUUwmY">African-Americans</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:337" href="#fn:337">337</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:338" href="#fn:338">338</a>
By both percentage and total numbers, Islam is the world's fastest growing major religious group, and is projected to be the world's largest by the end of the 21st century, surpassing that of <a href="/facts/Christianity/nKyJHlqq">Christianity</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:339" href="#fn:339">339</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:340" href="#fn:340">340</a> It is estimated that, by 2050, the number of Muslims will nearly equal the number of Christians around the world, "due to the young age and high <a href="/facts/Fertility_rate/ugganzwn">fertility rate</a> of Muslims relative to other religious groups."<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:341" href="#fn:341">341</a>

<h2 id="main-branches-or-denominations">Main branches or denominations</h2>
Main article: <a href="/facts/Islamic_schools_and_branches/jmWNJqPb">Islamic schools and branches § Main branches or denominations</a>See also: <a href="/facts/Shia%25E2%2580%2593Sunni_relations/UJIjy639">Shia–Sunni relations</a>
<h3>Sunni</h3>
Main article: <a href="/facts/Sunni_Islam/WYo0zeq0">Sunni Islam</a>

Sunni Islam, or Sunnism, is the name for the largest denomination in Islam.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:342" href="#fn:342">342</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:343" href="#fn:343">343</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:344" href="#fn:344">344</a> The term is a contraction of the phrase "ahl as-sunna wa'l-jamaat", which means "people of the <a href="/facts/Sunnah/fmXN1E1q">sunna</a> (the traditions of Muhammad) and the community".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:345" href="#fn:345">345</a> Sunni Islam is sometimes referred to as "orthodox Islam",<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:346" href="#fn:346">346</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:347" href="#fn:347">347</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:348" href="#fn:348">348</a> though some scholars view this as inappropriate, and many non-Sunnis may find this offensive.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:349" href="#fn:349">349</a> Sunnis, or sometimes Sunnites, believe that the first four caliphs were the rightful successors to Muhammad and primarily reference <a href="/facts/Al-Kutub_Al-Sittah/ujzPBYBa">six major hadith works</a> for legal matters, while following one of the four traditional schools of jurisprudence: <a href="/facts/Hanafi/hDlsv2jF">Hanafi</a>, <a href="/facts/Hanbali/xxtJoSLe">Hanbali</a>, <a href="/facts/Maliki/yE9tPNMa">Maliki</a> or <a href="/facts/Shafi%2527i/tE6xsQxj">Shafi'i</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:350" href="#fn:350">350</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:351" href="#fn:351">351</a>
<a href="/facts/Traditionalist_theology_(Islam)/pXFqeq81">Traditionalist theology</a> is a Sunni school of thought, prominently advocated by <a href="/facts/Ahmad_ibn_Hanbal/sjyTu1Mq">Ahmad ibn Hanbal</a> (780–855 CE), that is characterized by its adherence to a <a href="/facts/Textualism/mc44klrK">textualist</a> understanding of the Quran and the sunnah, the belief that the Quran is uncreated and eternal, and opposition to speculative theology, called <a href="/facts/Kalam/86GebkgK">kalam</a>, in religious and ethical matters.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:352" href="#fn:352">352</a> <a href="/facts/Maturidism/FtdkCJ9t">Maturidism</a>, founded by <a href="/facts/Abu_Mansur_al-Maturidi/4PMh68uR">Abu Mansur al-Maturidi</a> (853–944 CE), asserts that scripture is not needed for basic ethics and that good and evil can be understood by reason alone,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:353" href="#fn:353">353</a> but people rely on revelation, for matters beyond human's comprehension. <a href="/facts/Ash%2527arism/Rj57d1HI">Ash'arism</a>, founded by <a href="/facts/Al-Ash%25CA%25BFar%25C4%25AB/35Ubh7ut">Al-Ashʿarī</a> (c. 874–936), holds that ethics can derive just from divine revelation but accepts reason regarding exegetical matters and combines Muʿtazila approaches with traditionalist ideas.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:354" href="#fn:354">354</a>
<a href="/facts/Salafism/FxuCQj4K">Salafism</a> is a revival movement advocating the return to the practices of the earliest generations of Muslims. In the 18th century, Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab led a <a href="/facts/Salafi_movement/FxuCQj4K">Salafi movement</a>, referred by outsiders as Wahhabism, in modern-day Saudi Arabia.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:355" href="#fn:355">355</a> A similar movement called <a href="/facts/Ahl_al-Hadith/mb5WQ0U0">Ahl al-Hadith</a> also de-emphasized the centuries' old Sunni legal tradition, preferring to directly follow the Quran and Hadith. The <a href="/facts/Nur_movement/6YNFC2C5">Nurcu</a> Sunni movement was by <a href="/facts/Said_Nursi/k4wsMVsM">Said Nursi</a> (1877–1960);<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:356" href="#fn:356">356</a> it incorporates elements of Sufism and science.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:357" href="#fn:357">357</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:358" href="#fn:358">358</a>

<h3>Shia</h3>
Main article: <a href="/facts/Shia_Islam/JIQl7ooz">Shia Islam</a>

Shia Islam, or Shi'ism, is the second-largest Muslim denomination.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:359" href="#fn:359">359</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:360" href="#fn:360">360</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:361" href="#fn:361">361</a> Shias, or Shiites, maintain that Muhammad's <a href="/facts/Succession_to_Muhammad/vpF82GCs">successor</a> as leader, must be from certain descendants of Muhammad's family known as the <a href="/facts/Ahl_al-Bayt/GtYDcqpF">Ahl al-Bayt</a> and those leaders, referred to as <a href="/facts/Imamate_in_Shia_doctrine/yEI8zlDR">Imams</a>, have additional spiritual authority.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:362" href="#fn:362">362</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:363" href="#fn:363">363</a> Shias are guided by the <a href="/facts/Ja%2527fari_school/XxAbeRt0">Ja'fari school of jurisprudence</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:364" href="#fn:364">364</a>
According to both Sunni and Shia Muslims, a significant event took place at <a href="/facts/Ghadir_Khumm/RssjH0sV">Ghadir Khumm</a> during Muhammad's return from his final pilgrimage to Mecca, where he stopped thousands of Muslims in the midday heat.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:365" href="#fn:365">365</a> Muhammad appointed his cousin <a href="/facts/Ali/YwM7b73C">Ali</a> as the executor of his last will and testament, as well as his <a href="/facts/Wali/KeqC07jv">Wali</a> (authority).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:366" href="#fn:366">366</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:367" href="#fn:367">367</a> Shias recognize that Muhammad designated Ali as his successor (khalīfa) and <a href="/facts/Imamate_in_Shia_doctrine/yEI8zlDR">Imam</a> (spiritual and political leader) after him, but was prevented from succeeding Muhammad as the leader of the <a href="/facts/Muslims/W2ukq4pg">Muslims</a> because of some <a href="/facts/Companions_of_the_Prophet/ev5xGHLt">other companions</a> who selected <a href="/facts/Abu_Bakr/oIJ8E4fm">Abū Bakr</a> as <a href="/facts/Caliphate/qQ6hCspe">caliph</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:368" href="#fn:368">368</a> Sunnis, instead believe that Muhammad did not appoint a successor before <a href="/facts/Death_of_Muhammad/5VcA7XrT">his death</a> and consider Abū Bakr to be the first <a href="/facts/Rashidun/TAb6NYWq">rightful</a> caliph after Muhammad.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:369" href="#fn:369">369</a> Shias state the community deliberately ignored Ali's nomination,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:370" href="#fn:370">370</a> citing <a href="/facts/Umar/cIfqERQW">Umar</a>'s appointment by Abu Bakr,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:371" href="#fn:371">371</a> other historical evidence,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:372" href="#fn:372">372</a> and the <a href="/facts/Quran/39rkStko">Qur'an's</a> stance that majority does not imply legitimacy.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:373" href="#fn:373">373</a>
Some of the first Shia Imams are revered by all Shia and Sunnis Muslims, such as Ali and <a href="/facts/Husayn_ibn_Ali/hXoUh3Pe">Husayn</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:374" href="#fn:374">374</a> <a href="/facts/Twelvers/sUejq9pd">Twelvers</a>, the largest Shia branch and most influential, believe in <a href="/facts/Twelve_Imams/WpAjU3qU">Twelve Imams</a>, the last of whom went into <a href="/facts/Occultation_(Islam)/Q1fyHo4r">occultation</a> to return one day. They recognize that the prophecy of the Twelve Imams has been foretold in the <a href="/facts/Hadith_of_the_Twelve_Successors/A64BfuJA">Hadith of the Twelve Successors</a> which is recorded by both Sunni and Shia sources.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:375" href="#fn:375">375</a> <a href="/facts/Zaydism/YjNdclfp">Zaydism</a> rejects infallibility of Imams and were sometimes regarded a 'fifth school' of Sunni Islam rather than a Shia denomination.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:376" href="#fn:376">376</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:377" href="#fn:377">377</a> They differed with other Shias over the status of the fifth imam and are sometimes known as "Fivers".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:378" href="#fn:378">378</a> The <a href="/facts/Ismailism/e6uySs0b">Isma'ilis</a> split with the Twelvers over who was the seventh Imam and have further fragmented into more groups over the status of successive Imams, with the largest group being the <a href="/facts/Nizari_Isma%2527ilism/VlqLYnhg">Nizaris</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:379" href="#fn:379">379</a>
For Shias, the <a href="/facts/Imam_Ali_Shrine/BbYdrAH5">Imam Ali Shrine</a> in Najaf, the <a href="/facts/Imam_Husayn_Shrine/JowaCsT9">Imam Husayn Shrine</a> in Karbala, and the <a href="/facts/Fatima_Masumeh_Shrine/L6drYMSb">Fatima Masumeh Shrine</a> in <a href="/facts/Qom/kRXpjzGm">Qom</a> are also among the <a href="/facts/Holiest_sites_in_Islam/7ojI7NmR">Islamic Holy sites</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:380" href="#fn:380">380</a>

<a href="/facts/Imam_Ali_Shrine/BbYdrAH5">Imam Ali Shrine</a> in <a href="/facts/Najaf/nxEhIJs0">Najaf</a>, the third holiest place for Shia Muslims after Mecca and Medina.<a href="/facts/Imam_Hussein_Shrine/JowaCsT9">Imam Hussein Shrine</a> in <a href="/facts/Karbala/W9d65tKW">Karbala</a>, a holy site for Shia Muslims.<a href="/facts/Imam_Reza_shrine/XQCpUler">Imam Reza shrine</a>, the world's largest mosque, in <a href="/facts/Mashhad/2kYE0xWa">Mashhad</a>, <a href="/facts/Iran/24yukge8">Iran</a>. 25 million Shias visiting the shrine each year.
<h3>Muhakkima</h3>
Main articles: <a href="/facts/Muhakkima/YqzqoJXj">Muhakkima</a>, <a href="/facts/Ibadi_Islam/FxuE071h">Ibadi Islam</a>, and <a href="/facts/Kharijites/RSYbTWSf">Kharijites</a>
<a href="/facts/Ibadism/FxuE071h">Ibadism</a> is practised by 1.45 million Muslims around the world (~0.08% of all Muslims), most of them in <a href="/facts/Oman/yNr7BPbm">Oman</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:381" href="#fn:381">381</a> Ibadism is often associated with and viewed as a moderate variation of the <a href="/facts/Kharijites/RSYbTWSf">Kharijites</a>, though Ibadis themselves object to this classification. The kharijites were groups that rebelled against Caliph Ali for his acceptance of arbitration with someone they viewed as a sinner. Unlike most kharijite groups, Ibadism does not regard sinful Muslims as unbelievers. Ibadi hadiths, such as the <a href="/facts/Jami_Sahih/D3suPhJf">Jami Sahih</a> collection, use chains of narrators from early Islamic history they consider trustworthy, but most Ibadi hadiths are also found in standard Sunni collections and contemporary Ibadis often approve of the standard Sunni collections.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:382" href="#fn:382">382</a>

<h3>Other denominations</h3>
<ul><li>The <a href="/facts/Ahmadiyya_Movement/z8p7s0FC">Ahmadiyya Movement</a> was founded in British India in 1889 by <a href="/facts/Mirza_Ghulam_Ahmad/IbdVjbuu">Mirza Ghulam Ahmad</a> of <a href="/facts/Qadian/E8hd8rnK">Qadian</a>, who claimed to be the promised <a href="/facts/Messiah/KfWyxrNK">Messiah</a> ("<a href="/facts/Second_Coming/cmswsDwm">Second Coming</a> of <a href="/facts/Jesus_in_Islam/xPo4UDS8">Christ</a>"), the <a href="/facts/Mahdi/LCwdHM4W">Mahdi</a> awaited by the Muslims as well as a <a href="/facts/Prophethood_(Ahmadiyya)/VLAuYCsl">"subordinate" prophet</a> to the Islamic prophet Muhammad.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:383" href="#fn:383">383</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:384" href="#fn:384">384</a> There are a wide variety of distinct beliefs and teachings of Ahmadis compared to those of most other Muslims,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:385" href="#fn:385">385</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:386" href="#fn:386">386</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:387" href="#fn:387">387</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:388" href="#fn:388">388</a> which include the interpretation of the Quranic title <a href="/facts/Khatam_an-Nabiyyin/Ks75jH3F">Khatam an-Nabiyyin</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:389" href="#fn:389">389</a> and interpretation of the <a href="/facts/Jesus_in_Ahmadiyya_Islam/LXJjv1jP">Messiah's Second Coming</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:390" href="#fn:390">390</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:391" href="#fn:391">391</a> These perceived deviations from normative Islamic thought have resulted in rejection by most Muslims as heretics<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:392" href="#fn:392">392</a> and <a href="/facts/Persecution_of_Ahmadis/5UDG0Hnf">persecution of Ahmadis</a> in various countries,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:393" href="#fn:393">393</a> particularly <a href="/facts/Ahmadiyya_in_Pakistan/61modEAd">Pakistan</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:394" href="#fn:394">394</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:395" href="#fn:395">395</a> where they have been officially declared as non-Muslims by the <a href="/facts/Government_of_Pakistan/Uf3h0V3v">Government of Pakistan</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:396" href="#fn:396">396</a> The followers of the Ahmadiyya Movement in Islam are divided into two groups: the first being the <a href="/facts/Ahmadiyya_Muslim_Community/z8p7s0FC">Ahmadiyya Muslim Community</a>, currently the dominant group, and the <a href="/facts/Lahore_Ahmadiyya_Movement_for_the_Propagation_of_Islam/XW4yUy5B">Lahore Ahmadiyya Movement for the Propagation of Islam</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:397" href="#fn:397">397</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Alevism/vWRLewNg">Alevism</a> is a <a href="/facts/Syncretism/q4IMH40F">syncretic</a> and <a href="/facts/Heterodoxy/QBtVnfXz">heterodox</a> local Islamic tradition, whose adherents follow the mystical (<a href="/facts/Batin_(Islam)/3WmlRDde">bāṭenī</a>) teachings of Ali and <a href="/facts/Haji_Bektash_Veli/n4vlsfvY">Haji Bektash Veli</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:398" href="#fn:398">398</a> Alevism is a blend of traditional 14th century Turkish beliefs,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:399" href="#fn:399">399</a> with possible syncretist origins in <a href="/facts/Tengrism/3xyWck36">Shamanism</a> and <a href="/facts/Animism/jsPnJBuD">Animism</a>, alongside Shia and Sufi beliefs. It has been estimated that there are 10 million to over 20 million (~0.5–1% of all Muslims) Alevis worldwide.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:400" href="#fn:400">400</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Quranism/eDRl86JR">Quranism</a> is a religious movement of Islam based on the belief that Islamic law and guidance should only be based on the <a href="/facts/Quran/39rkStko">Quran</a> and not the <a href="/facts/Sunnah/fmXN1E1q">sunnah</a> or <a href="/facts/Hadith/8aKKCttq">Hadith</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:401" href="#fn:401">401</a> with Quranists notably differing in their approach to the <a href="/facts/Five_pillars_of_Islam/LmdL77oJ">five pillars of Islam</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:402" href="#fn:402">402</a> The movement developed from the 19th century onwards, with thinkers like <a href="/facts/Syed_Ahmad_Khan/nR7qFhHM">Syed Ahmad Khan</a>, Abdullah Chakralawi and <a href="/facts/Ghulam_Ahmed_Perwez/oIcWU611">Ghulam Ahmed Perwez</a> in India questioning the hadith tradition.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:403" href="#fn:403">403</a> In Egypt, <a href="/facts/Muhammad_Tawfiq_Sidqi/p1ReUWWL">Muhammad Tawfiq Sidqi</a> penned the article Islam is the Quran alone in the magazine <a href="/facts/Al-Man%25C4%2581r_(magazine)/fRQ6lLmB">Al-Manār</a>, arguing for the sole authority of the Quran.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:404" href="#fn:404">404</a> A prominent late 20th century Quranist was <a href="/facts/Rashad_Khalifa/cFg79Vla">Rashad Khalifa</a>, an Egyptian-American biochemist who claimed to have discovered a <a href="/facts/Numerology/xsUjpADK">numerological</a> <a href="/facts/Quran_code/JRjEhbWB">code in the Quran</a>, and founded the Quranist organization <a href="/facts/United_Submitters_International/eDRl86JR">United Submitters International</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:405" href="#fn:405">405</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Mu%2527tazilism/yGG9mk6Q">Mu'tazilism</a> was an early Islamic theological school known for their use of <a href="/facts/Rationalism/MNk171TG">rationalism</a>, particularly towards the two primary sources of Islam, the <a href="/facts/Quran/39rkStko">Qur'an</a> and the <a href="/facts/Hadith/8aKKCttq">hadith</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:406" href="#fn:406">406</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:407" href="#fn:407">407</a> The school was founded on five main principles: the monotheism (<a href="/facts/Tawhid/Svh5hgTS">tawhid</a>), <a href="/facts/Divine_justice/ALSJkb7n">divine justice</a>, the certainty of divine promises and threats, an intermediate position regarding the status of great sinners, and the obligation to enjoin good and forbid evil.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:408" href="#fn:408">408</a> Unlike the Sunnis, Mu'tazilite rejected the traditional view that the Qur'an was the uncreated word of God, and instead held that the <a href="/facts/Quranic_createdness/ezbPXFVl">Qur'an was a created revelation</a>, to affirm the absolute oneness of God.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:409" href="#fn:409">409</a> Emphasizing the use of reason, they argued that human <a href="/facts/Free_will/LwkImELQ">free will</a> allowed individuals to choose between good and evil, making them responsible for their actions.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:410" href="#fn:410">410</a> Although the Mu'tazila's influence waned due to social and political pressure from orthodox Sunnis, their rationalist legacy remains important in <a href="/facts/Islamic_modernity/GPR4xI7X">Islamic intellectualism</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:411" href="#fn:411">411</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:412" href="#fn:412">412</a></li></ul>
<h3>Non-denominational Muslims</h3>
Main article: <a href="/facts/Non-denominational_Muslim/XBxzehAa">Non-denominational Muslim</a>
Non-denominational Muslims is an <a href="/facts/Umbrella_term/bjxUuoRb">umbrella term</a> that has been used for and by Muslims who do not belong to or do not self-identify with a specific <a href="/facts/Islamic_denomination/jmWNJqPb">Islamic denomination</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:413" href="#fn:413">413</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:414" href="#fn:414">414</a> Recent surveys report that large proportions of Muslims in some parts of the world self-identify as "just Muslim", although there is little published analysis available regarding the motivations underlying this response.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:415" href="#fn:415">415</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:416" href="#fn:416">416</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:417" href="#fn:417">417</a> Pew Research reports that respondents self-identifying as "just Muslim" make up a majority of Muslims in seven countries (and a plurality in three others), with the highest proportion in <a href="/facts/Kazakhstan/Vfs8NI6e">Kazakhstan</a> at 74%. At least one in five Muslims in at least 22 countries self-identifies in this way.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:418" href="#fn:418">418</a>

