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2012 phenomenon
Eschatological beliefs surrounding 21 December 2012

The 2012 phenomenon involved beliefs that transformative or cataclysmic events would occur around 21 December 2012, marking the end of a 5,126-year cycle in the Mesoamerican Long Count calendar. Celebrations were held in Maya civilization regions such as Mexico and Guatemala, with key events at Chichén Itzá and Tikal. Theories ranged from a new spiritual era to apocalyptic disasters like the Nibiru cataclysm or solar flares during a solar maximum. However, experts dismissed these claims as pseudoscience, noting no Mayan texts predicted such doom, and astronomers refuted the catastrophic scenarios based on solid astronomical observations.

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Mesoamerican Long Count calendar

Main article: Mesoamerican Long Count calendar

December 2012 marked the conclusion of a bʼakʼtun—a time period in the Mesoamerican Long Count calendar, used in Mesoamerica prior to the arrival of Europeans. Although the Long Count was most likely invented by the Olmec,16 it has become closely associated with the Maya civilization, whose classic period lasted from 250 to 900 AD.17 The writing system of the classic Maya has been substantially deciphered,18 meaning that a text corpus of their written and inscribed material has survived from before the Spanish conquest of Yucatán.

Unlike the 260-day tzolkʼin still used today among the Maya, the Long Count was linear rather than cyclical, and kept time roughly in units of 20: 20 days made a uinal, 18 uinals (360 days) made a tun, 20 tuns made a kʼatun, and 20 kʼatuns (144,000 days or roughly 394 years) made up a bʼakʼtun. Thus, the Maya date of 8.3.2.10.15 represents 8 bʼakʼtuns, 3 kʼatuns, 2 tuns, 10 uinals and 15 days.1920

Apocalypse

There is a strong tradition of "world ages" in Maya literature, but the record has been distorted, leaving several possibilities open to interpretation.21 According to the Popol Vuh, a compilation of the creation accounts of the Kʼicheʼ Maya of the Colonial-era highlands, the current world is the fourth.22 The Popol Vuh describes the gods first creating three failed worlds, followed by a successful fourth world in which humanity was placed. In the Maya Long Count, the previous world ended after 13 bʼakʼtuns, or roughly 5,125 years.2324 The Long Count's "zero date"2526 was set at a point in the past marking the end of the third world and the beginning of the current one, which corresponds to 11 August 3114 BC in the proleptic Gregorian calendar.2728 This means that the fourth world reached the end of its 13th bʼakʼtun, or Maya date 13.0.0.0.0, on 21 December 2012. In 1957, Mayanist and astronomer Maud Worcester Makemson wrote that "the completion of a Great Period of 13 bʼakʼtuns would have been of the utmost significance to the Maya."29 In 1966, Michael D. Coe wrote in The Maya that "there is a suggestion ... that Armageddon would overtake the degenerate peoples of the world and all creation on the final day of the 13th [bʼakʼtun]. Thus ... our present universe [would] be annihilated ... when the Great Cycle of the Long Count reaches completion."3031

Objections

Coe's interpretation was repeated by other scholars through the early 1990s.32 In contrast, later researchers said that, while the end of the 13th bʼakʼtun would perhaps be a cause for celebration,33 it did not mark the end of the calendar.34 "There is nothing in the Maya or Aztec or ancient Mesoamerican prophecy to suggest that they prophesied a sudden or major change of any sort in 2012," said Mayanist scholar Mark Van Stone. "The notion of a 'Great Cycle' coming to an end is completely a modern invention."35 In 1990, Mayanist scholars Linda Schele and David Freidel argued that the Maya "did not conceive this to be the end of creation, as many have suggested".36 Susan Milbrath, curator of Latin American Art and Archaeology at the Florida Museum of Natural History, stated that, "We have no record or knowledge that [the Maya] would think the world would come to an end" in 2012.37 Sandra Noble, executive director of the Foundation for the Advancement of Mesoamerican Studies, said, "For the ancient Maya, it was a huge celebration to make it to the end of a whole cycle," and, "The 2012 phenomenon is a complete fabrication and a chance for a lot of people to cash in."38 "There will be another cycle," said E. Wyllys Andrews V, director of the Tulane University Middle American Research Institute. "We know the Maya thought there was one before this, and that implies they were comfortable with the idea of another one after this."39 Commenting on the new calendar found at Xultún, one archaeologist said "The ancient Maya predicted the world would continue—that 7,000 years from now, things would be exactly like this. We keep looking for endings. The Maya were looking for a guarantee that nothing would change. It's an entirely different mindset."40

Several prominent individuals representing Maya of Guatemala decried the suggestion that the world would end with the 13th bʼakʼtun. Ricardo Cajas, president of the Colectivo de Organizaciones Indígenas de Guatemala, said the date did not represent an end of humanity but that the new cycle "supposes changes in human consciousness". Martín Sacalxot, of the office of Guatemala's Human Rights Ombudsman (Procurador de los Derechos Humanos), said that the end of the calendar has nothing to do with the end of the world or the year 2012.41

Prior associations

The European association of the Maya with eschatology dates back to the time of Christopher Columbus, who was compiling a work called Libro de las profecías during the voyage in 1502 when he first heard about the "Maia" on Guanaja, an island off the north coast of Honduras.42 Influenced by the writings of Bishop Pierre d'Ailly, Columbus believed that his discovery of "most distant" lands (and, by extension, the Maya themselves) was prophesied and would bring about the Apocalypse. End-times fears were widespread during the early years of the Spanish Conquest as the result of popular astrological predictions in Europe of a second Great Flood for the year 1524.43

In the 1900s, German scholar Ernst Förstemann interpreted the last page of the Dresden Codex as a representation of the end of the world in a cataclysmic flood. He made reference to the destruction of the world and an apocalypse, though he made no reference to the 13th bʼakʼtun or 2012 and it was not clear that he was referring to a future event.44 His ideas were repeated by archaeologist Sylvanus Morley,45 who directly paraphrased Förstemann and added his own embellishments, writing, "Finally, on the last page of the manuscript, is depicted the Destruction of the World ... Here, indeed, is portrayed with a graphic touch the final all-engulfing cataclysm" in the form of a great flood. These comments were later repeated in Morley's book, The Ancient Maya, the first edition of which was published in 1946.46

Maya references to bʼakʼtun 13

It is not certain what significance the classic Maya gave to the 13th bʼakʼtun.47 Most classic Maya inscriptions are strictly historical and do not make any prophetic declarations.48 Two items in the Maya classical corpus do mention the end of the 13th bʼakʼtun: Tortuguero Monument 6 and La Corona Hieroglyphic Stairway 12.

