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Arianism
Christological doctrine attributed to Arius

Arianism is a Christological doctrine founded by Arius in the 4th century, which rejects the traditional concept of the Trinity by asserting that Jesus Christ, the Son of God, was created by God the Father and therefore distinct and subordinate to Him. This view opposes the Homoousian belief, upheld by figures like Athanasius of Alexandria, that Jesus is coeternal and consubstantial with the Father. Declared heretical at the First Council of Nicaea in 325, Arianism influenced various early Christian groups and persists in some modern denominations such as Jehovah's Witnesses. The term Arian was originally used by outsiders and the doctrine remains significant for its impact on Christian theological debates about the nature of Christ.

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Origin

Main articles: Arian controversy and Diversity in early Christian theology

Some early Christians whose beliefs would have fallen under 'orthodoxy' in the third and fourth centuries denied the eternal generation of the Son; they viewed the Son as having been begotten in time. These include Tertullian and Justin Martyr.2728 Tertullian is considered a pre-Arian. Among the other church fathers, Origen was accused of Arianism for using terms like "second God", and Patriarch Dionysius of Alexandria was denounced at Rome for saying that Son is a work and creature of God (i.e., a created being).29 However, the subordinationism of Origen is not identical to Arianism, and it has been generally viewed as closer to the Nicene-Constantinopolitan view of the Trinity.3031

Controversy over Arianism arose in the late 3rd century and persisted throughout most of the 4th century. It involved most church members—from simple believers, priests, and monks to bishops, emperors, and members of Rome's imperial family. Two Roman emperors, Constantius II and Valens, became Arians or semi-Arians, as did prominent Gothic, Vandal, and Lombard warlords both before and after the fall of the Western Roman Empire. The antipopes Felix II32 and Ursinus33 were Arian, and Pope Liberius was forced to sign the Arian Creed of Sirmium of 357—though the letter says he willingly agreed with Arianism.34353637 Such a deep controversy within the early Church during this period could not have materialized without significant historical influences providing a basis for the Arian doctrines.38

Arius had been a pupil of Lucian of Antioch at Lucian's private academy in Antioch and inherited from him a modified form of the teachings of Paul of Samosata.39 Arius taught that God the Father and the Son of God did not always exist together eternally.40

Beliefs

Little of Arius's own work survives except in quotations selected for polemical purposes by his opponents, and there is no certainty about what theological and philosophical traditions formed his thought.41 The influence from the One of Neoplatonism was widespread throughout the Eastern Roman Empire, and this influenced Arius.4243444546

Arius's basic premise is that only God is independent of existing. Since the Son is dependent, he must, therefore, be called a creature.47 Arians put forward a question for their belief: "Has God birthed Jesus willingly or unwillingly?" This question was used to argue that Jesus is dependent for his existence since Jesus exists only because God wants him to be.48

Arianism taught that the Logos was a divine being created by God the Father before the world's creation, serving as the medium for creation, and that the Son of God is subordinate to the Father.49 The concept of the Logos refers to an inner attribute of God associated with wisdom. Jesus is identified as the Logos due to a supposed resemblance to this inner aspect of God's nature.50

A verse from Proverbs was used, according to Arianism, the creation of the Son by God, "The Lord created me at the beginning of his work."5152 Therefore, they posited, the Son was rather the very first and the most perfect of God's creatures, and he was called "God" only by the Father's permission and power.5354 The term "Son" is ambiguous, as Arians use adoptionist theology to support the belief that Jesus was created ex nihilo by the Father.55

Arians do not believe in the traditional doctrine of the Trinity.5657 The letter of the Arian bishop Auxentius of Durostorum58 regarding the Arian missionary Ulfilas (c. 311–383) gives an overview of Arian beliefs. Ulfilas, ordained by Arian bishop Eusebius of Nicomedia, became a missionary to the Goths and believed that God the Father, the "unbegotten" Almighty, is the only true God.59 According to Auxentius, Ulfilas believed the Son of God, Jesus, the "only-begotten god",60 was begotten before time began.61 The Holy Spirit, he wrote, is the illuminating and sanctifying power of God. Using 1 Corinthians 8:5–6 as a proof text:

Indeed, even though there may be so-called gods in heaven or on earth—as in fact there are many gods and many lords/masters—yet for us there is one God (Gk. theos – θεός), the Father, from whom are all things and for whom we exist, and one Lord/Master (kyrios – κύριος), Jesus Christ, through whom are all things and through whom we exist.

— 1 Corinthians 8:5–6

The creed of Ulfilas, which concludes the letter mentioned above,62 distinguishes God the Father ("unbegotten"), who is the only true God, from the Son of God ("only-begotten") and the Holy Spirit, the illuminating and sanctifying power, which is neither God the Father nor the God the Son:

I, Ulfila, bishop and confessor, have always so believed, and in this, the one true faith, I make the journey to my Lord; I believe in only one God the Father, the unbegotten and invisible, and in his only-begotten Son, our Lord/Master and God, the designer and maker of all creation, having none other like him. Therefore, there is one God of all, who is also God of our God; and in one Holy Spirit, the illuminating and sanctifying power, as Christ said after his resurrection to his apostles: "And behold, I send the promise of my Father upon you; but tarry ye in the city of Jerusalem, until ye be clothed with power from on high"63 and again "But ye shall receive power, when the Holy Ghost is come upon you";64 Neither God nor Lord, but the faithful minister of Christ; not equal, but subject and obedient in all things to the Son. And I believe the Son to be subject and obedient in all things to God the Father.