<h2 id="mysticism">Mysticism</h2>
Main article: <a href="/facts/Sufism/NFcCu5gP">Sufism</a>
See also: <a href="/facts/Sufi%25E2%2580%2593Salafi_relations/yIpg8Vsn">Sufi–Salafi relations</a>

Sufism (Arabic: تصوف, tasawwuf), is a <a href="/facts/Mystical/3Rfb7zEd">mystical</a>-<a href="/facts/Ascetic/s3szkXBx">ascetic</a> approach to Islam that seeks to find a direct <a href="/facts/Divine_presence/rVrRfQ3f">personal experience of God</a>. Classical Sufi scholars defined tasawwuf as "a science whose objective is the reparation of the heart and turning it away from all else but God", through "intuitive and emotional faculties" that one must be trained to use.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:419" href="#fn:419">419</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:420" href="#fn:420">420</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:421" href="#fn:421">421</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:422" href="#fn:422">422</a> <a href="/facts/Ahmad_ibn_Ajiba/7F84A39n">Ahmad ibn Ajiba</a> defined tasawwuf as "a return to the tradition, and its beginning is knowledge, its middle is action [upon that knowledge], and its end is a gift [from Allah]."<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:423" href="#fn:423">423</a> It is not a sect of Islam, and its adherents belong to the various Muslim denominations. <a href="/facts/Isma%2527ilism/e6uySs0b">Isma'ilism</a>, whose teachings are rooted in <a href="/facts/Gnosticism/gVGVzaAN">Gnosticism</a> and <a href="/facts/Neoplatonism/Tyq4uTG0">Neoplatonism</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:424" href="#fn:424">424</a> as well as by the <a href="/facts/Illuminationism/3AsaQJXW">Illuminationist</a> and <a href="/facts/School_of_Isfahan/DA7XkBBY">Isfahan</a> schools of Islamic philosophy, has developed mystical interpretations of Islam.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:425" href="#fn:425">425</a> <a href="/facts/Hasan_al-Basri/EjyJNHp6">Hasan al-Basri</a>, the early Sufi ascetic often portrayed as one of the earliest Sufis,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:426" href="#fn:426">426</a> emphasized fear of failing God's expectations of obedience. In contrast, later prominent Sufis, such as <a href="/facts/Mansur_Al-Hallaj/Fwgljalr">Mansur Al-Hallaj</a> and <a href="/facts/Rumi/GmDR4NXX">Jalaluddin Rumi</a>, emphasized religiosity based on love towards God. Such devotion would also have an impact on the arts, with Rumi still one of the bestselling poets in America.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:427" href="#fn:427">427</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:428" href="#fn:428">428</a>
Sufis see tasawwuf as an inseparable part of Islam.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:429" href="#fn:429">429</a> Traditional Sufis, such as <a href="/facts/Bayazid_Bastami/QPd3KAPf">Bayazid Bastami</a>, Jalaluddin Rumi, <a href="/facts/Haji_Bektash_Veli/n4vlsfvY">Haji Bektash Veli</a>, <a href="/facts/Junaid_Baghdadi/FA5HXXHf">Junaid Baghdadi</a>, and Al-Ghazali, argued for Sufism as being based upon the tenets of Islam and the teachings of the prophet.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:430" href="#fn:430">430</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:431" href="#fn:431">431</a> Historian <a href="/facts/Nile_Green/TeBzd8oH">Nile Green</a> argued that Islam in the medieval period was more or less Sufism.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:432" href="#fn:432">432</a> Followers of the Sunni <a href="/facts/Islamic_revival/JJyDq25R">revivalist</a> movement known as <a href="/facts/Salafism/FxuCQj4K">Salafism</a> have viewed popular devotional practices, such as the veneration of Sufi saints, as innovations from the original religion. Salafists have sometimes physically attacked Sufis, leading to a deterioration in <a href="/facts/Sufi%25E2%2580%2593Salafi_relations/yIpg8Vsn">Sufi–Salafi relations</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:433" href="#fn:433">433</a>
Sufi congregations form orders (<a href="/facts/Tariqa/YgesnhbA">tariqa</a>) centred around a teacher (<a href="/facts/Wali/KeqC07jv">wali</a>) who traces a spiritual chain back to Muhammad.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:434" href="#fn:434">434</a> Sufis played an important role in the formation of Muslim societies through their missionary and educational activities.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:435" href="#fn:435">435</a> The Sufism-influenced Ahle Sunnat movement or <a href="/facts/Barelvi/Fpcx0hIz">Barelvi</a> movement claims over 200 million followers in South Asia.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:436" href="#fn:436">436</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:437" href="#fn:437">437</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:438" href="#fn:438">438</a> Sufism is prominent in Central Asia,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:439" href="#fn:439">439</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:440" href="#fn:440">440</a> as well as in African countries like <a href="/facts/Tunisia/4uC8Po6k">Tunisia</a>, <a href="/facts/Algeria/UXDF4Tj6">Algeria</a>, <a href="/facts/Morocco/6ly8170M">Morocco</a>, <a href="/facts/Senegal/PPaRNYJH">Senegal</a>, <a href="/facts/Chad/KStYoub3">Chad</a> and <a href="/facts/Niger/hRbX6MkM">Niger</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:441" href="#fn:441">441</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:442" href="#fn:442">442</a>

<h2 id="law-and-jurisprudence">Law and jurisprudence</h2>
Main articles: <a href="/facts/Sharia/H9cG0yCF">Sharia</a> and <a href="/facts/Fiqh/YBmxekkY">Fiqh</a>
See also: <a href="/facts/Logic_in_Islamic_philosophy/2U6nFD87">Logic in Islamic philosophy § Islamic law and theology</a>

<a href="/facts/Shariah/H9cG0yCF">Shariah</a> is the body of Islamic <a href="/facts/Religious_law/CoYusVvr">religious law</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:443" href="#fn:443">443</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:444" href="#fn:444">444</a> The desire to delineate and discover laws in a comprehensive and consistent method led to the development of the <a href="/facts/Jurisprudence/wNTsXP4F">theory of law</a>, called <a href="/facts/Fiqh/YBmxekkY">fiqh</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:445" href="#fn:445">445</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:446" href="#fn:446">446</a> Conversely, <a href="/facts/Bid%2527ah/Jrrm6sGT">bid'ah</a> is used to refer to unlawful innovations in matters of religion.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:447" href="#fn:447">447</a> Differing methodologies, called principles of fiqh or <a href="/facts/Usul_al-fiqh/qIkyBoT3">Usul al-fiqh</a>, have developed and a school of jurisprudence arising around a methodology is known as a madhhab (<a href="/facts/Arabic_language/A1e66hVV">Arabic</a>: مذهب). The conformity in following of decisions by a religious expert or school is called <a href="/facts/Taqlid/vwFfXMTC">taqlid</a>. The term <a href="/facts/Salafi_movement/FxuCQj4K">ghair muqallid</a> refers to those who do not use taqlid and, by extension, do not have a madhab.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:448" href="#fn:448">448</a> The practice of an individual interpreting law with independent reasoning is called <a href="/facts/Ijtihad/ybz5zRJv">ijtihad</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:449" href="#fn:449">449</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:450" href="#fn:450">450</a> Those who interpret shariah are known as <a href="/facts/Mufti/XCz855DR">muftis</a> and their legal opinions are called <a href="/facts/Fatwa/ftHBQbql">fatwas</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:451" href="#fn:451">451</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:452" href="#fn:452">452</a>
The primary sources of Shariah are the Quran and Sunnah.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:453" href="#fn:453">453</a> A common third source is <a href="/facts/Qiyas/rWe8mtVg">qiyas</a> (analogical reasoning) which is used for legal questions not dealt with literally in the Qur’ān or Sunnah. Parallels would be searched for to find the ‘’illah’’, or effective cause, which is the reason behind the existing ruling.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:454" href="#fn:454">454</a> For example, from the specific prohibition of wine is deduced a broad prohibition on alcohol as they share the operative cause identified as the mind-altering nature of all alcoholic drinks.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:455" href="#fn:455">455</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:456" href="#fn:456">456</a> The <a href="/facts/Zahiri_school/ngKx8Elk">Zahiri school</a> adheres to strict literalism and thus rejects qiyas. Consensus of opinion is <a href="/facts/Ijma/vxkDUbeo">ijma</a>, while <a href="/facts/Ikhtilaf/D14saLmx">ikhtilaf</a> refers to scholarly disagreement. Rulings assign actions to one of five categories called <a href="/facts/Ahkam/afg4qvIp">ahkam</a>: mandatory (<a href="/facts/Fard/Pytrmb8g">fard</a>), recommended (<a href="/facts/Mustahabb/UYd5vkTC">mustahabb</a>), permitted (<a href="/facts/Mubah/1YPvdgqb">mubah</a>), abhorred (<a href="/facts/Makruh/lS4TURag">makruh</a>), and prohibited (<a href="/facts/Haram/psap0dtY">haram</a>).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:457" href="#fn:457">457</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:458" href="#fn:458">458</a>
In the modern era, sharia-based criminal laws were widely replaced by statutes inspired by European models.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:459" href="#fn:459">459</a> The <a href="/facts/Ottoman_Empire/6QvfTRsg">Ottoman Empire</a>'s 19th century <a href="/facts/Tanzimat/I83H2yXu">Tanzimat</a> reforms led to the <a href="/facts/Mecelle/V2UIopDn">Mecelle</a> civil code and represented the first attempt to <a href="/facts/Codification_(law)/LVcXpbPU">codify</a> sharia.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:460" href="#fn:460">460</a> While the constitutions of most Muslim-majority states contain references to sharia, its classical rules were largely retained only in <a href="/facts/Status_(law)/Q1VVpWRU">personal status</a> (family) laws.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:461" href="#fn:461">461</a> Legislative bodies which codified these laws sought to modernize them without abandoning their foundations in traditional jurisprudence.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:462" href="#fn:462">462</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:463" href="#fn:463">463</a> The <a href="/facts/Islamic_revival/JJyDq25R">Islamic revival</a> of the late 20th century brought along calls by <a href="/facts/Islamist/4u3G2nEf">Islamist</a> movements for complete implementation of sharia.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:464" href="#fn:464">464</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:465" href="#fn:465">465</a> The role of sharia has become a contested topic around the world. There are ongoing debates as to whether sharia is compatible with secular forms of government, human rights, <a href="/facts/Freedom_of_thought/3fUStDu9">freedom of thought</a>, and <a href="/facts/Women%2527s_rights/82YGpkAT">women's rights</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:466" href="#fn:466">466</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:467" href="#fn:467">467</a>

<h2 id="society">Society</h2>
<h3>Religious personages</h3>
Main article: <a href="/facts/Ulama/7vMcAgBV">Ulama</a>

Islam has no clergy in the <a href="/facts/Sacerdotalism/9Cp7SAmX">sacerdotal</a> sense, such as priests who mediate between God and people. <a href="/facts/Imam/RkKcu03m">Imam</a> (إمام) is the religious title used to refer to an Islamic leadership position, often in the context of conducting an Islamic worship service.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:468" href="#fn:468">468</a> Religious interpretation is presided over by the 'ulama (Arabic: علماء), a term used describe the body of Muslim scholars who have received training in <a href="/facts/Islamic_studies/kNWshAlX">Islamic studies</a>. A scholar of the hadith is called a <a href="/facts/Muhaddith/2sb5HFc7">muhaddith</a>, a scholar of jurisprudence is called a <a href="/facts/Faqih/SFKRUGrE">faqih</a> (فقيه), a jurist who is qualified to issue legal opinions or <a href="/facts/Fatwas/ftHBQbql">fatwas</a> is called a <a href="/facts/Mufti/XCz855DR">mufti</a>, and a <a href="/facts/Qadi/A4L7m5ca">qadi</a> is an Islamic judge. <a href="/facts/Honorific/WccpCNyE">Honorific</a> titles given to scholars include <a href="/facts/Sheikh/0Upp3Dbz">sheikh</a>, <a href="/facts/Mullah/4gSasztV">mullah</a> and <a href="/facts/Mawlawi_(Islamic_title)/j6odJjt6">mawlawi</a>. Some Muslims also venerate <a href="/facts/Saints_in_Islam/KeqC07jv">saints</a> associated with <a href="/facts/Islamic_view_of_miracles/f6avRyBQ">miracles</a> (كرامات, karāmāt).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:469" href="#fn:469">469</a>