Tortuguero

The Tortuguero site, which lies in southernmost Tabasco, Mexico, dates from the 7th century AD and consists of a series of inscriptions mostly in honor of the contemporary ruler Bahlam Ahau. One inscription, known as Tortuguero Monument 6, is the only inscription known to refer to bʼakʼtun 13 in any detail. It has been partially defaced; Sven Gronemeyer and Barbara MacLeod have given this translation:

tzuhtzjo꞉m uy-u꞉xlaju꞉n pikchan ajaw u꞉x uni꞉wuhto꞉m il[?]yeʼni/ye꞉n bolon yokte'ta chak joyaj

It will be completed the 13th bʼakʼtun.It is 4 Ajaw 3 Kʼankʼinand it will happen a 'seeingʼ[?].It is the display of Bʼolon-Yokte'in a great "investiture".49

Very little is known about the god Bʼolon Yokteʼ. According to an article by Mayanists Markus Eberl and Christian Prager in British Anthropological Reports, his name is composed of the elements "nine", ʼOK-teʼ (the meaning of which is unknown), and "god". Confusion in classical period inscriptions suggests that the name was already ancient and unfamiliar to contemporary scribes.50 He also appears in inscriptions from Palenque, Usumacinta, and La Mar as a god of war, conflict, and the underworld. In one stele he is portrayed with a rope tied around his neck, and in another with an incense bag, together signifying a sacrifice to end a cycle of years.51

Based on observations of modern Maya rituals, Gronemeyer and MacLeod claim that the stela refers to a celebration in which a person portraying Bolon Yokteʼ Kʼuh was wrapped in ceremonial garments and paraded around the site.5253 They note that the association of Bolon Yokteʼ Kʼuh with bʼakʼtun 13 appears to be so important on this inscription that it supersedes more typical celebrations such as "erection of stelae, scattering of incense" and so forth. Furthermore, they assert that this event was indeed planned for 2012 and not the 7th century.54 Mayanist scholar Stephen Houston contests this view by arguing that future dates on Maya inscriptions were simply meant to draw parallels with contemporary events, and that the words on the stela describe a contemporary rather than a future scene.55

La Corona

In April–May 2012, a team of archaeologists unearthed a previously unknown inscription on a stairway at the La Corona site in Guatemala. The inscription, on what is known as Hieroglyphic Stairway 12, describes the establishment of a royal court in Calakmul in 635 AD, and compares the then-recent completion of 13 kʼatuns with the future completion of the 13th bʼakʼtun. It contains no speculation or prophecy as to what the scribes believed would happen at that time.56

Dates beyond bʼakʼtun 13

Maya inscriptions occasionally mention predicted future events or commemorations that would occur on dates far beyond the completion of the 13th bʼakʼtun. Most of these are in the form of "distance dates"; Long Count dates together with an additional number, known as a Distance Number, which when added to them makes a future date. On the west panel at the Temple of Inscriptions in Palenque, a section of text projects forward to the 80th 52-year Calendar Round from the coronation of the ruler Kʼinich Janaabʼ Pakal. Pakal's accession occurred on 9.9.2.4.8, equivalent to 27 July 615 AD in the proleptic Gregorian calendar. The inscription begins with Pakal's birthdate of 9.8.9.13.0 (24 March, 603 AD Gregorian) and then adds the Distance Number 10.11.10.5.8 to it,57 arriving at a date of 21 October 4772 AD, more than 4,000 years after Pakal's time.585960

Another example is Stela 1 at Coba which marks the date of creation as 13.13.13.13.13.13.13.13.13.13.13.13.13.13.13.13.13.13.13.13.0.0.0.0, or nineteen units above the bʼakʼtun. According to Linda Schele, these 13s represent "the starting point of a huge odometer of time", with each acting as a zero and resetting to 1 as the numbers increase.6162 Thus this inscription anticipates the current universe lasting at least 2021×13×360 days,63 or roughly 2.687×1028 years; a time span equal to 2 quintillion times the age of the universe as determined by cosmologists. Others have suggested that this date marks creation as having occurred after that time span.6465

In 2012, researchers announced the discovery of a series of Maya astronomical tables in Xultún, Guatemala which plot the movements of the Moon and other astronomical bodies over the course of 17 bʼakʼtuns.666768

New Age beliefs

Many assertions about the year 2012 form part of Mayanism, a non-codified collection of New Age beliefs about ancient Maya wisdom and spirituality.69707172 The term is distinct from "Mayanist," used to refer to an academic scholar of the Maya.7374 Archaeoastronomer Anthony Aveni says that while the idea of "balancing the cosmos" was prominent in ancient Maya literature, the 2012 phenomenon did not draw from those traditions. Instead, it was bound up with American concepts such as the New Age movement, 2012 millenarianism, and the belief in secret knowledge from distant times and places.75 Themes found in 2012 literature included "suspicion towards mainstream Western culture", the idea of spiritual evolution, and the possibility of leading the world into the New Age by individual example or by a group's joined consciousness. The general intent of this literature was not to warn of impending doom but "to foster counter-cultural sympathies and eventually socio-political and 'spiritual' activism".76 Aveni, who has studied New Age and search for extraterrestrial intelligence (SETI) communities, describes 2012 narratives as the product of a "disconnected" society: "Unable to find spiritual answers to life's big questions within ourselves, we turn outward to imagined entities that lie far off in space or time—entities that just might be in possession of superior knowledge."77

Origins

In 1975, the ending of bʼakʼtun 13 became the subject of speculation by several New Age authors, who asserted it would correspond with a global "transformation of consciousness". In Mexico Mystique: The Coming Sixth Age of Consciousness, Frank Waters tied Coe's original date of 24 December 201178 to astrology and the prophecies of the Hopi,79 while both José Argüelles (in The Transformative Vision)80 and Terence McKenna (in The Invisible Landscape)8182 discussed the significance of the year 2012 without mentioning a specific day. Some research83 suggests that both Argüelles and McKenna were heavily influenced in this regard by the Mayanism of American author William S. Burroughs, who first portrayed the end of the Mayan Long Count as an apocalyptic shift of human consciousness in 1960's The Exterminator.84

In 1983, with the publication of Robert J. Sharer's revised table of date correlations in the 4th edition of Morley's The Ancient Maya,85 each became convinced that 21 December 2012 had significant meaning. By 1987, the year in which he organized the Harmonic Convergence event, Argüelles was using the date 21 December 2012 in The Mayan Factor: Path Beyond Technology.8687 He claimed that on 13 August 3113 BC the Earth began a passage through a "galactic synchronization beam" that emanated from the center of our galaxy, that it would pass through this beam during a period of 5200 tuns (Maya cycles of 360 days each), and that this beam would result in "total synchronization" and "galactic entrainment" of individuals "plugged into the Earth's electromagnetic battery" by 13.0.0.0.0 (21 December 2012). He believed that the Maya aligned their calendar to correspond to this phenomenon.88 Anthony Aveni has dismissed all of these ideas.89

In 2001, Robert Bast wrote the first online articles regarding the possibility of a doomsday in 2012.90 In 2006, author Daniel Pinchbeck popularized New Age concepts about this date in his book 2012: The Return of Quetzalcoatl, linking bʼakʼtun 13 to beliefs in crop circles, alien abduction, and personal revelations based on the use of hallucinogenic drugs and mediumship.9192 Pinchbeck claims to discern a "growing realization that materialism and the rational, empirical worldview that comes with it has reached its expiration date ... [w]e're on the verge of transitioning to a dispensation of consciousness that's more intuitive, mystical and shamanic".93

Galactic alignment

There is no significant astronomical event tied to the Long Count's start date.94 Its supposed end date was tied to astronomical phenomena by esoteric, fringe, and New Age literature that placed great significance on astrology, especially astrological interpretations associated with the phenomenon of axial precession.9596 Chief among these ideas is the astrological concept of a "galactic alignment".