<h3>Governance</h3>
See also: <a href="/facts/Political_aspects_of_Islam/GeSG3U23">Political aspects of Islam</a>, <a href="/facts/Islamic_economics/KLBolR9A">Islamic economics</a>, <a href="/facts/Islamic_military_jurisprudence/aJ8dU0AK">Islamic military jurisprudence</a>, <a href="/facts/Tasamuh/Cyn4MQHe">tasamuh</a>, and <a href="/facts/Jihad/DerLM18J">Jihad</a>
In <a href="/facts/Islamic_economic_jurisprudence/KLBolR9A">Islamic economic jurisprudence</a>, hoarding of wealth is reviled and thus <a href="/facts/Monopoly/BXIQWUmR">monopolistic</a> behavior is frowned upon.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:470" href="#fn:470">470</a> Attempts to comply with sharia has led to the development of <a href="/facts/Islamic_banking/bP6j2mLP">Islamic banking</a>. Islam prohibits <a href="/facts/Riba/grdupR5D">riba</a>, usually translated as <a href="/facts/Usury/y2JtDofJ">usury</a>, which refers to any unfair gain in trade and is most commonly used to mean <a href="/facts/Interest/qfNEuKg0">interest</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:471" href="#fn:471">471</a> Instead, Islamic banks go into partnership with the borrower, and both share from the profits and any losses from the venture. Another feature is the avoidance of uncertainty, which is seen as gambling<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:472" href="#fn:472">472</a> and Islamic banks traditionally avoid derivative instruments such as futures or options which has historically protected them from market downturns.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:473" href="#fn:473">473</a> The Rashidun and Umayyad Caliphate used to be involved in distribution of charity from the treasury, known as <a href="/facts/Bayt_al-mal/WINKXcH6">Bayt al-mal</a>, before it became a largely individual pursuit around the year 720. The first <a href="/facts/Caliph/qQ6hCspe">Caliph</a>, <a href="/facts/Abu_Bakr/oIJ8E4fm">Abu Bakr</a>, distributed zakat as one of the first examples of a <a href="/facts/Guaranteed_minimum_income/uy9EcFPV">guaranteed minimum income</a>, with each citizen getting 10 to 20 <a href="/facts/Dirhams/IbGVE9y2">dirhams</a> annually.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:474" href="#fn:474">474</a> During the reign of the second Caliph Umar, <a href="/facts/Child_support/zLhQR9jl">child support</a> was introduced and the old and disabled were entitled to stipends,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:475" href="#fn:475">475</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:476" href="#fn:476">476</a> while the Umayyad Caliph <a href="/facts/Umar_II/tV4ud9vz">Umar II</a> assigned a servant for each blind person and for every two chronically ill persons.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:477" href="#fn:477">477</a>
<a href="/facts/Jihad/DerLM18J">Jihad</a> means "to strive or struggle [in the way of God]" and, in its broadest sense, is "exerting one's utmost power, efforts, endeavors, or ability in contending with an object of disapprobation".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:478" href="#fn:478">478</a> Shias in particular emphasize the "greater jihad" of striving to attain spiritual <a href="/facts/Self-improvement/AU1AtMRC">self-perfection</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:479" href="#fn:479">479</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:480" href="#fn:480">480</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:481" href="#fn:481">481</a> while the "lesser jihad" is defined as warfare.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:482" href="#fn:482">482</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:483" href="#fn:483">483</a> When used without a qualifier, jihad is often understood in its military form.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:484" href="#fn:484">484</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:485" href="#fn:485">485</a> Jihad is the only form of warfare permissible in Islamic law and may be declared against illegal works, terrorists, criminal groups, rebels, <a href="/facts/Apostasy_in_Islam/HawdPXQ1">apostates</a>, and leaders or states who oppress Muslims.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:486" href="#fn:486">486</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:487" href="#fn:487">487</a> Most Muslims today interpret Jihad as only a defensive form of warfare.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:488" href="#fn:488">488</a> Jihad only becomes an individual duty for those vested with authority. For the rest of the populace, this happens only in the case of a <a href="/facts/General_mobilization/XXDdQkgl">general mobilization</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:489" href="#fn:489">489</a> For most <a href="/facts/Twelver/sUejq9pd">Twelver Shias</a>, <a href="/facts/Offensive_jihad/DerLM18J">offensive jihad</a> can only be declared by a <a href="/facts/Imamate_in_Twelver_doctrine/lGndB4yg">divinely appointed leader</a> of the Muslim community, and as such, is suspended since <a href="/facts/Muhammad_al-Mahdi/vCFfgkdH">Muhammad al-Mahdi</a>'s <a href="/facts/Occultation_(Islam)/Q1fyHo4r">occultation</a> in 868 CE.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:490" href="#fn:490">490</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:491" href="#fn:491">491</a>

<h3>Daily and family life</h3>
See also: <a href="/facts/Adab_(Islam)/U1ypc5gg">Adab (Islam)</a>, <a href="/facts/Islamic_dietary_laws/Ty7NCKWA">Islamic dietary laws</a>, <a href="/facts/Islam_and_children/8tqSS2Dd">Islam and children</a>, <a href="/facts/Marriage_in_Islam/4cAKH0Qu">Marriage in Islam</a>, <a href="/facts/Women_in_Islam/uenPbe9I">Women in Islam</a>, and <a href="/facts/Polygyny_in_Islam/yc5pL8oS">Polygyny in Islam</a>

Many daily practices fall in the category of adab, or etiquette. Specific prohibited foods include pork products, blood and <a href="/facts/Carrion/rpAgjBY6">carrion</a>. Health is viewed as a trust from God and <a href="/facts/Khamr/AN8aQA5C">intoxicants</a>, such as <a href="/facts/Alcoholic_drink/HSHVWBtX">alcoholic drinks</a>, are prohibited.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:492" href="#fn:492">492</a> All meat must come from a <a href="/facts/Herbivorous/me4YFdQA">herbivorous</a> animal slaughtered in the name of God by a Muslim, Jew, or Christian, except for game that one has hunted or fished for oneself.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:493" href="#fn:493">493</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:494" href="#fn:494">494</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:495" href="#fn:495">495</a> Beards are often encouraged among men as something natural<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:496" href="#fn:496">496</a> and body modifications, such as <a href="/facts/Religious_perspectives_on_tattooing/1kzBcrQl">permanent tattoos</a>, are usually forbidden as violating the creation.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:497" href="#fn:497">497</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:498" href="#fn:498">498</a> Silk and gold are prohibited for men in Islam to maintain a state of sobriety.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:499" href="#fn:499">499</a> <a href="/facts/Haya_(Islam)/bGrkxTf8">Haya</a>, often translated as "shame" or "modesty", is sometimes described as the innate character of Islam<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:500" href="#fn:500">500</a> and informs much of Muslim daily life. For example, <a href="/facts/Islamic_clothing/K96sj0Cq">clothing in Islam</a> emphasizes a standard of modesty, which has included the <a href="/facts/Hijab/9AABhGEk">hijab</a> for women. Similarly, <a href="/facts/Islamic_hygienical_jurisprudence/n8SMkNjf">personal hygiene</a> is encouraged with certain requirements.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:501" href="#fn:501">501</a>

In <a href="/facts/Marriage_in_Islam/4cAKH0Qu">Islamic marriage</a>, the groom is required to pay a bridal gift (<a href="/facts/Mahr/SSb7wcCS">mahr</a>).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:502" href="#fn:502">502</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:503" href="#fn:503">503</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:504" href="#fn:504">504</a>
Most families in the Islamic world are monogamous.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:505" href="#fn:505">505</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:506" href="#fn:506">506</a> Muslim men are allowed to practice <a href="/facts/Polygyny/hpBNMVSS">polygyny</a> and can have up to four wives simultaneously. Islamic teachings strongly advise that if a man cannot ensure equal financial and emotional support for each of his wives, it is recommended that he marry just one woman. One reason cited for polygyny is that it allows a man to give financial protection to multiple women, who might otherwise not have any support (e.g. widows). However, the first wife can set a condition in the <a href="/facts/Marriage_in_Islam/4cAKH0Qu">marriage contract</a> that the husband cannot marry another woman during their marriage.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:507" href="#fn:507">507</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:508" href="#fn:508">508</a> There are also cultural variations in weddings.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:509" href="#fn:509">509</a> <a href="/facts/Polyandry/f3xAUbTT">Polyandry</a>, a practice wherein a woman takes on two or more husbands, is prohibited in Islam.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:510" href="#fn:510">510</a>

After the birth of a child, the <a href="/facts/Adhan/y1X7VAUa">adhan</a> is pronounced in the right ear.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:511" href="#fn:511">511</a> On the seventh day, the <a href="/facts/Aqiqah/XUu2GIqW">aqiqah</a> ceremony is performed, in which an animal is sacrificed and its meat is distributed among the poor.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:512" href="#fn:512">512</a> The child's head is shaved, and an amount of money equaling the weight of its hair is donated to the poor.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:513" href="#fn:513">513</a> Male <a href="/facts/Circumcision/Ya1aD8H6">circumcision</a>, called <a href="/facts/Khitan_(circumcision)/whFfDoXf">khitan</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:514" href="#fn:514">514</a> is often practised in the Muslim world.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:515" href="#fn:515">515</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:516" href="#fn:516">516</a> Respecting and obeying one's parents, and taking care of them especially in their old age is a religious obligation.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:517" href="#fn:517">517</a>
A <a href="/facts/Islamic_view_of_death/Mmd1bayP">dying Muslim</a> is encouraged to pronounce the Shahada as their last words.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:518" href="#fn:518">518</a> Paying respects to the dead and attending funerals in the community are considered among the virtuous acts. In <a href="/facts/Islamic_funeral/p208UGWP">Islamic burial rituals</a>, burial is encouraged as soon as possible, usually within 24 hours. The body is washed, except for martyrs, by members of the same gender and enshrouded in a garment that must not be elaborate called kafan.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:519" href="#fn:519">519</a> A "funeral prayer" called <a href="/facts/Salat_al-Janazah/8EUDoPUd">Salat al-Janazah</a> is performed. Wailing, or loud, mournful outcrying, is discouraged. Coffins are often not preferred and graves are often unmarked, even for kings.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:520" href="#fn:520">520</a>

<h3>Arts and culture</h3>
Main article: <a href="/facts/Islamic_culture/R0lHtcL9">Islamic culture</a>
See also: <a href="/facts/Islamic_art/DvrvCYuK">Islamic art</a>, <a href="/facts/Islamic_architecture/AI0CuqTL">Islamic architecture</a>, <a href="/facts/Islamic_literature/b4NrUcTR">Islamic literature</a>, <a href="/facts/Islam_in_association_football/Av5Fr2PY">Islam in association football</a>, and <a href="/facts/Cultural_Muslims/keeCzqJF">Cultural Muslims</a>
The term "<a href="/facts/Islamic_culture/R0lHtcL9">Islamic culture</a>" can be used to mean aspects of culture that pertain to the religion, such as <a href="/facts/Festivals/JAg4y9fD">festivals</a> and <a href="/facts/Islamic_clothing/K96sj0Cq">dress code</a>. It is also controversially used to denote the cultural aspects of traditionally Muslim people.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:521" href="#fn:521">521</a> Finally, "Islamic civilization" may also refer to the aspects of the synthesized culture of the early Caliphates, including that of non-Muslims,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:522" href="#fn:522">522</a> sometimes referred to as "Islamicate".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:523" href="#fn:523">523</a>
<a href="/facts/Islamic_art/DvrvCYuK">Islamic art</a> encompasses the <a href="/facts/Visual_arts/95RgxP8e">visual arts</a> including fields as varied as <a href="/facts/Islamic_architecture/AI0CuqTL">architecture</a>, <a href="/facts/Islamic_calligraphy/GacvVLlz">calligraphy</a>, painting, and <a href="/facts/Islamic_ceramics/nbNFbWII">ceramics</a>, among others.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:524" href="#fn:524">524</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:525" href="#fn:525">525</a> While the making of images of animate beings has often been frowned upon in connection with <a href="/facts/Aniconism_in_Islam/sKsfDth1">laws against idolatry</a>, this rule has been interpreted in different ways by different scholars and in different historical periods. This stricture has been used to explain the prevalence of <a href="/facts/Islamic_calligraphy/GacvVLlz">calligraphy</a>, <a href="/facts/Tessellation/7BWDywXC">tessellation</a>, and pattern as key aspects of Islamic artistic culture.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:526" href="#fn:526">526</a> Additionally, the <a href="/facts/Depictions_of_Muhammad/IR9bFVR7">depiction of Muhammad</a> is a contentious issue among Muslims.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:527" href="#fn:527">527</a> In <a href="/facts/Islamic_architecture/AI0CuqTL">Islamic architecture</a>, varying cultures show influence such as North African and Spanish Islamic architecture such as the <a href="/facts/Great_Mosque_of_Kairouan/VyP0Qb8d">Great Mosque of Kairouan</a> containing <a href="/facts/Marble/5JEFb0qu">marble</a> and <a href="/facts/Porphyry_(geology)/7K4IzbvF">porphyry</a> columns from Roman and Byzantine buildings,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:528" href="#fn:528">528</a> while <a href="/facts/Mosques_in_Indonesia/2zsC0cEA">mosques in Indonesia</a> often have multi-tiered roofs from local <a href="/facts/Java/2MNA2rLm">Javanese</a> styles.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:529" href="#fn:529">529</a>
The <a href="/facts/Islamic_calendar/7n4UBAYy">Islamic calendar</a> is a <a href="/facts/Lunar_calendar/llUN81gP">lunar calendar</a> that begins with the <a href="/facts/Hegira/xQdbr0JY">Hijra</a> of 622 CE, a date that was reportedly chosen by Caliph Umar as it was an important turning point in Muhammad's fortunes.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:530" href="#fn:530">530</a> Islamic <a href="/facts/Muslim_holidays/rKREGUfd">holy days</a> fall on fixed dates of the lunar calendar, meaning they occur in <a href="/facts/Seasons/20vCqJWN">different seasons</a> in different years in the <a href="/facts/Gregorian_calendar/axJfTXV1">Gregorian calendar</a>. The most important Islamic festivals are <a href="/facts/Eid_al-Fitr/C1brNDJX">Eid al-Fitr</a> (<a href="/facts/Arabic_language/A1e66hVV">Arabic</a>: عيد الفطر) on the 1st of <a href="/facts/Shawwal/jQUfcffS">Shawwal</a>, marking the end of the fasting month Ramadan, and <a href="/facts/Eid_al-Adha/lxHKhuDt">Eid al-Adha</a> (عيد الأضحى) on the 10th of Dhu al-Hijjah, coinciding with the end of the <a href="/facts/Hajj/eDC5AalN">Hajj</a> (pilgrimage).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:531" href="#fn:531">531</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:532" href="#fn:532">532</a>
<a href="/facts/Cultural_Muslims/keeCzqJF">Cultural Muslims</a> are religiously non-practicing individuals who still identify with Islam due to family backgrounds, personal experiences, or the social and cultural environment in which they grew up.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:533" href="#fn:533">533</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:534" href="#fn:534">534</a>

<h2 id="influences-on-other-religions">Influences on other religions</h2>
See also: <a href="/facts/Islam_and_Druze/HzEnIHJT">Islam and Druze</a>
Some movements, such as the <a href="/facts/Druze/HzEnIHJT">Druze</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:535" href="#fn:535">535</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:536" href="#fn:536">536</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:537" href="#fn:537">537</a> <a href="/facts/Berghouata/WHrbxtRR">Berghouata</a> and <a href="/facts/Ha-Mim/UpshTdYE">Ha-Mim</a>, either emerged from Islam or came to share certain beliefs with Islam, and whether each is a separate religion or a sect of Islam is sometimes controversial.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:538" href="#fn:538">538</a> The <a href="/facts/Druze/HzEnIHJT">Druze</a> faith further split from <a href="/facts/Isma%2527ilism/e6uySs0b">Isma'ilism</a> as it developed its own unique doctrines, and finally separated from both Ismāʿīlīsm and Islam altogether; these include the belief that the Imam <a href="/facts/Al-Hakim_bi-Amr_Allah/BaxWFnYc">Al-Ḥākim bi-Amr Allāh</a> was <a href="/facts/Incarnation/oYC6TYhx">God incarnate</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:539" href="#fn:539">539</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:540" href="#fn:540">540</a> <a href="/facts/Yazd%25C3%25A2nism/78nFJ1xL">Yazdânism</a> is seen as a blend of local Kurdish beliefs and Islamic Sufi doctrine introduced to <a href="/facts/Kurdistan/bRDraJ2f">Kurdistan</a> by <a href="/facts/Sheikh_Adi_ibn_Musafir/jII8sdmL">Sheikh Adi ibn Musafir</a> in the 12th century.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:541" href="#fn:541">541</a> <a href="/facts/B%25C3%25A1bism/4waRzHny">Bábism</a> stems from Twelver Shia passed through <a href="/facts/Siyyid_%2527Ali_Muhammad_i-Shirazi_al-Bab/FX8RIBfn">Siyyid 'Ali Muhammad i-Shirazi al-Bab</a> while one of his followers Mirza Husayn 'Ali Nuri <a href="/facts/Baha%2527u%2527llah/rFtjLI74">Baha'u'llah</a> founded the <a href="/facts/Bah%25C3%25A1%25CA%25BC%25C3%25AD_Faith/orkrDxjS">Baháʼí Faith</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:542" href="#fn:542">542</a> <a href="/facts/Yarsanism/c6Kpj0Xs">Yarsanism</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:543" href="#fn:543">543</a> <a href="/facts/Din-i_Ilahi/o4u9pq2b">Din-i Ilahi</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:544" href="#fn:544">544</a> and <a href="/facts/Ali-Illahism/0hdI37ws">Ali-Illahism</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:545" href="#fn:545">545</a> are considered separations from Islam. <a href="/facts/Sikhism/obh7aQIr">Sikhism</a>, founded by <a href="/facts/Guru_Nanak/WlaxsDrN">Guru Nanak</a> in late 15th century <a href="/facts/Punjab/gyyuKVSp">Punjab</a>, primarily incorporates aspects of Islam and <a href="/facts/Hinduism/oxV9YvQh">Hinduism</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:546" href="#fn:546">546</a>

<h2 id="criticism">Criticism</h2>
Main article: <a href="/facts/Criticism_of_Islam/9xxAlPX0">Criticism of Islam</a>
See also: <a href="/facts/Criticism_of_Muhammad/FC3jEb9k">Criticism of Muhammad</a> and <a href="/facts/Criticism_of_the_Quran/qPqJ3FUo">Criticism of the Quran</a>