Precession

In the Solar System, the planets and the Sun lie roughly within the same flat plane, known as the plane of the ecliptic. From our perspective on Earth, the ecliptic is the path taken by the Sun across the sky over the course of the year. The twelve constellations that line the ecliptic are known as the zodiacal constellations, and, annually, the Sun passes through all of them in turn. Additionally, over time, the Sun's annual cycle appears to recede very slowly backward by one degree every 72 years, or by one constellation approximately every 2,160 years. This backward movement, called "precession", is due to a slight wobble in the Earth's axis as it spins, and can be compared to the way a spinning top wobbles as it slows down.97 Over the course of 25,800 years, a period often called a Great Year, the Sun's path completes a full, 360-degree backward rotation through the zodiac.98 In Western astrological traditions, precession is measured from the March equinox, one of the two annual points at which the Sun is exactly halfway between its lowest and highest points in the sky. At the end of the 20th century and beginning of the 21st, the Sun's March equinox position was in the constellation Pisces moving back into Aquarius. This signaled the end of one astrological age (the Age of Pisces) and the beginning of another (the Age of Aquarius).99

Similarly, the Sun's December solstice position (in the northern hemisphere, the lowest point on its annual path; in the southern hemisphere, the highest) was in the constellation of Sagittarius, one of two constellations in which the zodiac intersects with the Milky Way.100 Every year, on the December solstice, the Sun and the Milky Way, appear (from the surface of the Earth) to come into alignment, and every year precession caused a slight shift in the Sun's position in the Milky Way. Given that the Milky Way is between 10° and 20° wide, it takes between 700 and 1,400 years for the Sun's December solstice position to precess through it.101 In 2012 it was about halfway through the Milky Way, crossing the galactic equator.102 In 2012, the Sun's December solstice fell on 21 December.103

Mysticism

Mystical speculations about the precession of the equinoxes and the Sun's proximity to the center of the Milky Way appeared in Hamlet's Mill (1969) by Giorgio de Santillana and Hertha von Deschend. These were quoted and expanded upon by Terence and Dennis McKenna in The Invisible Landscape (1975).

Adherents to the idea, following a theory first proposed by Munro Edmonson,104 alleged that the Maya based their calendar on observations of the Great Rift or Dark Rift, a band of dark dust clouds in the Milky Way, which, according to some scholars, the Maya called the Xibalba be or "Black Road".105 John Major Jenkins claims that the Maya were aware of where the ecliptic intersected the Black Road and gave this position in the sky a special significance in their cosmology.106 Jenkins said that precession would align the Sun precisely with the galactic equator at the 2012 winter solstice.107 Jenkins claimed that the classical Maya anticipated this conjunction and celebrated it as the harbinger of a profound spiritual transition for mankind.108 New Age proponents of the galactic alignment hypothesis argued that, just as astrology uses the positions of stars and planets to make claims of future events, the Maya plotted their calendars with the objective of preparing for significant world events.109 Jenkins attributed the insights of ancient Maya shamans about the Galactic Center to their use of psilocybin mushrooms, psychoactive toads, and other psychedelics.110 Jenkins also associated the Xibalba be with a "world tree", drawing on studies of contemporary (not ancient) Maya cosmology.111

Criticism

Astronomers such as David Morrison argue that the galactic equator is an entirely arbitrary line and can never be precisely drawn, because it is impossible to determine the Milky Way's exact boundaries, which vary depending on clarity of view. Jenkins claimed he drew his conclusions about the location of the galactic equator from observations taken at above 11,000 feet (3,400 m), an altitude that gives a clearer image of the Milky Way than the Maya had access to.112 Furthermore, since the Sun is half a degree wide, its solstice position takes 36 years to precess its full width. Jenkins himself noted that even given his determined location for the line of the galactic equator, its most precise convergence with the center of the Sun already occurred in 1998, and so asserts that, rather than 2012, the galactic alignment instead focuses on a multi-year period centered in 1998.113114115

There is no clear evidence that the classic Maya were aware of precession. Some Maya scholars, such as Barbara MacLeod,116 Michael Grofe,117 Eva Hunt, Gordon Brotherston, and Anthony Aveni,118 have suggested that some Mayan holy dates were timed to precessional cycles, but scholarly opinion on the subject remains divided.119 There is also little evidence, archaeological or historical, that the Maya placed any importance on solstices or equinoxes.120121 It is possible that only the earliest among Mesoamericans observed solstices,122 but this is also a disputed issue among Mayanists.123124 There is also no evidence that the classic Maya attached any importance to the Milky Way; there is no glyph in their writing system to represent it, and no astronomical or chronological table tied to it.125

Timewave zero and the I Ching

Main article: Terence McKenna § Novelty theory and Timewave Zero

"Timewave zero" is a numerological formula that purports to calculate the ebb and flow of "novelty", defined as increase over time in the universe's interconnectedness, or organized complexity.126 Terence McKenna claimed that the universe has a teleological attractor at the end of time that increases interconnectedness. He believed this which would eventually reach a singularity of infinite complexity in 2012, at which point anything and everything imaginable would occur simultaneously. He conceived this idea over several years in the early to mid-1970s whilst using psilocybin mushrooms and DMT.127128 The scientific community considers novelty theory to be pseudoscience.129130

McKenna expressed "novelty" in a computer program which produces a waveform known as "timewave zero" or the "timewave". Based on McKenna's interpretation of the King Wen sequence of the I Ching, an ancient Chinese book on divination,131 the graph purports to show great periods of novelty corresponding with major shifts in humanity's biological and sociocultural evolution. He believed that the events of any given time are resonantly related to the events of other times, and chose the atomic bombing of Hiroshima as the basis for calculating his end date of November 2012.132 When he later discovered this date's proximity to the end of the 13th bʼakʼtun of the Maya calendar, he revised his hypothesis so that the two dates matched.133

The 1975 first edition of The Invisible Landscape referred to 2012 (but no specific day during the year) only twice. In the 1993 second edition, McKenna employed Sharer's date134 of 21 December 2012 throughout.135136

Novelty theory has been criticized for "rejecting countless ideas presumed as factual by the scientific community", depending "solely on numerous controversial deductions that contradict empirical logic", and encompassing "no suitable indication of truth", with the conclusion that novelty theory is a pseudoscience.137

Doomsday theories

The idea that the year 2012 presaged a world cataclysm, the end of the world, or the end of human civilization, became a subject of popular media speculation as the date of 21 December 2012 approached. This idea was promulgated by many pages on the Internet, particularly on YouTube.138 The Discovery Channel was criticized for its "quasi-documentaries" about the subject that "sacrifice[d] accuracy for entertainment".139

Other alignments

Some people interpreted the galactic alignment apocalyptically, claiming that its occurrence would somehow create a combined gravitational effect between the Sun and the supermassive black hole at the center of our galaxy (known as Sagittarius A*), creating havoc on Earth.140 Apart from the "galactic alignment" already having happened in 1998, the Sun's apparent path through the zodiac as seen from Earth did not take it near the true galactic center, but rather several degrees above it.141 Even were this not the case, Sagittarius A* is 30,000 light years from Earth; it would have to have been more than 6 million times closer to cause any gravitational disruption to Earth's Solar System.142143 This reading of the alignment was included on the History Channel documentary Decoding the Past. John Major Jenkins complained that a science fiction writer co-authored the documentary, and he went on to characterize it as "45 minutes of unabashed doomsday hype and the worst kind of inane sensationalism".144