Criticism of Islam has existed since its formative stages. Early criticism came from Jewish authors, such as <a href="/facts/Ibn_Kammuna/1w7Dng5Y">Ibn Kammuna</a>, and Christian authors, many of whom viewed Islam as a <a href="/facts/Medieval_Christian_views_on_Muhammad/hD9VAld1">Christian heresy</a> or a form of <a href="/facts/Idolatry/VRA0DKEd">idolatry</a>, often explaining it in apocalyptic terms.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:547" href="#fn:547">547</a>
Christian writers criticized Islam's sensual descriptions of paradise. <a href="/facts/Ali_ibn_Sahl_Rabban_al-Tabari/z0TTvXQT">Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari</a> defended the Quranic description of paradise by asserting that the Bible also implies such ideas, such as drinking wine in heaven in the <a href="/facts/Gospel_of_Matthew/37PUBgoR">Gospel of Matthew</a>. Catholic theologian <a href="/facts/Augustine_of_Hippo/RJI1otNA">Augustine of Hippo</a>'s doctrines led to the broad repudiation of bodily pleasure in both life and the afterlife.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:548" href="#fn:548">548</a>
Defamatory images of <a href="/facts/Medieval_Christian_views_on_Muhammad/hD9VAld1">Muhammad</a>, derived from early 7th-century depictions of the <a href="/facts/Eastern_Orthodox_Church_in_the_Byzantine_Empire/pteW3EPy">Byzantine Church</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:549" href="#fn:549">549</a> appear in the 14th-century epic poem <a href="/facts/Divine_Comedy/yAQgsN3V">Divine Comedy</a> by <a href="/facts/Dante_Alighieri/rXX7fIg0">Dante Alighieri</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:550" href="#fn:550">550</a> Here, Muhammad is depicted in the eighth circle of hell, along with Ali. Dante does not blame Islam as a whole but accuses Muhammad of <a href="/facts/Schism/59GChkYh">schism</a>, by establishing another religion after Christianity.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:551" href="#fn:551">551</a>
Other criticisms centre on the <a href="/facts/Human_rights_in_Muslim-majority_countries/JSH6XxRM">treatment of individuals within modern Muslim-majority countries</a>, including issues related to human rights, particularly in relation to the application of Islamic law.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:552" href="#fn:552">552</a> Furthermore, in the wake of the recent <a href="/facts/Multiculturalism/jDbm9eo5">multiculturalism</a> trend, Islam's influence on the ability of <a href="/facts/Muslim_diaspora/8Qs2Hcm7">Muslim immigrants</a> in the West to assimilate has been <a href="/facts/Criticism_of_multiculturalism/ArCamqPK">criticized</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:553" href="#fn:553">553</a>

<h2 id="see-also">See also</h2>
<ul><li><a href="/facts/Glossary_of_Islam/Bj2A30xa">Glossary of Islam</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Index_of_Islam-related_articles/2bNsRGR1">Index of Islam-related articles</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Islamic_mythology/SCt9YHw1">Islamic mythology</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Islamic_studies/kNWshAlX">Islamic studies</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/List_of_scientists_in_medieval_Islamic_world/L6DcQWed">List of scientists in medieval Islamic world</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Major_religious_groups/w6oGgDHN">Major religious groups</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Outline_of_Islam/MMk4hqW2">Outline of Islam</a></li></ul>

<h3>Footnotes</h3>

<h3>Quran and hadith</h3>

<h3>Citations</h3>

<h3>Sources</h3>

<ul><li>Ahmed, Imad-ad-Dean (2006). Signs in the heavens. Vol. 2. Amana Publications. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 1-59008-040-8.</li>
<li>Arnold, Thomas (1896). The Preaching of Islam: A History of the Propagation of the Muslim Faith.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Clinton_Bennett/WS3tlTLs">Bennett, Clinton</a> (2010). Interpreting the Qur'an: a guide for the uninitiated. <a href="/facts/Continuum_International_Publishing_Group/CXulDSkV">Continuum International Publishing Group</a>. p. 101. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-8264-9944-8.</li>
<li>Blankinship, K. (2008). "The early creed". In T. Winter (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to Classical Islamic Theology. Cambridge Companions to Religion. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 33–54. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCCOL9780521780582.003">10.1017/CCOL9780521780582.003</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-521-78058-2.</li>
<li>Brockopp, Jonathan E. (2003). Islamic Ethics of Life: abortion, war and euthanasia. <a href="/facts/University_of_South_Carolina_Press/8xfl24Yw">University of South Carolina Press</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-57003-471-8.</li>
<li>Bulliet, Richard (2005). The Earth and Its Peoples. Boston: <a href="/facts/Houghton_Mifflin_Harcourt/byG66zxw">Houghton Mifflin</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 0-618-42770-8.</li>
<li>Burge, Stephen (2015). Angels in Islam: Jalal al-Din al-Suyuti's al-Haba'ik fi akhbar al-mala'ik. London: Routledge. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-136-50473-0.</li>
<li>Çakmak, Cenap (2017). Islam: A Worldwide Encyclopedia. 4 volumes. <a href="/facts/ABC-CLIO/7B9JFAeq">ABC-CLIO</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-61069-217-5.</li>
<li>Campo, Juan E. (2009). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OZbyz_Hr-eIC">Encyclopedia of Islam</a>. <a href="/facts/Infobase_Publishing/EqPtkn6t">Infobase Publishing</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-8160-5454-1.</li>
<li>Chittick, William C (2008). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LI0kjBlXS5UC">Sufism: A Beginner's Guide</a>. Simon and Schuster. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-78074-052-2. Retrieved 17 January 2015.</li>
<li>Cohen-Mor, Dalya (2001). A Matter of Fate: The Concept of Fate in the Arab World as Reflected in Modern Arabic Literature. <a href="/facts/Oxford_University_Press/CYyTzzWG">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-19-513398-1.</li>
<li>Curtis, Patricia A. (2005). <a href="https://archive.org/details/guidetofoodlawsr0000curt">A Guide to Food Laws and Regulations</a>. <a href="/facts/Wiley-Blackwell/XUkBW8kE">Blackwell Publishing Professional</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-8138-1946-4.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/John_Esposito/Xw7ICRMo">Esposito, John</a> (1998). <a href="https://archive.org/details/islamstraightpat0000espo">Islam: The Straight Path</a> (3rd ed.). <a href="/facts/Oxford_University_Press/CYyTzzWG">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-19-511234-4.</li>
<li>—, ed. (1999). <a href="https://archive.org/details/oxfordhistoryofi00john">The Oxford History of Islam</a>. <a href="/facts/Oxford_University_Press/CYyTzzWG">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-19-510799-9.</li>
<li>—, ed. (2000). <a href="https://archive.org/details/oxfordhistoryofi00john">The Oxford History of Islam</a>. <a href="/facts/Oxford_University_Press/CYyTzzWG">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-19-510799-9.</li>
<li>— (2002a). <a href="https://archive.org/details/unholywarterrori0000espo">Unholy War: Terror in the Name of Islam</a>. <a href="/facts/Oxford_University_Press/CYyTzzWG">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-19-516886-0.</li>
<li>— (2002b). What Everyone Needs to Know about Islam. <a href="/facts/Oxford_University_Press/CYyTzzWG">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-19-515713-0.</li>
<li>— (2005). <a href="https://archive.org/details/islamstraightpat0001espo">Islam: The Straight Path</a> (Revised 3rd ed.). <a href="/facts/Oxford_University_Press/CYyTzzWG">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-19-518266-8.</li>
<li>— (2010). Islam: The Straight Path (4th ed.). <a href="/facts/Oxford_University_Press/CYyTzzWG">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-19-539600-3.</li>
<li>— (2011). What Everyone Needs to Know about Islam (2nd ed.). Oxford: <a href="/facts/Oxford_University_Press/CYyTzzWG">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-19-979413-3.<a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080204031050/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/Public/book_wenkai.html">Lay summary</a></li>
<li>Esposito, John; Haddad, Yvonne Yazbeck (2000). <a href="https://archive.org/details/muslimsonamerica00yvon">Muslims on the Americanization Path?</a>. <a href="/facts/Oxford_University_Press/CYyTzzWG">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-19-513526-8.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Caesar_E._Farah/WmEQT9uh">Farah, Caesar</a> (1994). Islam: Beliefs and Observances (5th ed.). <a href="/facts/Barron%2527s_Educational_Series/jkPaR38h">Barron's Educational Series</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-8120-1853-0.</li>
<li>— (2003). <a href="https://archive.org/details/islambeliefsobse00fara_0">Islam: Beliefs and Observances</a> (7th ed.). <a href="/facts/Barron%2527s_Educational_Series/jkPaR38h">Barron's Educational Series</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-7641-2226-2.</li>
<li>Firestone, Reuven (1999). Jihad: The Origin of Holy War in Islam. <a href="/facts/Oxford_University_Press/CYyTzzWG">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-19-512580-1.</li>
<li>Goldschmidt, Arthur Jr.; Davidson, Lawrence (2005). <a href="https://archive.org/details/concisehistoryof0008gold">A Concise History of the Middle East</a> (8th ed.). <a href="/facts/Westview_Press/tLDanRJg">Westview Press</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-8133-4275-7.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Ruth_Marie_Griffith/Dn43p3dq">Griffith, Ruth Marie</a>; <a href="/facts/Barbara_D._Savage/Ph4TeYLk">Savage, Barbara Dianne</a> (2006). Women and Religion in the African Diaspora: Knowledge, Power, and Performance. <a href="/facts/Johns_Hopkins_University_Press/Npd5lJTV">Johns Hopkins University Press</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-8018-8370-5.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Jane_Idleman_Smith/KNHYFFna">Haddad, Yvonne Yazbeck</a>; Smith, Jane I. (2002). Muslims in the West: Visible and Invisible. Walnut Creek, CA: Altamira.</li>
<li>Hedayetullah, Muhammad (2006). Dynamics of Islam: An Exposition. <a href="/facts/Trafford_Publishing/swLoCK4x">Trafford Publishing</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-55369-842-5.</li>
<li>Holt, P.M.; Lewis, Bernard, eds. (1977). The Cambridge History of Islam. Vol. 1. <a href="/facts/Cambridge_University_Press/fgEBSSRq">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-521-29136-1.</li>
<li>Holt, P.M.; <a href="/facts/Ann_Lambton/kmxjEJo2">Lambton, Ann K.S.</a>; Lewis, Bernard, eds. (1977). The Cambridge History of Islam. Vol. 2. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-521-29137-8.</li>
<li>Holt, P.M.; Lambton, Ann K.S.; Lewis, Bernard, eds. (2000). <a href="https://archive.org/details/cambridgehistory00holt_798">The Cambridge History of Islam</a>. Vol. 1A. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-521-21946-4.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Albert_Hourani/nyBD1px6">Hourani, Albert</a> (2002). <a href="https://archive.org/details/historyofarabpeo0122hour_06BYS">A History of the Arab Peoples</a>. <a href="/facts/Belknap_Press/YluAnq74">Belknap Press</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-674-01017-8.</li>
<li>Ismāʻīl ibn ʻUmar Ibn Kathīr (2012). The Caliphate of Banu Umayyah the first Phase, Ibn Katheer, Taken from Al-Bidayah wan-Nihayah. Translated by Yoosuf Al-Hajj Ahmad. Riyadh: Maktaba Dar-us-Salam. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-603-500-080-2.</li>
<li>Kobeisy, Ahmed Nezar (2004). Counseling American Muslims: Understanding the Faith and Helping the People. <a href="/facts/Greenwood_Publishing_Group/PhJVxymB">Praeger Publishers</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-313-32472-7.</li>
<li>Kramer, Martin (1987). Shi'Ism, Resistance, and Revolution. <a href="/facts/Westview_Press/tLDanRJg">Westview Press</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-8133-0453-3.</li>
<li>Lapidus, Ira (2002). A History of Islamic Societies (2nd ed.). <a href="/facts/Cambridge_University_Press/fgEBSSRq">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-521-77933-3.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Bernard_Lewis/YMWUq53C">Lewis, Bernard</a> (1984). The Jews of Islam. <a href="/facts/Routledge_%2526_Kegan_Paul/aSwcES11">Routledge & Kegan Paul</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-7102-0462-2.</li>
<li>— (1993). The Arabs in History. <a href="/facts/Oxford_University_Press/CYyTzzWG">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-19-285258-8.</li>
<li>— (1997). <a href="https://archive.org/details/middleeastbriefh0000lewi">The Middle East</a>. <a href="/facts/Charles_Scribner%2527s_Sons/VRo5mFWQ">Scribner</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-684-83280-7.</li>
<li>— (2001). <a href="https://archive.org/details/islaminhistory00bern">Islam in History: Ideas, People, and Events in the Middle East</a> (2nd ed.). <a href="/facts/Open_Court_Publishing_Company/0ghq9Pqs">Open Court Publishing Company</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-8126-9518-2.</li>
<li>— (2003). <a href="https://archive.org/details/whatwentwrongcl00lewi">What Went Wrong?: The Clash Between Islam and Modernity in the Middle East</a> (reprint ed.). <a href="/facts/Harper_Perennial/nW7WQBvz">Harper Perennial</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-06-051605-5.</li>
<li>— (2004). <a href="https://archive.org/details/crisisofislam00bern">The Crisis of Islam: Holy War and Unholy Terror</a>. <a href="/facts/Random_House%2c_Inc./NcR9r1F1">Random House, Inc.</a>, New York. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-8129-6785-2.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Wilferd_Madelung/JegKSvsl">Madelung, Wilferd</a> (1996). The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate. <a href="/facts/Cambridge_University_Press/fgEBSSRq">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-521-64696-3.</li>
<li>Malik, Jamal; Hinnells, John R. (2006). Sufism in the West. <a href="/facts/Routledge/aSwcES11">Routledge</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-415-27408-1.</li>
<li>Momen, Moojan (1987). An Introduction to Shi'i Islam: The History and Doctrines of Twelver Shi'ism. <a href="/facts/Yale_University_Press/oavMPaT7">Yale University Press</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-300-03531-5.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Seyyed_Hossein_Nasr/zUGNtq7v">Nasr, Seyed Hossein</a> (2003). The Heart of Islam: Enduring Values for Humanity.</li>
<li>Nasr, Seyed Muhammad (1994). <a href="https://archive.org/details/ourreligions00shar">Our Religions: The Seven World Religions Introduced by Preeminent Scholars from Each Tradition (Chapter 7)</a>. <a href="/facts/HarperCollins/HHLz5lk5">HarperCollins</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-06-067700-8.</li>
<li>Nigosian, Solomon Alexander (2004). <a href="https://archive.org/details/islamitshistoryt0000nigo">Islam: Its History, Teaching, and Practices</a>. <a href="/facts/Indiana_University_Press/rSAxbGec">Indiana University Press</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-253-21627-4.</li>
<li>Peacock, A.C.S. (2019). Islam, Literature and Society in Mongol Anatolia. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2F9781108582124">10.1017/9781108582124</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-108-58212-4. <a href="/facts/S2CID_(identifier)/ldJsHa2Y">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:211657444">211657444</a>.</li>
<li>Peters, F. E. (2003). <a href="https://archive.org/details/islamguideforjew00fepe">Islam: A Guide for Jews and Christians</a>. <a href="/facts/Princeton_University_Press/kwvFlKEj">Princeton University Press</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-691-11553-5.</li>
<li><a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/7/2009/10/Muslimpopulation.pdf">Mapping the Global Muslim Population: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Muslim Population</a> (PDF) (Report). <a href="/facts/Pew_Research_Center/082PuVBq">Pew Research Center</a>. October 2009. Retrieved 25 May 2020. <a href="https://www.pewforum.org/2009/10/07/mapping-the-global-muslim-population/">Overview</a>.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Andrew_Rippin/Goxa80ua">Rippin, Andrew</a> (2001). <a href="https://archive.org/details/muslimstheirreli0000ripp">Muslims: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices</a> (2nd ed.). <a href="/facts/Routledge/aSwcES11">Routledge</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-415-21781-1.</li>
<li>Roychoudhury, Makhanlal (1941). <a href="https://archive.org/details/diniilahiorthere031361mbp">The Din-i Ilahi, or, The Religion of Akbar</a>. University of Calcutta. <a href="/facts/OCLC_(identifier)/Yqad8waq">OCLC</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/3312929">3312929</a> – via <a href="/facts/Internet_Archive/PHStU8Lo">Internet Archive</a>.</li>
<li>Serjeant, R.B. (1978). "Sunnah Jami'ah, pacts with the Yathrib Jews, and the Tahrim of Yathrib". <a href="/facts/Bulletin_of_the_School_of_Oriental_and_African_Studies/xQyNNhww">Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies</a>. 41. <a href="/facts/Cambridge_University_Press/fgEBSSRq">Cambridge University Press</a>: 1–42. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0041977X00057761">10.1017/S0041977X00057761</a>. <a href="/facts/S2CID_(identifier)/ldJsHa2Y">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161485671">161485671</a>.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Abdulaziz_Sachedina/upcgwn5c">Sachedina, Abdulaziz</a> (1998). The Just Ruler in Shi'ite Islam: The Comprehensive Authority of the Jurist in Imamite Jurisprudence. <a href="/facts/Oxford_University_Press/CYyTzzWG">Oxford University Press</a> US. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-19-511915-2.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Jane_Idleman_Smith/KNHYFFna">Smith, Jane I.</a> (2006). The Islamic Understanding of Death and Resurrection. <a href="/facts/Oxford_University_Press/CYyTzzWG">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-19-515649-2.</li>
<li>Stefon, Matt, ed. (2010). <a href="https://archive.org/details/islamicbeliefspr0000stef">Islamic Beliefs and Practices</a>. New York: <a href="/facts/Britannica_Educational_Publishing/LxTdtjRS">Britannica Educational Publishing</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-61530-060-0.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Allameh_Tabatabaei/bYGrm2h3">Ṭabāṭabāʼī, Sayyid Mohammad Hosayn</a> (1979). Shi'ite Islam. Translated by Nasr, Seyyed Hossein. <a href="/facts/SUNY_Press/EuEWW1KJ">SUNY Press</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-87395-272-9.</li>
<li>Teece, Geoff (2003). <a href="https://archive.org/details/islam0000teec_a5d6">Religion in Focus: Islam</a>. <a href="/facts/Grolier/pdhCBG0c">Franklin Watts Ltd</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-7496-4796-4.</li>
<li>Trimingham, John Spencer (1998). The Sufi Orders in Islam. <a href="/facts/Oxford_University_Press/CYyTzzWG">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-19-512058-5.</li>
<li>Turner, Colin (2006). Islam: the Basics. London: <a href="/facts/Routledge/aSwcES11">Routledge</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-415-34106-6.</li>
<li>Turner, Bryan S. (1998). Weber and Islam. London: <a href="/facts/Routledge/aSwcES11">Routledge</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-415-17458-9.</li>
<li>Waines, David (2003). An Introduction to Islam. <a href="/facts/Cambridge_University_Press/fgEBSSRq">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-521-53906-7.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/William_Montgomery_Watt/eA2P3aEd">Watt, W. Montgomery</a> (1973). The Formative Period of Islamic Thought. University Press Edinburgh. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-85224-245-2.</li>
<li>— (1974). <a href="https://archive.org/details/muhammadprophets00watt">Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman</a> (New ed.). <a href="/facts/Oxford_University_Press/CYyTzzWG">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-19-881078-0.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Bernard_G._Weiss/qT2IVBas">Weiss, Bernard G.</a> (2002). Studies in Islamic Legal Theory. Boston: <a href="/facts/Brill_Publishers/UwYwgUu0">Brill Academic publishers</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-90-04-12066-2.</li></ul>