Some believers in a 2012 doomsday used the term "galactic alignment" to describe a different phenomenon proposed by some scientists to explain a pattern in mass extinctions supposedly observed in the fossil record.145 According to the Shiva Hypothesis, mass extinctions are not random, but recur every 26 million years. To account for this, it was suggested that vertical oscillations made by the Sun on its 250-million-year orbit of the galactic center cause it to regularly pass through the galactic plane. When the Sun's orbit takes it outside the galactic plane which bisects the galactic disc, the influence of the galactic tide is weaker. When re-entering the galactic disc—as it does every 20–25 million years—it comes under the influence of the far stronger "disc tides", which, according to mathematical models, increase the flux of Oort cloud comets into the inner Solar System by a factor of 4, thus leading to a massive increase in the likelihood of a devastating comet impact.146 This "alignment" takes place over tens of millions of years, and could never be timed to an exact date.147 Evidence shows that the Sun passed through the plane bisecting the galactic disc three million years ago and in 2012 was moving farther above it.148

A third suggested alignment was some sort of planetary conjunction occurring on 21 December 2012; there was no conjunction on that date.149 Multi-planet alignments did occur in both 2000 and 2010, each with no ill result for the Earth.150 Jupiter is the largest planet in the Solar System, being larger than all other planets combined. When Jupiter is near opposition, the difference in gravitational force that the Earth experiences is less than 1% of the force that the Earth feels daily from the Moon.151

Geomagnetic reversal

Another idea tied to 2012 involved a geomagnetic reversal (often referred to as a pole shift by proponents), possibly triggered by a massive solar flare, that would release an energy equal to 100 billion atomic bombs.152 This belief was supposedly supported by observations that the Earth's magnetic field was weakening,153 which could precede a reversal of the north and south magnetic poles, and the arrival of the next solar maximum, which was expected sometime around 2012.154

Most scientific estimates say that geomagnetic reversals take between 1,000 and 10,000 years to complete,155 and do not start on any particular date.156 The U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration predicted that the solar maximum would peak in late 2013 or 2014, and that it would be fairly weak, with a below-average number of sunspots.157 There was no scientific evidence linking a solar maximum to a geomagnetic reversal, which is driven by forces entirely within the Earth.158

A solar maximum does affect satellite and cellular phone communications.159 David Morrison attributed the rise of the solar storm idea to physicist and science popularizer Michio Kaku, who claimed in an interview with Fox News that a solar peak in 2012 could be disastrous for orbiting satellites, and to NASA's headlining a 2006 webpage as "Solar Storm Warning", a term later repeated on several doomsday pages.160

On 23 July 2012, a massive, potentially damaging, solar storm came within nine days of striking Earth.161162

Planet X/Nibiru

Main article: Nibiru cataclysm

Some believers in a 2012 doomsday claimed that a planet called Planet X, or Nibiru, would collide with or pass by the Earth. This idea, which had appeared in various forms since 1995, initially predicted Doomsday in May 2003, but proponents abandoned that date after it passed without incident.163 The idea originated from claims of channeling alien beings and is widely ridiculed.164165 Astronomers calculated that such an object so close to Earth would be visible to anyone looking up at the night sky.166

Other catastrophes

Author Graham Hancock, in his book Fingerprints of the Gods, interpreted Coe's remarks in Breaking the Maya Code167 as evidence for the prophecy of a global cataclysm.168 Filmmaker Roland Emmerich later credited the book with inspiring his 2009 disaster film 2012.169

Other speculations regarding doomsday in 2012 included predictions by the Web Bot project, a computer program that purports to predict the future by analyzing Internet chatter. Commentators have rejected claims that the bot is able to predict natural disasters, as opposed to human-caused disasters like stock market crashes.170

The 2012 date was also loosely tied to the long-running concept of the photon belt, which predicted a form of interaction between Earth and Alcyone, the largest star of the Pleiades cluster.171 Critics argued that photons cannot form belts, that the Pleiades, located more than 400 light years away, could have no effect on Earth, and that the Solar System, rather than getting closer to the Pleiades, was in fact moving farther away from it.172

Some media outlets tied the fact that the red supergiant star Betelgeuse would undergo a supernova at some point in the future to the 2012 phenomenon.173 While Betelgeuse was certainly in the final stages of its life, and would die as a supernova, there was no way to predict the timing of the event to within 100,000 years.174 To be a threat to Earth, a supernova would need to be no further than 25 light years from the Solar System. Betelgeuse is roughly 600 light years away, and so its supernova would not affect Earth.175 In December 2011, NASA's Francis Reddy issued a press release debunking the possibility of a supernova occurring in 2012.176

Another claim involved alien invasion. In December 2010, an article, first published in examiner.com and later referenced in the English-language edition of Pravda177 claimed, citing a Second Digitized Sky Survey photograph as evidence, that SETI had detected three large spacecraft due to arrive at Earth in 2012.178 Astronomer and debunker Phil Plait noted that by using the small-angle formula, one could determine that if the object in the photo were as large as claimed, it would have had to be closer to Earth than the Moon, which would mean it would already have arrived.179 In January 2011, Seth Shostak, chief astronomer of SETI, issued a press release debunking the claims.180

Public reaction

The phenomenon spread widely after coming to public notice, particularly on the Internet, and hundreds of thousands of websites made reference to it.181 "Ask an Astrobiologist", a NASA public outreach website, received over 5,000 questions from the public on the subject from 2007,182 some asking whether they should kill themselves, their children or their pets.183 In May 2012, an Ipsos poll of 16,000 adults in 21 countries found that 8 percent had experienced fear or anxiety over the possibility of the world ending in December 2012, while an average of 10 percent agreed with the statement "the Mayan calendar, which some say 'ends' in 2012, marks the end of the world", with responses as high as 20 percent in China, 13 percent in Russia, Turkey, Japan and Korea, and 12 percent in the United States.184 At least one suicide was directly linked to fear of a 2012 apocalypse,185 with others anecdotally reported.186 Jared Lee Loughner, the perpetrator of the 2011 Tucson shooting, followed 2012-related predictions.187 A panel of scientists questioned on the topic at a plenary session at the Astronomical Society of the Pacific contended that the Internet played a substantial role in allowing this doomsday date to gain more traction than previous similar panics.188

Europe

Beginning in 2000, the small French village of Bugarach, population 189, began receiving visits from "esoterics"—mystic believers who had concluded that the local mountain, Pic de Bugarach, was the ideal location to weather the transformative events of 2012. In 2011, the local mayor, Jean-Pierre Delord, began voicing fears to the international press that the small town would be overwhelmed by an influx of thousands of visitors in 2012, even suggesting he might call in the army.189190 "We've seen a huge rise in visitors", Delord told The Independent in March 2012. "Already this year more than 20,000 people have climbed right to the top, and last year we had 10,000 hikers, which was a significant rise on the previous 12 months. They think Pic de Bugarach is 'un garage à ovnis' [a garage for UFOs]. The villagers are exasperated: the exaggerated importance of something which they see as completely removed from reality is bewildering. After 21 December, this will surely return to normal."191 In December 2012, the French government placed 100 police and firefighters around both Bugarach and Pic de Bugarach, limiting access to potential visitors.192 Ultimately, only about 1,000 visitors appeared at the height of the "event". Two raves were foiled, 12 people had to be turned away from the peak, and 5 people were arrested for carrying weapons.193 Jean-Pierre Delord was criticised by members of the community for failing to take advantage of the media attention and promote the region.194