<h3>Encyclopedias and dictionaries</h3>

<ul><li>Gardet, L.; Jomier, J. "Islām". In Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.) (2012). <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F1573-3912_islam_COM_0387">10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0387</a></li>
<li>Encyclopædia Britannica. <a href="/facts/Encyclop%25C3%25A6dia_Britannica%2c_Inc./LxTdtjRS">Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.</a></li>
<li>Fahlbusch, Erwin; et al., eds. (2001). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yaecVMhMWaEC">The Encyclopedia of Christianity</a>. Vol. 2. <a href="/facts/Brill_Publishers/UwYwgUu0">Brill Publishers</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-90-04-11695-5.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Martijn_Theodoor_Houtsma/g5cSVP3B">Houtsma, M.T.</a>; <a href="/facts/Thomas_Walker_Arnold/LNttGuX6">Arnold, T.W.</a>; Basset, R.; Hartmann, R., eds. (1913–1936). <a href="/facts/Encyclopaedia_of_Islam/oSUIAA8e">Encyclopaedia of Islam</a> (1st ed.). Leiden: <a href="/facts/Brill_Publishers/UwYwgUu0">Brill</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-90-04-08265-6. {{cite encyclopedia}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Peri_Bearman/gLbsVlKe">Bearman, P.J.</a>; Bianquis, Th.; <a href="/facts/Clifford_Edmund_Bosworth/hrMMfBu4">Bosworth, C.E.</a>; van Donzel, E.; <a href="/facts/Wolfhart_Heinrichs/DvI5zGLI">Heinrichs, W.P.</a>, eds. (2012). <a href="/facts/Encyclopaedia_of_Islam/oSUIAA8e">Encyclopaedia of Islam</a> (2nd ed.). Leiden: <a href="/facts/Brill_Publishers/UwYwgUu0">Brill</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-90-04-16121-4. <a href="/facts/ISSN_(identifier)/DPAflDvU">ISSN</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1573-3912">1573-3912</a>.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Peri_Bearman/gLbsVlKe">Bearman, P.J.</a>; Bianquis, Th.; <a href="/facts/Clifford_Edmund_Bosworth/hrMMfBu4">Bosworth, C.E.</a>; van Donzel, E.; <a href="/facts/Wolfhart_Heinrichs/DvI5zGLI">Heinrichs, W.P.</a>, eds. (n.d.). <a href="https://brill.com/view/package/eio?language=en">Encyclopaedia of Islam Online</a>. <a href="/facts/Brill_Academic_Publishers/UwYwgUu0">Brill Academic Publishers</a>. <a href="/facts/ISSN_(identifier)/DPAflDvU">ISSN</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1573-3912">1573-3912</a>.{{cite encyclopedia}}: CS1 maint: year (link)</li>
<li>Martin, Richard C., ed. (2004). <a href="https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofis0001unse">Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World</a>. <a href="/facts/Macmillan_Reference_Books/enNEBMM2">Macmillan Reference Books</a>. <a href="/facts/Thomson-Gale/kKSW05y4">Thomson-Gale</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-02-865603-8.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Jane_Dammen_McAuliffe/XSVmN7qP">McAuliffe, Jane Dammen</a>, ed. (n.d.). <a href="/facts/Encyclopaedia_of_the_Qur%2527an/G6UGNgp6">Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online</a>. <a href="/facts/Brill_Academic_Publishers/UwYwgUu0">Brill Academic Publishers</a>.{{cite encyclopedia}}: CS1 maint: year (link)</li>
<li>McAuliffe, Jane Dammen, ed. (2002). <a href="/facts/Encyclopaedia_of_the_Qur%25CA%25BE%25C4%2581n/G6UGNgp6">Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān</a>. Vol. 2. <a href="/facts/Brill_Academic_Publishers/UwYwgUu0">Brill Academic Publishers</a>.</li>
<li>McAuliffe, Jane Dammen, ed. (2003). <a href="/facts/Encyclopaedia_of_the_Qur%25CA%25BE%25C4%2581n/G6UGNgp6">Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān</a>. Vol. 3. <a href="/facts/Brill_Academic_Publishers/UwYwgUu0">Brill Academic Publishers</a>.</li>
<li>Salamone, Frank, ed. (2004). <a href="https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofre00sala">Encyclopedia of Religious Rites, Rituals, and Festivals</a>. Routledge Encyclopedias of Religion and Society. Vol. 6 (1st ed.). <a href="/facts/Routledge/aSwcES11">Routledge</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-415-94180-8. <a href="/facts/JSTOR_(identifier)/YTeVmaJ7">JSTOR</a> <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1jd94wq">j.ctt1jd94wq</a>.</li>
<li>Glassé, Cyril, ed. (2003). <a href="https://archive.org/details/newencyclopediao0000glas">The New Encyclopedia of Islam</a>. Revised Edition of the Concise Encyclopedia of Islam. <a href="/facts/AltaMira_Press/NJNX9xwH">AltaMira Press</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-7591-0190-6.</li>
<li>Esposito, John, ed. (2003). <a href="https://archive.org/details/oxforddictionary00bada">The Oxford Dictionary of Islam</a>. <a href="/facts/Oxford_University_Press/CYyTzzWG">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-19-512558-0. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facref%2F9780195125580.001.0001">10.1093/acref/9780195125580.001.0001</a> – via Oxford Reference.</li>
<li>Esposito, John, ed. (2004). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=E324pQEEQQcC">The Oxford Dictionary of Islam</a>. Oxford: <a href="/facts/Oxford_University_Press/CYyTzzWG">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-19-975726-8.</li>
<li>Leaman, Oliver, ed. (2006). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=isDgI0-0Ip4C">The Qur'an: An Encyclopedia</a>. <a href="/facts/Routledge/aSwcES11">Routledge</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-415-32639-1.</li></ul>

<h2 id="further-reading">Further reading</h2>

<ul><li>Abdul-Haqq, Abdiyah Akbar (1980). Sharing Your Faith with a Muslim. Minneapolis: <a href="/facts/Bethany_House_Publishers/1CgAUCTm">Bethany House Publishers</a>. N.B. Presents the genuine doctrines and concepts of Islam and of the Holy Qur'an, and this religion's affinities with Christianity and its Sacred Scriptures, in order to "dialogue" on the basis of what both faiths really teach. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 0-87123-553-6</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Imad-ad-Dean_Ahmad/Lt9H9qcp">Ahmad, Imad-ad-Dean</a> (2008). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yxNgXs3TkJYC">"Islam"</a>. In <a href="/facts/Ronald_Hamowy/UH1pMJuX">Hamowy, Ronald</a> (ed.). The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism. Thousand Oaks, CA: <a href="/facts/SAGE_Publishing/myamBVEB">SAGE</a>; <a href="/facts/Cato_Institute/J8RNyySJ">Cato Institute</a>. pp. 256–258. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.4135%2F9781412965811.n155">10.4135/9781412965811.n155</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-4129-6580-4. <a href="/facts/LCCN_(identifier)/5hb5Cw2V">LCCN</a> <a href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2008009151">2008009151</a>. <a href="/facts/OCLC_(identifier)/Yqad8waq">OCLC</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/750831024">750831024</a>.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Mustafa_Akyol/dAH9ThfV">Akyol, Mustafa</a> (2011). <a href="https://archive.org/details/islamwithoutextr0000akyo">Islam Without Extremes</a> (1st ed.). <a href="/facts/W.W._Norton_%2526_Company/3cwCSubC">W.W. Norton & Company</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-393-07086-6.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/A._J._Arberry/eoJTJqs3">Arberry, A.J.</a> (1996). <a href="https://archive.org/details/koraninterpreted00ajar">The Koran Interpreted: A Translation</a> (1st ed.). Touchstone. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-684-82507-6.</li>
<li>Cragg, Kenneth (1975). The House of Islam, in The Religious Life of Man Series. Second ed. Belmont, CA: <a href="/facts/Wadsworth_Publishing_Company/Bda6bYXT">Wadsworth Publishing Company</a> 1975. xiii, 145 p. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 0-8221-0139-4.</li>
<li>Hafez, Sherine (2011). <a href="https://opensquare.nyupress.org/books/9780814790724/">An Islam of Her Own: Reconsidering Religion and Secularism in Women’s Islamic Movements</a>. <a href="/facts/New_York_University_Press/12gzb04e">New York University Press</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 9780814773055.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Muhammad_Muhsin_Khan/MRhvVBME">Khan, Muhammad Muhsin</a>; Al-Hilali Khan; Muhammad Taqi-ud-Din (1999). Noble Quran (1st ed.). <a href="/facts/Dar-us-Salam_Publications/FLNm9pIV">Dar-us-Salam Publications</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-9960-740-79-9.</li>
<li>Khanbaghi, A, (2006). The Fire, the Star and the Cross: Minority Religions in Medieval and Early Modern Iran. <a href="/facts/I._B._Tauris/ByRmsQ1N">I. B. Tauris</a>.</li>
<li>Khavari, Farid A. (1990). Oil and Islam: the Ticking Bomb. First ed. Malibu, Calif.: Roundtable Publications. viii, 277 p., ill. with maps and charts. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 0-915677-55-5.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Martin_Kramer/MXxgA1CA">Kramer, Martin</a>, ed. (1999). The Jewish Discovery of Islam: Studies in Honor of Bernard Lewis. <a href="/facts/Syracuse_University_Press/8EB2DvSs">Syracuse University Press</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-965-224-040-8.</li>
<li>Kuban, Dogan (1974). Muslim Religious Architecture. <a href="/facts/Brill_Academic_Publishers/UwYwgUu0">Brill Academic Publishers</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-90-04-03813-4.</li>
<li>Lewis, Bernard (1994). <a href="https://archive.org/details/islamwest00lewi_0">Islam and the West</a>. <a href="/facts/Oxford_University_Press/CYyTzzWG">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-19-509061-1.</li>
<li>Lewis, Bernard (1996). <a href="https://archive.org/details/culturesinconfli0000lewi">Cultures in Conflict: Christians, Muslims, and Jews in the Age of Discovery</a>. <a href="/facts/Oxford_University_Press/CYyTzzWG">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-19-510283-3.</li>
<li>Mubarkpuri, Saifur-Rahman (2002). The Sealed Nectar: Biography of the Prophet. <a href="/facts/Dar-us-Salam_Publications/FLNm9pIV">Dar-us-Salam Publications</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-59144-071-0.</li>
<li>Najeebabadi, Akbar Shah (2001). History of Islam. <a href="/facts/Dar-us-Salam_Publications/FLNm9pIV">Dar-us-Salam Publications</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-59144-034-5.</li>
<li>Sayilgan, Salih (2023). <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/god-evil-and-suffering-in-islam/C4C89591ADAAF25F104D517C4F4634B3">God, Evil, and Suffering in Islam</a>. <a href="/facts/Cambridge_University_Press/fgEBSSRq">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 9781009377294.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Annemarie_Schimmel/wGWjm7ns">Schimmel, Annemarie</a> (1994). <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190422154518/https://www.giffordlectures.org/books/deciphering-signs-god-phenomenological-approach-islam">Deciphering the Signs of God: A Phenomenological Approach to Islam</a>. <a href="/facts/State_University_of_New_York_Press/EuEWW1KJ">State University of New York Press</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-7914-1982-3. Archived from <a href="https://www.giffordlectures.org/books/deciphering-signs-god-phenomenological-approach-islam">the original</a> on 22 April 2019. Retrieved 31 January 2019.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Frithjof_Schuon/3taI7EXN">Schuon, Frithjof</a> (1963). Understanding Islam (3rd ed.). <a href="/facts/Allen_%2526_Unwin/lF35ffrf">Allen & Unwin</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0941532242. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)</li>
<li>Stoddard, Lothrop (1922). <a href="https://gutenberg.org/ebooks/24107">The New World of Islam</a>. <a href="/facts/Chapman_%2526_Hall/roCcaakR">Chapman & Hall</a>.</li>
<li>Tausch, Arno (2009). What 1.3 Billion Muslims Really Think: An Answer to a Recent Gallup Study, Based on the "World Values Survey". Foreword Mansoor Moaddel, Eastern Michigan University (1st ed.). <a href="/facts/Nova_Science_Publishers/xwUGA1CU">Nova Science Publishers</a>, New York. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-60692-731-1.</li>
<li>Tausch, Arno; Heshmati, Almas; Karoui, Hichem (2015). The political algebra of global value change. General models and implications for the Muslim world (1st ed.). New York: <a href="/facts/Nova_Science_Publishers/xwUGA1CU">Nova Science Publishers</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-62948-899-8. Prepublication text available at: Tausch, Arno; Heshmati, Almas; Karoui, Hichem (January 2014). <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/290349218">"The political algebra of global value change. General models and implications for the Muslim world"</a>. ResearchGate.</li>
<li>Tausch, Arno (2023). <a href="https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-031-24854-2">Political Islam and Religiously Motivated Political Extremism</a>. SpringerBriefs in Political Science (1st ed.). Cham: <a href="/facts/Springer_Nature/TpTgApAh">Springer Nature</a>. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-031-24854-2">10.1007/978-3-031-24854-2</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-3-031-24853-5. <a href="/facts/S2CID_(identifier)/ldJsHa2Y">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:256852082">256852082</a>.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Benjamin_Walker_(author)/cx59zMfX">Walker, Benjamin</a> (1998). Foundations of Islam: The Making of a World Faith. <a href="/facts/Peter_Owen_Publishers/ThdhNl09">Peter Owen Publishers</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-7206-1038-3.</li></ul>

<h2 id="external-links">External links</h2>

<ul><li><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Islam">"Islam"</a>. Encyclopædia Britannica</li>
<li><a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/index.shtml">Religion & Ethics – Islam</a> A number of introductory articles on Christianity from the BBC</li></ul>