The Turkish village of Şirince, near Ephesus, expected to receive over 60,000 visitors on 21 December 2012, as New Age mystics believed its "positive energy" would aid in weathering the catastrophe.195 Only a fraction of that number actually arrived, with a substantial component being police and journalists, and the expected windfall failed to materialise.196

Similarly, the pyramid-like mountain of Rtanj, in the Serbian Carpathians, attracted attention, due to rumors that it would emit a powerful force shield on the day, protecting those in the vicinity. Hotels around the base were full.197

In Russia, inmates of a women's prison experienced "a collective mass psychosis" in the weeks leading up to the supposed doomsday, while residents of a factory town near Moscow reportedly emptied a supermarket of matches, candles, food and other supplies. The Minister of Emergency Situations declared in response that according to "methods of monitoring what is occurring on the planet Earth", there would be no apocalypse in December.198 When asked when the world would end in a press conference, Russian President Vladimir Putin said, "In about 4.5 billion years."199

In December 2012, Vatican astronomer Rev. José Funes wrote in the Vatican newspaper L'Osservatore Romano that apocalyptic theories around 2012 were "not even worth discussing".200

Asia and Australia

In May 2011, 5,000-7,000 Hmong ethnic people in Dien Bien province, Vietnam held a protest on the grounds that the end of the world was coming, and the Hmong people would be evacuated to their own Hmong country by "supernatural force". The Vietnamese media and government believe that this is a trick of the Hmong ethnic separatist forces.201

In China, up to a thousand members of the Christian cult Almighty God were arrested after claiming that the end of bʼakʼtun 13 marked the end of the world, and that it was time to overthrow Communism.202203 Shoppers were reported to be hoarding supplies of candles in anticipation of coming darkness, while online retailer Taobao sold tickets to board Noah's Ark to customers.204 Bookings for wedding ceremonies on 21 December 2012 were saturated in several cities.205 On 14 December 2012, a man in Henan province attacked and wounded twenty-three children with a knife. Authorities suspected the man had been "influenced" by the prediction of the upcoming apocalypse.206 Academics in China attributed the widespread belief in the 2012 doomsday in their country to a lack of scientific literacy and a mistrust of the government-controlled media.207

On 6 December 2012, Australian Prime Minister Julia Gillard delivered a hoax speech for the radio station triple J in which she declared "My dear remaining fellow Australians; the end of the world is coming. Whether the final blow comes from flesh-eating zombies, demonic hell-beasts or from the total triumph of K-Pop, if you know one thing about me it is this—I will always fight for you to the very end."208 Radio announcer Neil Mitchell described the hoax as "immature" and pondered whether it demeaned her office.209

Jasper Tsang, president of Hong Kong’s Legislative Council, adjourned the legislature's sitting on 20 December 2012 by announcing that he "would not permit the world to end" as the legislature had to meet again in January 2013, to the laughter of MPs.

Mexico and Central America

Mesoamerican countries that once formed part of the Maya civilization—Mexico, Belize, Guatemala, Honduras, and El Salvador—all organized festivities to commemorate the end of bʼakʼtun 13 at the largest Maya sites. On 21 December 2011, the Maya town of Tapachula in Chiapas activated an eight-foot digital clock counting down the days until the end of bʼakʼtun 13.210 On 21 December 2012, major events took place at Chichén Itzá in Mexico and Tikal in Guatemala.211212213 In El Salvador, the largest event was held at Tazumal, and in Honduras, at Copán. In all of these archaeological sites, Maya rituals were held at dawn led by shamans and Maya priests.214215216

On the final day of bʼakʼtun 13, residents of Yucatán and other regions formerly dominated by the ancient Maya celebrated what they saw as the dawn of a new, better era.217 According to official figures from Mexico's National Institute of Anthropology and History (INAH), about 50,000 people visited Mexican archaeological sites on 21 December 2012. Of those, 10,000 visited Chichén Itzá in Yucatán, 9,900 visited Tulum in Quintana Roo, and 8,000 visited Palenque in Chiapas. An additional 10,000 people visited Teotihuacan near Mexico City, which is not a Maya site.218 The main ceremony in Chichén Itzá was held at dawn in the plaza of the Temple of Kukulkán, one of the principal symbols of Maya culture. The archaeological site was opened two hours early to receive thousands of tourists, mostly foreigners who came to participate in events scheduled for the end of bʼakʼtun 13.219220

The fire ceremony at Tikal was held at dawn in the main plaza of the Temple of the Great Jaguar. The ceremony was led by Guatemalan and foreign priests. The President of Guatemala, Otto Pérez, and of Costa Rica, Laura Chinchilla, participated in the event as special guests. During the ceremony the priests asked for unity, peace and the end of discrimination and racism, with the hope that the start of a new cycle will be a "new dawn". About 3,000 people participated in the event.221222

Most of these events were organized by agencies of the Mexican and Central American governments, and their respective tourism industries expected to attract thousands of visitors.223224 Mexico is visited by about 22 million foreigners in a typical year. In 2012, the national tourism agency expected to attract 52 million visitors just to the regions of Chiapas, Yucatán, Quintana Roo, Tabasco and Campeche.225 A Maya activist group in Guatemala, Oxlaljuj Ajpop, objected to the commercialization of the date. A spokesman from the Conference of Maya Ministers commented that for them the Tikal ceremony is not a show for tourists but something spiritual and personal. The secretary of the Great Council of Ancestral Authorities commented that living Maya felt they were excluded from the activities in Tikal. This group held a parallel ceremony, and complained that the date has been used for commercial gain. In addition, before the main Tikal ceremony, about 200 Maya protested the celebration because they felt excluded. Most modern Maya were indifferent to the ceremonies, and the small number of people still practising ancient rites held solemn, more private ceremonies.226227

Osvaldo Gomez, a technical advisor to the Tikal site, complained that many visitors during the celebration had illegally climbed the stairs of the Temple of the Masks, causing "irreparable" damage.228

South America

In Brazil, Décio Colla, the Mayor of the City of São Francisco de Paula, Rio Grande do Sul, mobilized the population to prepare for the end of the world by stocking up on food and supplies.229230 In the city of Corguinho, in the Mato Grosso do Sul, a colony was built for survivors of the expected tragedy.231 In Alto Paraíso de Goiás, the hotels also made specific reservations for prophetic dates.232

In Bolivia, President Evo Morales participated in Quechua and Aymara rituals, organized with government support, to commemorate the Southern solstice that took place in Isla del Sol, in the southern part of Lake Titicaca. During the event, Morales proclaimed the beginning of "Pachakuti", meaning the world's wake up to a culture of life and the beginning of the end to world capitalism, and he proposed to dismantle the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank.233234235

On 21 December 2012, the Uritorco mountain in Córdoba, Argentina was closed, as a mass suicide there had been proposed on Facebook.236

United States

In the United States, sales of private underground blast shelters increased noticeably after 2009, with many construction companies' advertisements calling attention to the 2012 apocalypse.237 In Michigan, schools were closed for the Christmas holidays two days early, in part because rumours of the 2012 apocalypse were raising fears of repeat shootings similar to that at Sandy Hook.238 American reality TV stars Heidi Montag and Spencer Pratt revealed that they had spent most of their $10 million of accumulated earnings by 2010 because they believed the world would end in 2012.239

Cultural influence

The 2012 phenomenon was discussed or referenced by several media outlets. Several TV documentaries, as well as some contemporary fictional references to the year 2012, referred to 21 December as the day of a cataclysmic event.

The TV series The X-Files cited 22 December 2012 as the date for an alien colonization of the Earth, and mentioned the Mayan calendar "stopping" on this date.240 The History Channel aired a handful of special series on doomsday that included analysis of 2012 theories, such as Decoding the Past (2005–2007), 2012, End of Days (2006), Last Days on Earth (2006), Seven Signs of the Apocalypse (2009), and Nostradamus 2012 (2008).241 The Discovery Channel also aired 2012 Apocalypse in 2009, suggesting that massive solar storms, magnetic pole reversal, earthquakes, supervolcanoes, and other drastic natural events could occur in 2012.242 In 2012, the National Geographic Channel launched a show called Doomsday Preppers, a documentary series about survivalists preparing for various cataclysms, including the 2012 doomsday.243

Hundreds of books were published on the topic.244 The bestselling book of 2009,245 Dan Brown's The Lost Symbol, featured a coded mock email number (2456282.5) that decoded to the Julian date for 21 December 2012.246

In the Ubisoft game franchise Assassin's Creed, the overarching plotline of the games starring the first protagonist, Desmond Miles, was also inspired by the phenomenon. After escaping capture by the Knights Templar, Desmond rejoins the Assassins Brotherhood to help them fight the Templars and prevent the predicted end of the world, in this case caused by a cyclical solar flare.

In cinema, Roland Emmerich's 2009 science fiction disaster film 2012 was inspired by the phenomenon, and advance promotion prior to its release included a stealth marketing campaign in which television commericials and websites from the fictional "Institute for Human Continuity" called on people to prepare for the end of the world. As these promotions did not mention the film itself, many viewers believed them to be real and contacted astronomers in panic.247248 Although the campaign was criticized,249 the film became one of the most successful of its year, grossing nearly $770 million worldwide.250 An article in The Daily Telegraph attributed the widespread fear of the phenomenon in China to the film, which was a hit in the country as it depicted the Chinese building "survival arks".251 Lars von Trier's 2011 film Melancholia featured a plot in which a planet emerges from behind the Sun on a collision course with Earth.252

The phenomenon also inspired several rock and pop music hits. As early as 1997, "A Certain Shade of Green" by Incubus referred to the mystical belief that a shift in perception would arrive in 2012 ("Are you gonna stand around till 2012 A.D.? / What are you waiting for, a certain shade of green?"). More recent hits include "Time for Miracles" (2009) performed by Adam Lambert, "2012 (It Ain't the End)" (2010) performed by Jay Sean featuring Nicki Minaj, "Till the World Ends" (2011) performed by Britney Spears and "2012 (If The World Would End)" (2012) performed by Mike Candys featuring Evelyn & Patrick Miller. Towards mid-December 2012, an internet hoax related to South Korean singer Psy being one of the Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse was widely circulated around social media platforms. The hoax purported that once Psy's "Gangnam Style" YouTube video amassed a billion views, the world would end.253 Indian composer A. R. Rahman, known for Slumdog Millionaire, released his single "Infinite Love" to "instill faith and optimism in people" prior to the hypothesised doomsday.254 The artwork for All Time Low's 2012 album Don't Panic satirizes various cataclysmic events associated with the phenomenon.

A number of brands ran commercials tied to the phenomenon in the days and months leading to the date. In February 2012, American automotive company General Motors aired an advertisement during the annual Super Bowl football game in which a group of friends drove Chevrolet Silverados through the ruins of human civilization following the 2012 apocalypse. On 17 December 2012, Jell-O ran an ad saying that offering Jell-O to the Mayan gods would appease them into sparing the world. John Verret, Professor of Advertising at Boston University, questioned the utility of tying large sums of money to such a unique and short-term event.255

See also

Notes

Citations

Works cited

Further reading

  • Boone, Elizabeth H. (1982). Zelia Nuttall (ed.). The Book of the Life of the Ancient Mexicans, Containing an Account of Their Rites and Superstitions: An Anonymous Hispano-Mexican Manuscript Preserved at the Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale, Florence, Italy (Reprint of 1903 edition with additional commentary). Berkeley: University of California Press.
  • Coe, Michael D. (1999). The Maya. Ancient peoples and places series (6th, fully revised and expanded ed.). London and New York: Thames and Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-28066-9. OCLC 59432778.
  • Edmonson, Munro S. (1982). The Ancient Future of the Itza: The Book of Chilam Balam of Tizimin. The Texas Pan American series (Text of Chilam Balam de Tizimín MS. translated and annotated by Munro S. Edmonson; 1st English trans. ed.). Austin: University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-292-70353-7. OCLC 11318551. (in Yucatec Maya and English)
  • Nuttall, Zelia, ed. (1903). The Book of the Life of the Ancient Mexicans, Containing an Account of Their Rites and Superstitions: An Anonymous Hispano-Mexican Manuscript Preserved at the Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale, Florence, Italy. Berkeley, CA: University of California.
  • Sharps, Matthew J.; Liao, Schuyler W.; Herrera, Megan R. (January–February 2013). "It's the End of the World and They Don't Feel Fine: The Psychology of December 21, 2012". Skeptical Inquirer. 37 (1). Retrieved 12 April 2013.

References

  1. Defesche, Sacha (17 June 2008). "The 2012 Phenomenon". Skepsis. http://www.skepsis.no/the-2012-phenomenon/ ↩

  2. MacDonald, G. Jeffrey (2011). "Does Maya calendar predict 2012 apocalypse?". USA Today. https://usatoday30.usatoday.com/tech/science/2007-03-27-maya-2012_n.htm ↩

  3. Robert K. Sitler (February 2006). "The 2012 Phenomenon: New Age Appropriation of an Ancient Mayan Calendar". Nova Religio: The Journal of Alternative and Emergent Religions. 9 (3): 24–38. doi:10.1525/nr.2006.9.3.024. ISSN 1092-6690. OCLC 357082680. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  4. "2012 Maya Calendar Mystery and Math, Surviving Yucatan". Yucalandia.com. 16 November 2012. Retrieved 25 December 2012. http://yucalandia.com/science-health-issues/2012-maya-calendar-mystery-and-logic-vs-thors-day-worship-the-sun-day-et-al/ ↩

  5. "Miles llegan a Chichén Itzá con la esperanza de una nueva era mejor" [Thousands arrive to Chichén Itzá with the hope of a new better era]. La Nación (Costa Rica) (in Spanish). Agence France-Presse. 21 December 2012. Archived from the original on 21 December 2012. Retrieved 22 December 2012. https://web.archive.org/web/20121221202223/http://www.nacion.com/2012-12-21/AldeaGlobal/miles-llegan-a-chichen-itza-con-la-esperanza-de-una-nueva-era-mejor.aspx ↩