<h2 id="references">References</h2>

<ol>
<li id="fn:1">/ˈɪzlɑːm, ˈɪzlæm/ IZ-la(h)m;[11] Arabic: ٱلْإِسْلَام‎, romanized: al-Islām, IPA: [alʔɪsˈlaːm], lit. 'submission [to the will of God]' <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" target="_blank">/wiki/Help:IPA/English</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:2">Glossary of Islamic Terms, retrieved 17 February 2025 <a href="https://mpeb.ie/for-teachers/glossary-of-islamic-terms/" target="_blank">https://mpeb.ie/for-teachers/glossary-of-islamic-terms/</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:3">"Islam". Worldhistory.org. 25 November 2019. Retrieved 26 February 2025. <a href="https://www.worldhistory.org/islam/" target="_blank">https://www.worldhistory.org/islam/</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:4">Fahmy, Conrad Hackett, Marcin Stonawski, Yunping Tong, Stephanie Kramer, Anne Shi and Dalia (9 June 2025). "How the Global Religious Landscape Changed From 2010 to 2020". Pew Research Center. Retrieved 10 June 2025.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) <a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2025/06/09/how-the-global-religious-landscape-changed-from-2010-to-2020/" target="_blank">https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2025/06/09/how-the-global-religious-landscape-changed-from-2010-to-2020/</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:5">Schimmel, Annemarie. "Islam". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 4 May 2015. Retrieved 17 September 2021. <a href="/wiki/Annemarie_Schimmel" target="_blank">/wiki/Annemarie_Schimmel</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:6">"Definition of Islam | Dictionary.com". www.dictionary.com. Archived from the original on 9 May 2022. Retrieved 9 May 2022. <a href="https://www.dictionary.com/browse/islam" target="_blank">https://www.dictionary.com/browse/islam</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:7">Haywood, John (2002). Historical Atlas of the Medieval World (AD 600 - 1492) (1st ed.). Spain: Barnes & Noble, Inc. p. 3.13. ISBN 0-7607-1975-6. <a href="0-7607-1975-6" target="_blank">0-7607-1975-6</a> <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:8">"Siin Archived 7 September 2011 at the Wayback Machine." Lane's Lexicon 4. – via StudyQuran. <a href="http://www.studyquran.co.uk/20_SIIN.htm" target="_blank">http://www.studyquran.co.uk/20_SIIN.htm</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:9">Lewis, Barnard; Churchill, Buntzie Ellis (2009). Islam: The Religion and The People. Wharton School Publishing. p. 8. ISBN 978-0-13-223085-8. <a href="978-0-13-223085-8" target="_blank">978-0-13-223085-8</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:10">"Muslim." Lexico. UK: Oxford University Press. 2020. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190913192608/https://www.lexico.com/en/definition/muslim" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20190913192608/https://www.lexico.com/en/definition/muslim</a> <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:11">Goudarzi, Mohsen (1 August 2023). "Worship (dīn), Monotheism (islām), and the Qurʾān's Cultic Decalogue". Journal of the International Qur'anic Studies Association. 8 (1): 30–71. doi:10.1515/jiqsa-2023-0006. ISSN 2474-8420. <a href="https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/jiqsa-2023-0006/html" target="_blank">https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/jiqsa-2023-0006/html</a> <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:12">Esposito (2000), pp. 76–77. - —, ed. (2000). The Oxford History of Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-510799-9. <a href="https://archive.org/details/oxfordhistoryofi00john" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/oxfordhistoryofi00john</a> <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:13">Mahmutćehajić, Rusmir (2006). The mosque: the heart of submission. Fordham University Press. p. 84. ISBN 978-0-8232-2584-2. <a href="978-0-8232-2584-2" target="_blank">978-0-8232-2584-2</a> <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:14">Gibb, Sir Hamilton (1969). Mohammedanism: an historical survey. Oxford University Press. p. 1. ISBN 9780195002454. Modern Muslims dislike the terms Mohammedan and Mohammedanism, which seem to them to carry the implication of worship of Mohammed, as Christian and Christianity imply the worship of Christ. <a href="9780195002454" target="_blank">9780195002454</a> <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:15">Beversluis, Joel, ed. (2011). Sourcebook of the World's Religions: An Interfaith Guide to Religion and Spirituality. New World Library. pp. 68–9. ISBN 9781577313328. Archived from the original on 28 December 2023. Retrieved 15 January 2023. <a href="9781577313328" target="_blank">9781577313328</a> <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:16">"Tawhid". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 7 November 2021. Retrieved 17 September 2021. <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/tawhid" target="_blank">https://www.britannica.com/topic/tawhid</a> <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:17">Gimaret, D. "Tawḥīd". In Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.) (2012). doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_7454 - Bearman, P.J.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P., eds. (2012). Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.). Leiden: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-16121-4. ISSN 1573-3912. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1573-3912" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1573-3912</a> <a href="#fnref:17" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:18">Ali, Kecia; Leaman, Oliver (2008). Islam : the key concepts. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-39638-7. OCLC 123136939. <a href="978-0-415-39638-7" target="_blank">978-0-415-39638-7</a> <a href="#fnref:18" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:19">Campo (2009), p. 34, "Allah". - Campo, Juan E. (2009). Encyclopedia of Islam. Infobase Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8160-5454-1. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OZbyz_Hr-eIC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=OZbyz_Hr-eIC</a> <a href="#fnref:19" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:20">Quran 2:117 <a href="/wiki/Quran" target="_blank">/wiki/Quran</a> <a href="#fnref:20" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:21">Schimmel, Annemarie. "Islam". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 4 May 2015. Retrieved 17 September 2021. <a href="/wiki/Annemarie_Schimmel" target="_blank">/wiki/Annemarie_Schimmel</a> <a href="#fnref:21" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:22">Leeming, David. 2005. The Oxford Companion to World Mythology. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-195-15669-0. p. 209. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" target="_blank">/wiki/Oxford_University_Press</a> <a href="#fnref:22" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:23">Schimmel, Annemarie. "Islam". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 4 May 2015. Retrieved 17 September 2021. <a href="/wiki/Annemarie_Schimmel" target="_blank">/wiki/Annemarie_Schimmel</a> <a href="#fnref:23" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:24">"God". Islam: Empire of Faith. PBS. Archived from the original on 27 March 2014. Retrieved 18 December 2010. <a href="https://www.pbs.org/empires/islam/faithgod.html" target="_blank">https://www.pbs.org/empires/islam/faithgod.html</a> <a href="#fnref:24" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:25">Burge (2015), p. 23. - Burge, Stephen (2015). Angels in Islam: Jalal al-Din al-Suyuti's al-Haba'ik fi akhbar al-mala'ik. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-136-50473-0. <a href="#fnref:25" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:26">Burge (2015), p. 79. - Burge, Stephen (2015). Angels in Islam: Jalal al-Din al-Suyuti's al-Haba'ik fi akhbar al-mala'ik. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-136-50473-0. <a href="#fnref:26" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:27">"Nūr Archived 23 April 2022 at the Wayback Machine." The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions. – via Encyclopedia.com. <a href="https://www.encyclopedia.com/religion/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases/nur" target="_blank">https://www.encyclopedia.com/religion/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases/nur</a> <a href="#fnref:27" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:28">Hartner, W.; Tj Boer. "Nūr". In Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.) (2012). doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0874 - Bearman, P.J.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P., eds. (2012). Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.). Leiden: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-16121-4. ISSN 1573-3912. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1573-3912" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1573-3912</a> <a href="#fnref:28" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:29">Elias, Jamal J. "Light". In McAuliffe (2003). doi:10.1163/1875-3922_q3_EQSIM_00261 - McAuliffe, Jane Dammen, ed. (2003). Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān. Vol. 3. Brill Academic Publishers. <a href="#fnref:29" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:30">Campo, Juan E. "Nar". In Martin (2004).. – via Encyclopedia.com. <a href="https://www.encyclopedia.com/religion/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/nar" target="_blank">https://www.encyclopedia.com/religion/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/nar</a> <a href="#fnref:30" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:31">Fahd, T. "Nār". In Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.) (2012). doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0846 - Bearman, P.J.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P., eds. (2012). Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.). Leiden: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-16121-4. ISSN 1573-3912. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1573-3912" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1573-3912</a> <a href="#fnref:31" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:32">Toelle, Heidi. "Fire". In McAuliffe (2002). doi:10.1163/1875-3922_q3_EQSIM_00156 - McAuliffe, Jane Dammen, ed. (2002). Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān. Vol. 2. Brill Academic Publishers. <a href="#fnref:32" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:33">McAuliffe (2003), p. 45 - McAuliffe, Jane Dammen, ed. (2003). Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān. Vol. 3. Brill Academic Publishers. <a href="#fnref:33" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:34">Burge (2015), pp. 97–99. - Burge, Stephen (2015). Angels in Islam: Jalal al-Din al-Suyuti's al-Haba'ik fi akhbar al-mala'ik. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-136-50473-0. <a href="#fnref:34" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:35">Esposito (2002b), pp. 26–28 - — (2002b). What Everyone Needs to Know about Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-515713-0. <a href="#fnref:35" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:36">Webb, Gisela. "Angel". In McAuliffe (n.d.). - McAuliffe, Jane Dammen, ed. (n.d.). Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online. Brill Academic Publishers. <a href="#fnref:36" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:37">MacDonald, D. B.; Madelung, W. "Malāʾika". In Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.) (2012).doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0642 - Bearman, P.J.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P., eds. (2012). Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.). Leiden: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-16121-4. ISSN 1573-3912. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1573-3912" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1573-3912</a> <a href="#fnref:37" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:38">Çakmak (2017), p. 140. - Çakmak, Cenap (2017). Islam: A Worldwide Encyclopedia. 4 volumes. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-61069-217-5. <a href="#fnref:38" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:39">Burge (2015), p. 79. - Burge, Stephen (2015). Angels in Islam: Jalal al-Din al-Suyuti's al-Haba'ik fi akhbar al-mala'ik. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-136-50473-0. <a href="#fnref:39" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:40">Burge (2015), p. 22. - Burge, Stephen (2015). Angels in Islam: Jalal al-Din al-Suyuti's al-Haba'ik fi akhbar al-mala'ik. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-136-50473-0. <a href="#fnref:40" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:41">Buhl, F.; Welch, A.T. "Muhammad". In Encyclopaedia of Islam Online (n.d.). - Bearman, P.J.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P., eds. (n.d.). Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Brill Academic Publishers. ISSN 1573-3912. <a href="https://brill.com/view/package/eio?language=en" target="_blank">https://brill.com/view/package/eio?language=en</a> <a href="#fnref:41" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:42">Watt, William Montgomery (2003). Islam and the Integration of Society. Psychology Press. p. 5. ISBN 978-0-415-17587-6. Archived from the original on 28 December 2023. Retrieved 15 June 2021. <a href="978-0-415-17587-6" target="_blank">978-0-415-17587-6</a> <a href="#fnref:42" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:43">Esposito (2004), pp. 17–18, 21. - Esposito, John, ed. (2004). The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-975726-8. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=E324pQEEQQcC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=E324pQEEQQcC</a> <a href="#fnref:43" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:44">Al Faruqi, Lois Ibsen (1987). "The Cantillation of the Qur'an". Asian Music (Autumn – Winter 1987): 3–4. <a href="/wiki/Lois_Lamya_al-Faruqi" target="_blank">/wiki/Lois_Lamya_al-Faruqi</a> <a href="#fnref:44" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:45">Schimmel, Annemarie. "Islam". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 4 May 2015. Retrieved 17 September 2021. <a href="/wiki/Annemarie_Schimmel" target="_blank">/wiki/Annemarie_Schimmel</a> <a href="#fnref:45" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:46">Ringgren, Helmer. "Qurʾān". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 5 May 2015. Retrieved 17 September 2021. "The word Quran was invented and first used in the Quran itself. There are two different theories about this term and its formation." <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Quran" target="_blank">https://www.britannica.com/topic/Quran</a> <a href="#fnref:46" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:47">"Tafsīr". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 19 October 2021. Retrieved 17 September 2021. <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/tafsir" target="_blank">https://www.britannica.com/topic/tafsir</a> <a href="#fnref:47" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:48">Esposito (2004), pp. 79–81. - Esposito, John, ed. (2004). The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-975726-8. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=E324pQEEQQcC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=E324pQEEQQcC</a> <a href="#fnref:48" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:49">Jones, Alan (1994). The Koran. London: Charles E. Tuttle Company. p. 1. ISBN 1842126091. Its outstanding literary merit should also be noted: it is by far, the finest work of Arabic prose in existence. <a href="1842126091" target="_blank">1842126091</a> <a href="#fnref:49" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:50">Arberry, Arthur (1956). The Koran Interpreted. London: Allen & Unwin. p. 191. ISBN 0684825074. It may be affirmed that within the literature of the Arabs, wide and fecund as it is both in poetry and in elevated prose, there is nothing to compare with it. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help) <a href="0684825074" target="_blank">0684825074</a> <a href="#fnref:50" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:51">Kadi, Wadad, and Mustansir Mir. "Literature and the Quran." In Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an 3. pp. 213, 216. <a href="/wiki/Encyclopaedia_of_the_Qur%CA%BE%C4%81n" target="_blank">/wiki/Encyclopaedia_of_the_Qur%CA%BE%C4%81n</a> <a href="#fnref:51" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:52">Esposito (2002b), pp. 4–5 - — (2002b). What Everyone Needs to Know about Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-515713-0. <a href="#fnref:52" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:53">Peters (2003), p. 9 - Peters, F. E. (2003). Islam: A Guide for Jews and Christians. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-11553-5. <a href="https://archive.org/details/islamguideforjew00fepe" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/islamguideforjew00fepe</a> <a href="#fnref:53" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:54">Buhl, F.; Welch, A.T. "Muhammad". In Encyclopaedia of Islam Online (n.d.). - Bearman, P.J.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P., eds. (n.d.). Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Brill Academic Publishers. ISSN 1573-3912. <a href="https://brill.com/view/package/eio?language=en" target="_blank">https://brill.com/view/package/eio?language=en</a> <a href="#fnref:54" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:55">Hava Lazarus-Yafeh. "Tahrif". In Encyclopaedia of Islam Online (n.d.). <a href="/wiki/Hava_Lazarus-Yafeh" target="_blank">/wiki/Hava_Lazarus-Yafeh</a> <a href="#fnref:55" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:56">Ringgren, Helmer. "Qurʾān". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 5 May 2015. Retrieved 17 September 2021. "The word Quran was invented and first used in the Quran itself. There are two different theories about this term and its formation." <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Quran" target="_blank">https://www.britannica.com/topic/Quran</a> <a href="#fnref:56" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:57">Teece (2003), pp. 12–13 - Teece, Geoff (2003). Religion in Focus: Islam. Franklin Watts Ltd. ISBN 978-0-7496-4796-4. <a href="https://archive.org/details/islam0000teec_a5d6" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/islam0000teec_a5d6</a> <a href="#fnref:57" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:58">Turner (2006), p. 42 - Turner, Colin (2006). Islam: the Basics. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-34106-6. <a href="#fnref:58" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:59">Bennett (2010), p. 101. - Bennett, Clinton (2010). Interpreting the Qur'an: a guide for the uninitiated. Continuum International Publishing Group. p. 101. ISBN 978-0-8264-9944-8. <a href="#fnref:59" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:60">Esposito (2003), p. 225 - Esposito, John, ed. (2003). The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-512558-0. <a href="https://archive.org/details/oxforddictionary00bada" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/oxforddictionary00bada</a> <a href="#fnref:60" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:61">Schimmel, Annemarie. "Islam". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 4 May 2015. Retrieved 17 September 2021. <a href="/wiki/Annemarie_Schimmel" target="_blank">/wiki/Annemarie_Schimmel</a> <a href="#fnref:61" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:62">Reeves, J. C. (2004). Bible and Qurʼān: Essays in scriptural intertextuality. Leiden: Brill. p. 177. ISBN 90-04-12726-7. Archived from the original on 19 April 2023. Retrieved 21 August 2019. <a href="90-04-12726-7" target="_blank">90-04-12726-7</a> <a href="#fnref:62" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:63">Esposito, John L. 2009. "Islam." In The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World , edited by J. L. Esposito. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-530513-5. (See also: quick reference Archived 10 January 2021 at the Wayback Machine.) "Profession of Faith...affirms Islam's absolute monotheism and acceptance of Muḥammad as the messenger of Allah, the last and final prophet." <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facref%2F9780195305135.001.0001" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facref%2F9780195305135.001.0001</a> <a href="#fnref:63" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:64">Peters, F. E. 2009. "Allāh." In The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World , edited by J. L. Esposito. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-530513-5. (See also: quick reference Archived 26 September 2020 at the Wayback Machine.) "[T]he Muslims' understanding of Allāh is based...on the Qurʿān's public witness. Allāh is Unique, the Creator, Sovereign, and Judge of mankind. It is Allāh who directs the universe through his direct action on nature and who has guided human history through his prophets, Abraham, with whom he made his covenant, Moses/Moosa, Jesus/Eesa, and Muḥammad, through all of whom he founded his chosen communities, the 'Peoples of the Book.'" <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facref%2F9780195305135.001.0001" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facref%2F9780195305135.001.0001</a> <a href="#fnref:64" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:65">Martin (2004), p. 666 - Martin, Richard C., ed. (2004). Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World. Macmillan Reference Books. Thomson-Gale. ISBN 978-0-02-865603-8. <a href="https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofis0001unse" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofis0001unse</a> <a href="#fnref:65" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:66">J. Robson. "Hadith". In Encyclopaedia of Islam Online (n.d.). - Bearman, P.J.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P., eds. (n.d.). Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Brill Academic Publishers. ISSN 1573-3912. <a href="https://brill.com/view/package/eio?language=en" target="_blank">https://brill.com/view/package/eio?language=en</a> <a href="#fnref:66" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:67">D.W. Brown. "Sunna". In Encyclopaedia of Islam Online (n.d.). - Bearman, P.J.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P., eds. (n.d.). Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Brill Academic Publishers. ISSN 1573-3912. <a href="https://brill.com/view/package/eio?language=en" target="_blank">https://brill.com/view/package/eio?language=en</a> <a href="#fnref:67" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:68">Goldman, Elizabeth (1995). Believers: Spiritual Leaders of the World. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 63. ISBN 978-0-19-508240-1. <a href="978-0-19-508240-1" target="_blank">978-0-19-508240-1</a> <a href="#fnref:68" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:69">al-Rahman, Aisha Abd, ed. 1990. Muqaddimah Ibn al-Ṣalāḥ. Cairo: Dar al-Ma'arif, 1990. pp. 160–69 <a href="/wiki/Aisha_Abd_al-Rahman" target="_blank">/wiki/Aisha_Abd_al-Rahman</a> <a href="#fnref:69" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:70">Awliya'i, Mustafa. "The Four Books Archived 12 September 2017 at the Wayback Machine." In Outlines of the Development of the Science of Hadith 1, translated by A. Q. Qara'i. – via Al-Islam.org. Retrieved 24 May 2020. <a href="https://www.al-islam.org/al-tawhid/vol1-n12-3/outlines-development-science-hadith-dr-mustafa-awliyai/part-1#four-books" target="_blank">https://www.al-islam.org/al-tawhid/vol1-n12-3/outlines-development-science-hadith-dr-mustafa-awliyai/part-1#four-books</a> <a href="#fnref:70" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:71">Rizvi, Sayyid Sa'eed Akhtar. "The Hadith §The Four Books (Al-Kutubu'l-Arb'ah) Archived 12 September 2017 at the Wayback Machine." Ch 4 in The Qur'an and Hadith. Tanzania: Bilal Muslim Mission. – via Al-Islam.org. Retrieved 24 May 2020. <a href="/wiki/Sa%27id_Akhtar_Rizvi" target="_blank">/wiki/Sa%27id_Akhtar_Rizvi</a> <a href="#fnref:71" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:72">Glassé (2003), pp. 382–383, "Resurrection" - Glassé, Cyril, ed. (2003). The New Encyclopedia of Islam. Revised Edition of the Concise Encyclopedia of Islam. AltaMira Press. ISBN 978-0-7591-0190-6. <a href="https://archive.org/details/newencyclopediao0000glas" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/newencyclopediao0000glas</a> <a href="#fnref:72" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:73">Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.) (2012), "Avicenna". doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_DUM_0467: "Ibn Sīnā, Abū ʿAlī al-Ḥusayn b. ʿAbd Allāh b. Sīnā is known in the West as 'Avicenna'." - Bearman, P.J.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P., eds. (2012). Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.). Leiden: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-16121-4. ISSN 1573-3912. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1573-3912" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1573-3912</a> <a href="#fnref:73" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:74">Gardet, L. "Qiyama". In Encyclopaedia of Islam Online (n.d.). - Bearman, P.J.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P., eds. (n.d.). Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Brill Academic Publishers. ISSN 1573-3912. <a href="https://brill.com/view/package/eio?language=en" target="_blank">https://brill.com/view/package/eio?language=en</a> <a href="#fnref:74" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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<li id="fn:76">Esposito (2011), p. 130. - — (2011). What Everyone Needs to Know about Islam (2nd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-979413-3. <a href="#fnref:76" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:77">Smith (2006), p. 89; Encyclopedia of Islam and Muslim World, p. 565 - Smith, Jane I. (2006). The Islamic Understanding of Death and Resurrection. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-515649-2. <a href="#fnref:77" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:78">Afsaruddin, Asma. "Garden". In McAuliffe (n.d.). - McAuliffe, Jane Dammen, ed. (n.d.). Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online. Brill Academic Publishers. <a href="#fnref:78" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:79">"Paradise". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. <a href="#fnref:79" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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<li id="fn:81">Quran 6:31; <a href="https://quran.com/6?startingVerse=31" target="_blank">https://quran.com/6?startingVerse=31</a> <a href="#fnref:81" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:82">Quran 101:1 <a href="https://quran.com/101?startingVerse=1" target="_blank">https://quran.com/101?startingVerse=1</a> <a href="#fnref:82" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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<li id="fn:84">Cohen-Mor (2001), p. 4: "The idea of predestination is reinforced by the frequent mention of events 'being written' or 'being in a book' before they happen": Say: "Nothing will happen to us except what Allah has decreed for us..." - Cohen-Mor, Dalya (2001). A Matter of Fate: The Concept of Fate in the Arab World as Reflected in Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-513398-1. <a href="#fnref:84" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:85">Karamustafa, Ahmet T. "Fate". In McAuliffe (n.d.).: The verb qadara literally means "to measure, to determine". Here it is used to mean that "God measures and orders his creation". - McAuliffe, Jane Dammen, ed. (n.d.). Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online. Brill Academic Publishers. <a href="#fnref:85" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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<li id="fn:90">Nasr (2003), pp. 3, 39, 85, 270–272. - Nasr, Seyed Hossein (2003). The Heart of Islam: Enduring Values for Humanity. <a href="#fnref:90" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:91">Mohammad, N. 1985. "The doctrine of jihad: An introduction." Journal of Law and Religion 3(2):381–97. <a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Law_and_Religion" target="_blank">/wiki/Journal_of_Law_and_Religion</a> <a href="#fnref:91" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:92">Kasim, Husain. "Islam". In Salamone (2004), pp. 195–197. - Salamone, Frank, ed. (2004). Encyclopedia of Religious Rites, Rituals, and Festivals. Routledge Encyclopedias of Religion and Society. Vol. 6 (1st ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-94180-8. JSTOR j.ctt1jd94wq. <a href="https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofre00sala" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofre00sala</a> <a href="#fnref:92" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:93">Galonnier, Juliette. "Moving In or Moving Toward? Reconceptualizing Conversion to Islam as a Liminal Process1". Moving In and Out of Islam, edited by Karin van Nieuwkerk, New York, US: University of Texas Press, 2021, pp. 44-66. https://doi.org/10.7560/317471-003 Archived 28 December 2023 at the Wayback Machine <a href="https://doi.org/10.7560/317471-003" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.7560/317471-003</a> <a href="#fnref:93" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:94">Esposito (2002b), pp. 18, 19 - — (2002b). What Everyone Needs to Know about Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-515713-0. <a href="#fnref:94" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:95">Hedayetullah (2006), pp. 53–55 - Hedayetullah, Muhammad (2006). Dynamics of Islam: An Exposition. Trafford Publishing. ISBN 978-1-55369-842-5. <a href="#fnref:95" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:96">Kobeisy (2004), pp. 22–34 - Kobeisy, Ahmed Nezar (2004). Counseling American Muslims: Understanding the Faith and Helping the People. Praeger Publishers. ISBN 978-0-313-32472-7. <a href="#fnref:96" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:97">Momen (1987), p. 178 - Momen, Moojan (1987). An Introduction to Shi'i Islam: The History and Doctrines of Twelver Shi'ism. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-03531-5. <a href="#fnref:97" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:98">Mattson, Ingrid (2006). "Women, Islam, and Mosques". In R. S. Keller and R. R. Ruether (eds.). Encyclopedia of Women and Religion in North America. Volume 2, Part VII. Islam. Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press. pp. 615–629. ISBN 978-0-253-34687-2. Archived from the original on 28 December 2023. Retrieved 2 October 2021. <a href="978-0-253-34687-2" target="_blank">978-0-253-34687-2</a> <a href="#fnref:98" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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<li id="fn:171">Blankinship (2008), pp. 38–39. - Blankinship, K. (2008). "The early creed". In T. Winter (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to Classical Islamic Theology. Cambridge Companions to Religion. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 33–54. doi:10.1017/CCOL9780521780582.003. ISBN 978-0-521-78058-2. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCCOL9780521780582.003" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCCOL9780521780582.003</a> <a href="#fnref:171" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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<li id="fn:343">Esposito, John L., ed. (2014). "Sunni Islam". The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 5 October 2018. Retrieved 10 January 2010. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181005013247/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e2280" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20181005013247/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e2280</a> <a href="#fnref:343" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:344">Denny, Frederick. 2010. Sunni Islam: Oxford Bibliographies Online Research Guide. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 3. "Sunni Islam is the dominant division of the global Muslim community, and throughout history it has made up a substantial majority (85 to 90%) of that community." <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=D5_N97bAiJ0C&pg=PA3" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=D5_N97bAiJ0C&pg=PA3</a> <a href="#fnref:344" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:345">Yavuz, Yusuf Şevki (1994). "Ahl as-Sunnah". Islam Ansiklopedisi (in Turkish). Vol. 10. Istanbul: Turkish Diyanet Foundation. pp. 525–530. Archived from the original on 28 December 2021. Retrieved 28 December 2021. <a href="https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/ehl-i-sunnet" target="_blank">https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/ehl-i-sunnet</a> <a href="#fnref:345" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:346">John Richard Thackrah (2013). Dictionary of Terrorism (2, revised ed.). Routledge. p. 252. ISBN 978-1135165956. <a href="978-1135165956" target="_blank">978-1135165956</a> <a href="#fnref:346" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:347">Nasir, Jamal J., ed. (2009). The Status of Women Under Islamic Law and Modern Islamic Legislation (revised ed.). Brill. p. 11. ISBN 978-9004172739. <a href="978-9004172739" target="_blank">978-9004172739</a> <a href="#fnref:347" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:348">George W. Braswell (2000). What You Need to Know about Islam & Muslims (illustrated ed.). B&H Publishing Group. p. 62. ISBN 978-0805418293. <a href="978-0805418293" target="_blank">978-0805418293</a> <a href="#fnref:348" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:349">An Introduction to the Hadith. John Burton. Published by Edinburgh University Press. 1996. p. 201. Cite: "Sunni: Of or pertaining sunna, especially the Sunna of the Prophet. Used in conscious opposition to Shi'a, Shi'í. There being no ecclesia or centralized magisterium, the translation 'orthodox' is inappropriate. To the Muslim 'unorthodox' implies heretical, mubtadi, from bid'a, the contrary of sunna and so 'innovation'." <a href="#fnref:349" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:350">"sharia". Lexico. Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 22 January 2020. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200122164555/https://www.lexico.com/definition/sharia" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20200122164555/https://www.lexico.com/definition/sharia</a> <a href="#fnref:350" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:351">Esposito (2003), pp. 275, 306 - Esposito, John, ed. (2003). The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-512558-0. <a href="https://archive.org/details/oxforddictionary00bada" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/oxforddictionary00bada</a> <a href="#fnref:351" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:352">Hadi Enayat Islam and Secularism in Post-Colonial Thought: A Cartography of Asadian Genealogies Springer Publishing, 30 June 2017 ISBN 978-3-319-52611-9 p.48 <a href="/wiki/Springer_Publishing" target="_blank">/wiki/Springer_Publishing</a> <a href="#fnref:352" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:353">Rico Isaacs, Alessandro Frigerio Theorizing Central Asian Politics: The State, Ideology and Power Springer Publishing 2018 ISBN 978-3-319-97355-5 p. 108 <a href="/wiki/Springer_Publishing" target="_blank">/wiki/Springer_Publishing</a> <a href="#fnref:353" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:354">Esposito (1999), p. 280. - —, ed. (1999). The Oxford History of Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-510799-9. <a href="https://archive.org/details/oxfordhistoryofi00john" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/oxfordhistoryofi00john</a> <a href="#fnref:354" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:355">Richard Gauvain Salafi Ritual Purity: In the Presence of God Routledge 2013 ISBN 978-0-7103-1356-0 page 8 <a href="/wiki/Routledge" target="_blank">/wiki/Routledge</a> <a href="#fnref:355" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:356">Svante E. Cornell Azerbaijan Since Independence M.E. Sharpe ISBN 9780765630049 p. 283 <a href="/wiki/M.E._Sharpe" target="_blank">/wiki/M.E._Sharpe</a> <a href="#fnref:356" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:357">Svante E. Cornell Azerbaijan Since Independence M.E. Sharpe ISBN 9780765630049 p. 283 <a href="/wiki/M.E._Sharpe" target="_blank">/wiki/M.E._Sharpe</a> <a href="#fnref:357" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:358">Robert W. Hefner Shariʻa Politics: Islamic Law and Society in the Modern World Indiana University Press 2011 ISBN 978-0-253-22310-4 p. 170 <a href="/wiki/Indiana_University_Press" target="_blank">/wiki/Indiana_University_Press</a> <a href="#fnref:358" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:359">"Field Listing :: Religions". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Archived from the original on 6 July 2010. Retrieved 25 October 2010. Sunni Islam accounts for over 75% of the world's Muslim population." ... "Shia Islam represents 10–15% of Muslims worldwide. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100706231326/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2122.html" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20100706231326/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2122.html</a> <a href="#fnref:359" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:360">"Sunni". Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs. Archived from the original on 14 June 2020. Retrieved 24 May 2020. Sunni Islam is the largest denomination of Islam, comprising about 85% of the world's over 1.5 billion Muslims. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200614103622/https://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/essays/sunni" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20200614103622/https://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/essays/sunni</a> <a href="#fnref:360" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:361">Pew Forum for Religion & Public Life (2009), p. 1. "Of the total Muslim population, 10–13% are Shia Muslims and 87–90% are Sunni Muslims." - Mapping the Global Muslim Population: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Muslim Population (PDF) (Report). Pew Research Center. October 2009. Retrieved 25 May 2020. <a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/7/2009/10/Muslimpopulation.pdf" target="_blank">https://www.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/7/2009/10/Muslimpopulation.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:361" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:362">Newman, Andrew J. Shiʿi. Encyclopedia Britannica. Archived from the original on 20 July 2019. Retrieved 28 December 2021. <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shii" target="_blank">https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shii</a> <a href="#fnref:362" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:363">Tayeb El-Hibri, Maysam J. al Faruqi (2004). "Sunni Islam". In Philip Mattar (ed.). The Encyclopedia of the Modern Middle East and North Africa (2nd ed.). MacMillan Reference. <a href="/wiki/Macmillan_Publishers" target="_blank">/wiki/Macmillan_Publishers</a> <a href="#fnref:363" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:364">John Corrigan, Frederick Denny, Martin S Jaffee, Carlos Eire (2011). Jews, Christians, Muslims: A Comparative Introduction to Monotheistic Religions. Cambridge University Press. 978-0205026340.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) <a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" target="_blank">/wiki/Template:Cite_book</a> <a href="#fnref:364" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:365">Dakake, Maria Massi (2007). The Charismatic Community: Shi'ite Identity in Early Islam. State University of New York Press. ISBN 9780791470336. <a href="9780791470336" target="_blank">9780791470336</a> <a href="#fnref:365" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:366">Veccia Vaglieri, L. (2012). "G̲h̲adīr K̲h̲umm". Encyclopaedia of Islam. Brill. ISBN 9789004161214. Archived from the original on 14 July 2023. Retrieved 14 July 2023. <a href="9789004161214" target="_blank">9789004161214</a> <a href="#fnref:366" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:367">Campo (2009), pp. 257–258. - Campo, Juan E. (2009). Encyclopedia of Islam. Infobase Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8160-5454-1. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OZbyz_Hr-eIC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=OZbyz_Hr-eIC</a> <a href="#fnref:367" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:368">Foody, Kathleen (September 2015). Jain, Andrea R. (ed.). "Interiorizing Islam: Religious Experience and State Oversight in the Islamic Republic of Iran". Journal of the American Academy of Religion. 