  6. Randal C. Archibold (21 December 2012). "As Doomsday Flops, Rites in Ruins of Mayan Empire". The New York Times. Retrieved 22 December 2012. https://www.nytimes.com/2012/12/22/world/americas/doomsday-fizzles-but-many-hail-a-new-era.html ↩

  7. Mark Stephenson (21 December 2012). "End Of The World 2012? Not Just Yet". Huffington Post. Retrieved 22 December 2012. https://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/12/21/end-of-the-world-2012_n_2344389.html ↩

  8. Benjamin Anastas (1 July 2007). "The Final Days" (reproduced online, at KSU). The New York Times Magazine. New York. p. Section 6, p. 48. Retrieved 18 May 2009. http://ksuweb.kennesaw.edu/~tkeene/apwhAnastasThe%20(Mayan)%20Final%20Days.htm ↩

  9. "2012: Shadow of the Dark Rift". NASA. 2011. Retrieved 28 October 2012. https://www.nasa.gov/topics/earth/features/2012-alignment.html ↩

  10. G. Jeffrey MacDonald (27 March 2007). "Does Maya calendar predict 2012 apocalypse?". USA Today. Retrieved 14 October 2009. https://www.usatoday.com/tech/science/2007-03-27-maya-2012_n.htm ↩

  11. David Stuart, The Order of Days: The Maya World and the Truth about 2012, Harmony Books, 2011 ↩

  12. David Webster (25 September 2007). "The Uses and Abuses of the Ancient Maya" (PDF). The Emergence of the Modern World Conference, Otzenhausen, Germany: Penn State University. Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 February 2010. Retrieved 14 October 2009. https://web.archive.org/web/20100215032307/http://www.anthro.psu.edu/faculty_staff/docs/Webster_GermanyMaya.pdf ↩

  13. Brown, Mike (2008). "SI do not ♥ pseudo-science". Retrieved 12 December 2012. http://www.mikebrownsplanets.com/2008/02/i-do-not-pseudo-science.html ↩

  14. David Morrison (2012). "Nibiru and Doomsday 2012: Questions and Answers". NASA: Ask an Astrobiologist. Archived from the original on 11 August 2013. Retrieved 12 December 2012. https://web.archive.org/web/20130811134015/http://astrobiology2.arc.nasa.gov/ask-an-astrobiologist/intro/nibiru-and-doomsday-2012-questions-and-answers ↩

  15. "2012: Beginning of the End or Why the World Won't End?". NASA. 2009. Archived from the original on 22 February 2011. Retrieved 26 February 2011. https://www.nasa.gov/topics/earth/features/2012.html ↩

  16. de Lara and Justeson 2006 - Jorge Pérez de Lara; John Justeson (2006). "Photographic Documentation of Monuments with Epi-Olmec Script/Imagery" (PDF). Foundation for the Advancement of Mesoamerican Studies. Retrieved 3 November 2009. http://www.famsi.org/reports/05084/05084PerezdeLara01.pdf ↩

  17. Andrew K. Scherer (2007). "Population structure of the classic period Maya". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 132 (3): 367–380. doi:10.1002/ajpa.20535. PMID 17205548. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  18. Marcus, Joyce (1976). "The Origins of Mesoamerican Writing". Annual Review of Anthropology. 5: 25–67. doi:10.1146/annurev.an.05.100176.000343. JSTOR 2949303. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  19. Schele & Freidel 1990, p. 246. - Schele, Linda; Freidel, David (1990). A Forest of Kings: The Untold Story of the Ancient Maya (pbk reprint ed.). New York: Harper Perennial. ISBN 978-0-688-11204-2. OCLC 145324300. https://archive.org/details/forestofkingsunt0034sche ↩

  20. Vincent H. Malmström (19 March 2003). "The Astronomical Insignificance of Maya Date 13.0.0.0.0" (PDF). Dartmouth College. p. 2. Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 June 2009. Retrieved 26 May 2009. http://www.dartmouth.edu/~izapa/M-32.pdf ↩

  21. Severin 1981, p. 75. - Severin, Gregory M. (1981). "The Paris Codex: Decoding an Astronomical Ephemeris". Transactions of the American Philosophical Society. 71 (5): 1–101. doi:10.2307/1006397. JSTOR 1006397. https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1006397 ↩

  22. Schele & Freidel 1990, pp. 429–430. - Schele, Linda; Freidel, David (1990). A Forest of Kings: The Untold Story of the Ancient Maya (pbk reprint ed.). New York: Harper Perennial. ISBN 978-0-688-11204-2. OCLC 145324300. https://archive.org/details/forestofkingsunt0034sche ↩

  23. Freidel, Schele & Parker 1993, p. 63. - Freidel, David; Schele, Linda; Parker, Joy (1993). Maya Cosmos: Three thousand years on the shaman's path. New York: William Morrow. ISBN 978-0-688-10081-0. OCLC 27430287. https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/27430287 ↩

  24. The number 13 plays an important role in Mesoamerican calendrics; the tzolkʼin, or sacred calendar, was divided into 13 months of 20 days each. The Mayan may cycle consisted of 13 kʼatuns. The reason for the number's importance is uncertain, though correlations to the phases of the moon and to the human gestation period have been suggested.[24][25] /wiki/Tzolk%CA%BCin ↩

  25. The Mayan calendar, unlike the Western calendar, used a zero.[18] ↩

  26. Rather than "0.0.0.0.0", the Mayan Long Count represented the date of creation as "13.0.0.0.0"[26] ↩

  27. Aveni 2009, p. 46. - Aveni, Anthony (2009). The End of Time: The Maya Mystery of 2012. Boulder, Colorado: University Press of Colorado. ISBN 978-0-87081-961-2. https://archive.org/details/endoftimemayamys00aven ↩

  28. "2012 Maya Calendar Mystery and Math, Surviving Yucatan". Yucalandia.com. 16 November 2012. Retrieved 25 December 2012. http://yucalandia.com/science-health-issues/2012-maya-calendar-mystery-and-logic-vs-thors-day-worship-the-sun-day-et-al/ ↩

  29. Makemson 1957, p. 4 - Makemson, Maude Worcester (June 1957). "The miscellaneous dates of the Dresden Codex". Publications of the Vassar College Observatory. 6: i. Bibcode:1957PVasO...6....1M. https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1957PVasO...6....1M ↩

  30. Coe 1966, p. 149. - Coe, Michael D. (1966). The Maya. Ancient peoples and places series, no. 52 (1st ed.). London: Thames and Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-05061-3. OCLC 318157568. https://archive.org/details/breakingmayacode00coem_0 ↩

  31. Coe's initial date was "24 December 2011". He revised it to "11 January AD 2013" in the 1980 2nd edition of his book,[30] not settling on 23 December 2012 until the 1984 3rd edition.[31] The correlation of bʼakʼtun 13 as 21 December 2012 first appeared in Table B.2 of Robert J. Sharer's 1983 revision of the 4th edition of Sylvanus Morley's book The Ancient Maya. There is an arise in the theory that 2012 resulted in a Consciousness Shift. (Morley 1983, p. 603, Table B2). ↩

  32. Carrasco 1990 p. 39; Gossen and Leventhal 1993 p. 191 - Carrasco, David (1990). Religions of Mesoamerica: Cosmovision and Ceremonial Centers. Religious traditions of the world [series]. San Francisco, California: Harper and Row. ISBN 978-0-06-061325-9. OCLC 20996347. https://archive.org/details/religionsofmesoa00carr ↩

  33. G. Jeffrey MacDonald (27 March 2007). "Does Maya calendar predict 2012 apocalypse?". USA Today. Retrieved 14 October 2009. https://www.usatoday.com/tech/science/2007-03-27-maya-2012_n.htm ↩

  34. Milbrath 1999, p. 4 - Milbrath, Susan (1999). Star Gods of the Maya: Astronomy in Art, Folklore, and Calendars. The Linda Schele series in Maya and pre-Columbian studies. Austin: University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-292-75225-2. OCLC 40848420. https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/40848420 ↩

  35. Mark Van Stone. "2012 FAQ (Frequently Asked Questions)". FAMSI. Archived from the original on 10 February 2010. Retrieved 2 March 2010. http://www.famsi.org/research/vanstone/2012/faq.html ↩

  36. Schele & Freidel 1990, pp. 81–82, 430–431. - Schele, Linda; Freidel, David (1990). A Forest of Kings: The Untold Story of the Ancient Maya (pbk reprint ed.). New York: Harper Perennial. ISBN 978-0-688-11204-2. OCLC 145324300. https://archive.org/details/forestofkingsunt0034sche ↩

  37. G. Jeffrey MacDonald (27 March 2007). "Does Maya calendar predict 2012 apocalypse?". USA Today. Retrieved 14 October 2009. https://www.usatoday.com/tech/science/2007-03-27-maya-2012_n.htm ↩

  38. G. Jeffrey MacDonald (27 March 2007). "Does Maya calendar predict 2012 apocalypse?". USA Today. Retrieved 14 October 2009. https://www.usatoday.com/tech/science/2007-03-27-maya-2012_n.htm ↩

  39. Ryan Rivet (25 June 2008). "The Sky Is Not Falling". Tulane University. Archived from the original on 18 April 2011. Retrieved 26 February 2011. https://web.archive.org/web/20110418060227/http://tulane.edu/news/newwave/062508_maya.cfm ↩

  40. Vance, Eric (10 May 2012). "Unprecedented Maya Mural Found, Contradicts 2012 "Doomsday" Myth". National Geographic. Archived from the original on 11 May 2012. Retrieved 11 May 2012. https://web.archive.org/web/20120511180248/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2012/05/120510-maya-2012-doomsday-calendar-end-of-world-science/ ↩

  41. Àngels Maso (2010). "La controversia detrás de la profecía del 2012". Prensa Libre. Archived from the original on 10 January 2012. Retrieved 1 January 2012. https://web.archive.org/web/20120110080349/http://prensalibre.com/noticias/controversia-detras-profecia_0_191380911.html ↩

  42. Hoopes 2011 ↩

  43. Hoopes 2011 ↩

  44. Förstemann 1906: 264 ↩

  45. Morley 1915: 32 ↩

  46. Hoopes 2011 ↩

  47. Stephen Houston; David Stuart (1996). "Of gods, glyphs and kings: divinity and rulership among the Classic Maya". Antiquity. 70 (268): 289–312. doi:10.1017/S0003598X00083289. ISSN 0003-598X. OCLC 206025348. S2CID 162561423. /wiki/Stephen_Houston ↩

  48. Stephen Houston; David Stuart (1996). "Of gods, glyphs and kings: divinity and rulership among the Classic Maya". Antiquity. 70 (268): 289–312. doi:10.1017/S0003598X00083289. ISSN 0003-598X. OCLC 206025348. S2CID 162561423. /wiki/Stephen_Houston ↩

  49. Gronemeyer & MacLeod 2010, p. 8. - Gronemeyer, Sven; MacLeod, Barbara (2010). "What Could Happen in 2012: A Re-Analysis of the 13-Bakʼtun Prophecy on Tortuguero Monument 6" (PDF). Wayeb Notes. 34: 1–68. ISSN 1379-8286. OCLC 298471525. http://www.wayeb.org/notes/wayeb_notes0034.pdf ↩

  50. Eberl and Prager 2005, p. 28 - Eberl, Markus; Christian Prager (2005). "Bʼolon Yokteʼ Kʼuh: Maya conceptions of war, conflict, and the underworld". In Peter Eeckhout; Geneviève Le Fort (eds.). Wars and Conflicts in Prehispanic Mesoamerica and the Andes: Selected Proceedings of the Conference Organized by the Société des Américanistes de Belgique with the Collaboration of Wayeb (European Association of Mayanists), Brussels, 16–17 November 2002. British Archaeological Reports International Series, no. 1385. Oxford, UK: John and Erika Hedges Ltd. pp. 28–36. ISBN 978-1-84171-706-7. OCLC 254728446. https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/254728446 ↩

  51. Eberl and Prager 2005, pp. 29–30, citing Hieroglyphic Stairway E7-H12 at Palenque, plate 104 in Karl Herbert Mayer, Maya Monuments: Sculptures of Unknown Provenance, Supplement 4 [in which the Sajal Niil is depicted in his costume], and Stele 1 from La Mar. - Eberl, Markus; Christian Prager (2005). "Bʼolon Yokteʼ Kʼuh: Maya conceptions of war, conflict, and the underworld". In Peter Eeckhout; Geneviève Le Fort (eds.). Wars and Conflicts in Prehispanic Mesoamerica and the Andes: Selected Proceedings of the Conference Organized by the Société des Américanistes de Belgique with the Collaboration of Wayeb (European Association of Mayanists), Brussels, 16–17 November 2002. British Archaeological Reports International Series, no. 1385. Oxford, UK: John and Erika Hedges Ltd. pp. 28–36. ISBN 978-1-84171-706-7. OCLC 254728446. https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/254728446 ↩

  52. Gronemeyer & MacLeod 2010, pp. 11, 36–37. - Gronemeyer, Sven; MacLeod, Barbara (2010). "What Could Happen in 2012: A Re-Analysis of the 13-Bakʼtun Prophecy on Tortuguero Monument 6" (PDF). Wayeb Notes. 34: 1–68. ISSN 1379-8286. OCLC 298471525. http://www.wayeb.org/notes/wayeb_notes0034.pdf ↩

  53. MacLeod 2011. - MacLeod, Barbara (2011). "The God's Grand Costume Ball: A Classic Maya Prophecy for the Close of the Thirteenth Bakʼtun". Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union. 7: 231–239. Bibcode:2011IAUS..278..231M. doi:10.1017/S1743921311012658. https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS1743921311012658 ↩

  54. Gronemeyer & MacLeod 2010, pp. 24, 35. - Gronemeyer, Sven; MacLeod, Barbara (2010). "What Could Happen in 2012: A Re-Analysis of the 13-Bakʼtun Prophecy on Tortuguero Monument 6" (PDF). Wayeb Notes. 34: 1–68. ISSN 1379-8286. OCLC 298471525. http://www.wayeb.org/notes/wayeb_notes0034.pdf ↩

  55. Stephen Houston (20 December 2008). "What Will Not Happen in 2012". Maya Decipherment. Retrieved 29 May 2011. http://decipherment.wordpress.com/2008/12/20/what-will-not-happen-in-2012/ ↩

  56. Stuart, David (2012). "Notes on a New Text from La Corona". Retrieved 6 July 2012. http://decipherment.wordpress.com/ ↩

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