83 (3). Oxford: Oxford University Press on behalf of the American Academy of Religion: 599–623. doi:10.1093/jaarel/lfv029. eISSN 1477-4585. ISSN 0002-7189. JSTOR 24488178. LCCN sc76000837. OCLC 1479270. For Shiʿi Muslims, Muhammad not only designated Ali as his friend, but appointed him as his successor—as the "lord" or "master" of the new Muslim community. Ali and his descendants would become known as the Imams, divinely guided leaders of the Shiʿi communities, sinless, and granted special insight into the Qurʾanic text. The theology of the Imams that developed over the next several centuries made little distinction between the authority of the Imams to politically lead the Muslim community and their spiritual prowess; quite to the contrary, their right to political leadership was grounded in their special spiritual insight. While in theory, the only just ruler of the Muslim community was the Imam, the Imams were politically marginal after the first generation. In practice, Shiʿi Muslims negotiated varied approaches to both interpretative authority over Islamic texts and governance of the community, both during the lifetimes of the Imams themselves and even more so following the disappearance of the twelfth and final Imam in the ninth century. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjaarel%2Flfv029" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjaarel%2Flfv029</a> <a href="#fnref:368" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:369">Foody, Kathleen (September 2015). Jain, Andrea R. (ed.). "Interiorizing Islam: Religious Experience and State Oversight in the Islamic Republic of Iran". Journal of the American Academy of Religion. 83 (3). Oxford: Oxford University Press on behalf of the American Academy of Religion: 599–623. doi:10.1093/jaarel/lfv029. eISSN 1477-4585. ISSN 0002-7189. JSTOR 24488178. LCCN sc76000837. OCLC 1479270. For Shiʿi Muslims, Muhammad not only designated Ali as his friend, but appointed him as his successor—as the "lord" or "master" of the new Muslim community. Ali and his descendants would become known as the Imams, divinely guided leaders of the Shiʿi communities, sinless, and granted special insight into the Qurʾanic text. The theology of the Imams that developed over the next several centuries made little distinction between the authority of the Imams to politically lead the Muslim community and their spiritual prowess; quite to the contrary, their right to political leadership was grounded in their special spiritual insight. While in theory, the only just ruler of the Muslim community was the Imam, the Imams were politically marginal after the first generation. In practice, Shiʿi Muslims negotiated varied approaches to both interpretative authority over Islamic texts and governance of the community, both during the lifetimes of the Imams themselves and even more so following the disappearance of the twelfth and final Imam in the ninth century. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjaarel%2Flfv029" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjaarel%2Flfv029</a> <a href="#fnref:369" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:370">Daftary, Farhad (2013). "A History Of Shi'i Islam". Internet Archive. Retrieved 22 July 2024. <a href="https://archive.org/details/shii-heritage-series-farhad-daftary-a-history-of-shii-islam-i.-b.-tauris-2013_202104/mode/2up" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/shii-heritage-series-farhad-daftary-a-history-of-shii-islam-i.-b.-tauris-2013_202104/mode/2up</a> <a href="#fnref:370" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:371">Lalani, Arzina R. (2000). Early Shi'i Thought: The Teachings of Imam Muhammad al-Baqir. I.B. Tauris. ISBN 1850435928. <a href="1850435928" target="_blank">1850435928</a> <a href="#fnref:371" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:372">Amir-Moezzi, Mohammad Ali (2014). "Ghadīr Khumm". In Fleet, Kate; Krämer, Gudrun; Matringe, Denis; Nawas, John; Stewart, Devin J. (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam (Third ed.). doi:10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_COM_27419. ISBN 9789004269613. <a href="9789004269613" target="_blank">9789004269613</a> <a href="#fnref:372" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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<li id="fn:374">Armajani, Jon (2020). Shia Islam and Politics: Iran, Iraq, and Lebanon. Lanham (Md.): Lexington Books. p. 11. ISBN 978-1-7936-2136-8. <a href="978-1-7936-2136-8" target="_blank">978-1-7936-2136-8</a> <a href="#fnref:374" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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<li id="fn:380">Escobar, Pepe (24 May 2002). "Knocking on heaven's door". Central Asia/Russia. Asia Times Online. Archived from the original on 3 June 2002. Retrieved 12 November 2006. our sixth imam, Imam Sadeg, says that we have five definitive holy places... first is Mecca... second is Medina... third belongs to our first imam of Shia, Ali, which is in Najaf. The fourth belongs to our third imam, Hussein, in Kerbala. The last one belongs to the daughter of our seventh imam and sister of our eighth imam, who is called Fatemah, and will be buried in Qom. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20020603155002/http://atimes.com/c-asia/DE24Ag04.html" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20020603155002/http://atimes.com/c-asia/DE24Ag04.html</a> <a href="#fnref:380" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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<li id="fn:389">Balzani, Marzia. Ahmadiyya Islam and the Muslim Diaspora: Living at the End of Days. Abingdon, Oxon. pp. 6–8. ISBN 978-1-315-19728-9. OCLC 1137739779. <a href="978-1-315-19728-9" target="_blank">978-1-315-19728-9</a> <a href="#fnref:389" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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<li id="fn:391">"What are the Signs of the Second Coming of the Messiah?". Review of Religions. 23 March 2016. Retrieved 23 June 2020. <a href="https://www.reviewofreligions.org/12457/what-are-the-signs-of-the-second-coming-of-the-messiah/" target="_blank">https://www.reviewofreligions.org/12457/what-are-the-signs-of-the-second-coming-of-the-messiah/</a> <a href="#fnref:391" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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<li id="fn:514">"Khitān". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 2014. Archived from the original on 27 January 2020. Retrieved 27 May 2020. <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/khitan-Islam" target="_blank">https://www.britannica.com/topic/khitan-Islam</a> <a href="#fnref:514" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:515">Anwer, Abdul Wahid; Samad, Lubna; Baig-Ansari, Naila; Iftikhar, Sundus (January 2017). "Reported Male Circumcision Practices in a Muslim-Majority Setting". BioMed Research International. 2017. Hindawi Publishing Corporation: 1–8. doi:10.1155/2017/4957348. PMC 5282422. PMID 28194416. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5282422" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5282422</a> <a href="#fnref:515" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:516">"Islam: Circumcision of boys". Religion & ethics—Islam. Bbc.co.uk. 13 August 2009. Archived from the original on 12 November 2012. Retrieved 27 May 2020. <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/islamethics/malecircumcision.shtml" target="_blank">https://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/islamethics/malecircumcision.shtml</a> <a href="#fnref:516" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:517">Campo (2009), p. 136. - Campo, Juan E. (2009). Encyclopedia of Islam. Infobase Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8160-5454-1. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OZbyz_Hr-eIC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=OZbyz_Hr-eIC</a> <a href="#fnref:517" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:518">Mathijssen, Brenda; Venhorst, Claudia; Venbrux, Eric; Quartier, Thomas (2013). Changing European Death Ways. Austria: Lit. p. 265. ISBN 9783643900678. <a href="9783643900678" target="_blank">9783643900678</a> <a href="#fnref:518" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:519">Stefon (2010), p. 83. - Stefon, Matt, ed. (2010). Islamic Beliefs and Practices. New York: Britannica Educational Publishing. ISBN 978-1-61530-060-0. <a href="https://archive.org/details/islamicbeliefspr0000stef" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/islamicbeliefspr0000stef</a> <a href="#fnref:519" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:520">Rahman, Rema (25 October 2011). "Who, What, Why: What are the burial customs in Islam?". BBC. Retrieved 28 January 2022. <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-15444275" target="_blank">https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-15444275</a> <a href="#fnref:520" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:521">Melikian, Souren (4 November 2011). "'Islamic' Culture: A Groundless Myth". The New York Times. Retrieved 25 November 2013. <a href="/wiki/Souren_Melikian" target="_blank">/wiki/Souren_Melikian</a> <a href="#fnref:521" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:522">Esposito (2010), p. 56. - — (2010). Islam: The Straight Path (4th ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-539600-3. <a href="#fnref:522" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:523">Lawrence, Bruce (2021). Islamicate Cosmopolitan Spirit. United Kingdom: Wiley. p. xii. ISBN 9781405155144. <a href="9781405155144" target="_blank">9781405155144</a> <a href="#fnref:523" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:524">Ettinghausen, Richard; Grabar, Oleg; Jenkins-Madina, Marilyn (2003). Islamic Art and Architecture 650-1250 (2nd ed.). Yale University Press. p. 3. ISBN 0-300-08869-8. <a href="0-300-08869-8" target="_blank">0-300-08869-8</a> <a href="#fnref:524" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:525">Suarez, Michael F. (2010). "38 The History of the Book in the Muslim World". The Oxford companion to the book. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 331ff. ISBN 9780198606536. OCLC 50238944. <a href="9780198606536" target="_blank">9780198606536</a> <a href="#fnref:525" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:526">Salim Ayduz; Ibrahim Kalin; Caner Dagli (2014). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Science, and Technology in Islam. Oxford University Press. p. 263. ISBN 978-0-19-981257-8. Figural representation is virtually unused in Islamic art because of Islam's strong antagonism of idolatry. It was important for Muslim scholars and artists to find a style of art that represented the Islamic ideals of unity (tawhid) and order without figural representation. Geometric patterns perfectly suited this goal. <a href="978-0-19-981257-8" target="_blank">978-0-19-981257-8</a> <a href="#fnref:526" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:527">T. W. Arnold (June 1919). "An Indian Picture of Muhammad and His Companions". The Burlington Magazine for Connoisseurs. 34 (195). The Burlington Magazine for Connoisseurs, Vol. 34, No. 195.: 249–252. JSTOR 860736. <a href="/wiki/T._W._Arnold" target="_blank">/wiki/T._W._Arnold</a> <a href="#fnref:527" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:528">Isichei, Elizabeth Allo (1997). A history of African societies to 1870. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 175. ISBN 978-0-521-45599-2. Retrieved 6 August 2010. <a href="978-0-521-45599-2" target="_blank">978-0-521-45599-2</a> <a href="#fnref:528" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:529">Tjahjono, Gunawan (1998). Indonesian Heritage-Architecture. Singapore: Archipelago Press. pp. 88–89. ISBN 981-3018-30-5. <a href="981-3018-30-5" target="_blank">981-3018-30-5</a> <a href="#fnref:529" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:530">"Islamic calendar". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 8 August 2022. <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Muslim-calendar" target="_blank">https://www.britannica.com/topic/Muslim-calendar</a> <a href="#fnref:530" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:531">Esposito, John (2004). The Islamic World: Past and Present. Oxford University Press. pp. 75–76. ISBN 9780195165203. <a href="9780195165203" target="_blank">9780195165203</a> <a href="#fnref:531" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:532">"Pillars of Islam | Islamic Beliefs & Practices | Britannica". www.britannica.com. 3 May 2023. Archived from the original on 5 September 2015. Retrieved 16 December 2021. <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Pillars-of-Islam" target="_blank">https://www.britannica.com/topic/Pillars-of-Islam</a> <a href="#fnref:532" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:533">Aitchison, Cara; Hopkins, Peter E.; Mei-Po Kwan (2007). Geographies of Muslim Identities: Diaspora, Gender and Belonging. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. p. 147. ISBN 978-1-4094-8747-0. Retrieved 30 June 2013. <a href="978-1-4094-8747-0" target="_blank">978-1-4094-8747-0</a> <a href="#fnref:533" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:534">Rassool, G. Hussein (2015). Islamic Counselling: An Introduction to theory and practice. Routledge. p. 10. ISBN 9781317441250. The label 'Cultural Muslim' is used in the literature to describe those Muslims who are religiously unobservant, secular or irreligious individuals who still identify with the Muslim culture due to family background, personal experiences, or the social and cultural environment in which they grew up... For Cultural Muslim the declaration of faith is superficial and has no effect of their religious practices. <a href="9781317441250" target="_blank">9781317441250</a> <a href="#fnref:534" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:535">De McLaurin, Ronald (1979). The Political Role of Minority Groups in the Middle East. Michigan University Press. p. 114. ISBN 978-0-03-052596-4. Theologically, one would have to conclude that the Druze are not Muslims. They do not accept the five pillars of Islam. In place of these principles, the Druze have instituted the seven precepts noted above... <a href="978-0-03-052596-4" target="_blank">978-0-03-052596-4</a> <a href="#fnref:535" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:536">Hunter, Shireen (2010). The Politics of Islamic Revivalism: Diversity and Unity: Center for Strategic and International Studies (Washington, D.C.), Georgetown University. Center for Strategic and International Studies. University of Michigan Press. p. 33. ISBN 978-0-253-34549-3. Druze – An offshoot of Shi'ism; its members are not considered Muslims by orthodox Muslims. <a href="978-0-253-34549-3" target="_blank">978-0-253-34549-3</a> <a href="#fnref:536" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:537">R. Williams, Victoria (2020). Indigenous Peoples: An Encyclopedia of Culture, History, and Threats to Survival [4 volumes]. ABC-CLIO. p. 318. ISBN 978-1-4408-6118-5. As Druze is a nonritualistic religion without requirements to pray, fast, make pilgrimages, or observe days of rest, the Druze are not considered an Islamic people by Sunni Muslims. <a href="978-1-4408-6118-5" target="_blank">978-1-4408-6118-5</a> <a href="#fnref:537" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:538">D. Grafton, David (2009). Piety, Politics, and Power: Lutherans Encountering Islam in the Middle East. Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 14. ISBN 978-1-63087-718-7. In addition, there are several quasi-Muslim sects, in that, although they follow many of the beliefs and practices of orthodox Islam, the majority of Sunnis consider them heretical. These would be the Ahmadiyya, Druze, Ibadi, and the Yazidis. <a href="978-1-63087-718-7" target="_blank">978-1-63087-718-7</a> <a href="#fnref:538" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:539">Poonawala, Ismail K. (July–September 1999). "Review: The Fatimids and Their Traditions of Learning by Heinz Halm". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 119 (3). American Oriental Society: 542. doi:10.2307/605981. ISSN 0003-0279. JSTOR 605981. LCCN 12032032. OCLC 47785421. <a href="/wiki/Journal_of_the_American_Oriental_Society" target="_blank">/wiki/Journal_of_the_American_Oriental_Society</a> <a href="#fnref:539" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:540">Bryer, David R. W. (1975). "The Origins of the Druze Religion (Fortsetzung)". Der Islam. 52 (2): 239–262. doi:10.1515/islm.1975.52.2.239. ISSN 1613-0928. S2CID 162363556. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1515/islm.1975.52.2.239" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1515/islm.1975.52.2.239</a> <a href="#fnref:540" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:541">Foltz, Richard (7 November 2013). "Two Kurdish Sects: The Yezidis and the Yaresan". Religions of Iran: From Prehistory to the Present. Oneworld Publications. p. 219. ISBN 978-1-78074-307-3. <a href="978-1-78074-307-3" target="_blank">978-1-78074-307-3</a> <a href="#fnref:541" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:542">House of Justice, Universal. "One Common Faith". reference.bahai.org. Retrieved 1 April 2017. <a href="http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/bic/OCF/ocf-8.html" target="_blank">http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/bic/OCF/ocf-8.html</a> <a href="#fnref:542" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:543">Z. Mir-Hosseini, "Inner Truth and Outer History: The Two Worlds of the Ahl-e Haqq of Kurdistan", International Journal of Middle East Studies, Vol.26, 1994, p.267–268 <a href="#fnref:543" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:544">Roychoudhury (1941), p. 306. - Roychoudhury, Makhanlal (1941). The Din-i Ilahi, or, The Religion of Akbar. University of Calcutta. OCLC 3312929 – via Internet Archive. <a href="https://archive.org/details/diniilahiorthere031361mbp" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/diniilahiorthere031361mbp</a> <a href="#fnref:544" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:545">Layard, Austen Henry (31 August 2010). Discoveries in the Ruins of Nineveh and Babylon: With Travels in Armenia, Kurdistan and the Desert: Being the Result of a Second Expedition Undertaken for the Trustees of the British Museum. Cambridge University Press. p. 216. ISBN 9781108016773. <a href="9781108016773" target="_blank">9781108016773</a> <a href="#fnref:545" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:546">Elsberg, Constance (2003), Graceful Women. University of Tennessee Press. ISBN 978-1-57233-214-0. pp. 27–28. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Tennessee_Press" target="_blank">/wiki/University_of_Tennessee_Press</a> <a href="#fnref:546" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:547">Fahlbusch et al (2001), p. 759. - Fahlbusch, Erwin; et al., eds. (2001). The Encyclopedia of Christianity. Vol. 2. Brill Publishers. ISBN 978-90-04-11695-5. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yaecVMhMWaEC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=yaecVMhMWaEC</a> <a href="#fnref:547" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:548">Christian Lange (2015). Paradise and Hell in Islamic Traditions. Cambridge University Press. pp. 18–20. ISBN 978-0-521-50637-3. <a href="978-0-521-50637-3" target="_blank">978-0-521-50637-3</a> <a href="#fnref:548" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:549">Reeves, Minou, and P. J. Stewart. 2003. Muhammad in Europe: A Thousand Years of Western Myth-Making. NYU Press. ISBN 978-0-8147-7564-6. p. 93–96. <a href="/wiki/Minou_Reeves" target="_blank">/wiki/Minou_Reeves</a> <a href="#fnref:549" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:550">Stone, G. 2006. Dante's Pluralism and the Islamic Philosophy of Religion. Springer Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4039-8309-1. p. 53-54. <a href="/wiki/Springer_Publishing" target="_blank">/wiki/Springer_Publishing</a> <a href="#fnref:550" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:551">Stone, G. 2006. Dante's Pluralism and the Islamic Philosophy of Religion. Springer Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4039-8309-1. p. 53-54. <a href="/wiki/Springer_Publishing" target="_blank">/wiki/Springer_Publishing</a> <a href="#fnref:551" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:552">Friedmann, Yohanan (2003). Tolerance and Coercion in Islam: Interfaith Relations in the Muslim Tradition. Cambridge University Press. p. 18, 35. ISBN 978-0-521-02699-4. <a href="978-0-521-02699-4" target="_blank">978-0-521-02699-4</a> <a href="#fnref:552" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:553">Modood, Tariq (6 April 2006). Multiculturalism, Muslims and Citizenship: A European Approach (1st ed.). Routledge. p. 29. ISBN 978-0-415-35515-5. <a href="978-0-415-35515-5" target="_blank">978-0-415-35515-5</a> <a href="#fnref:553" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
</ol>

Islam open-in-new

Islam