— Heather & Matthews 1991, p. 143

A letter from Arius to the Arian Eusebius of Nicomedia (died 341) states the core beliefs of the Arians:

Some of them say that the Son is an eructation, others that he is a production, others that he is also unbegotten. These are impieties to which we cannot listen, even though the heretics threaten us with a thousand deaths. But we say and believe and have taught, and do teach, that the Son is not unbegotten, nor in any way part of the unbegotten; and that he does not derive his subsistence from any matter; but that by his own will and counsel he has subsisted before time and before ages as perfect as God, only begotten and unchangeable, and that before he was begotten, or created, or purposed, or established, he was not. For he was not unbegotten. We are persecuted because we say that the Son has a beginning but that God is without beginning.

— Theodoret: Arius's Letter to Eusebius of Nicomedia, translated in Peters' Heresy and Authority in Medieval Europe, p. 41

Principally, the dispute between Trinitarianism and Arianism was about two questions:

  • has the Son always existed eternally with the Father, or was the Son begotten at a certain time in the past?
  • is the Son equal to the Father or subordinate to the Father?

For Constantine, these were minor theological points that stood in the way of uniting the Empire, but for the theologians, it was of huge importance; for them, it was a matter of salvation.65

For the theologians of the 19th century, it was already obvious that, in fact, Arius and Alexander/Athanasius did not have much to quarrel about; the difference between their views was very small, and the end of the fight was by no means clear during their quarrel, both Arius and Athanasius suffering a great deal for their own views. Arius was the father of Homoiousianism, and Alexander was the father of Homoousianism, which Athanasius championed. For those theologians, it was clear that Arius, Alexander, and Athanasius were far from a true doctrine of the Trinity, which developed later, historically speaking.66

Guido M. Berndt and Roland Steinacher state clearly that the beliefs of Arius were acceptable ("not especially unusual") to a huge number of orthodox clergy; this is the reason why such a major conflict was able to develop inside the Church since Arius's theology received widespread sympathy (or at least was not considered to be overly controversial) and could not be dismissed outright as individual heresy.67

Homoian Arianism

Arianism had several different variants, including Eunomianism and Homoian Arianism. Homoian Arianism is associated with Acacius and Eudoxius. Homoian Arianism avoided the use of the word ousia to describe the relation of Father to Son, and described these as "like" each other.68 Hanson lists twelve creeds that reflect the Homoian faith:69

  1. The Second Sirmian Creed of 357
  2. The Creed of Nice (Constantinople) 360
  3. The creed put forward by Acacius at Seleucia, 359
  4. The Rule of Faith of Ulfilas
  5. The creed uttered by Ulfilas on his deathbed, 383
  6. The creed attributed to Eudoxius
  7. The Creed of Auxentius of Milan, 364
  8. The Creed of Germinius professed in correspondence with Ursacius of Singidunum and Valens of Mursa
  9. Palladius's rule of faith
  10. Three credal statements found in fragments, subordinating the Son to the Father

Struggles with orthodoxy

First Council of Nicaea

In 321, Arius was denounced by a synod at Alexandria for teaching a heterodox view of the relationship of Jesus to God the Father. Because Arius and his followers had great influence in the schools of Alexandria—counterparts to modern universities or seminaries—their theological views spread, especially in the eastern Mediterranean.70

By 325, the controversy had become significant enough that the Emperor Constantine called an assembly of bishops, the First Council of Nicaea, which condemned Arius's doctrine and formulated the original Nicene Creed of 325.71 The Nicene Creed's central term, used to describe the relationship between the Father and the Son, is Homoousios (Ancient Greek: ὁμοούσιος),727374 or Consubstantiality, meaning "of the same substance" or "of one being". The Athanasian Creed is less often used but is a more overtly anti-Arian statement on the Trinity.7576

The focus of the Council of Nicaea was the nature of the Son of God and his precise relationship to God the Father. (See Paul of Samosata and the Synods of Antioch.) Arius taught that Jesus Christ was divine or holy and was sent to Earth for the salvation of mankind,77 but that Jesus Christ was not equal to God the Father (infinite, primordial origin) in rank, and that God the Father and the Son of God were not equal to the Holy Spirit.78 Under Arianism, Christ was instead not consubstantial with God the Father since both the Father and the Son under Arius were made of "like" essence or being (see homoiousia) but not of the same essence or being (see homoousia).79

In the Arian view, God the Father is a deity and is divine; the Son of God is not a deity, but is still divine.80 God the Father sent Jesus to earth for salvation of mankind.81 Ousia is essence or being, in Eastern Christianity, and is the aspect of God that is completely incomprehensible to mankind and human perception. It is all that subsists by itself and which has not its being in another,82 God the Father and God the Son and God the Holy Spirit all being uncreated.83

According to the teaching of Arius, the preexistent Logos and thus the incarnate Jesus Christ was a begotten being; only the Son was directly begotten by God the Father, before ages, but was of a distinct, though similar, essence or substance from the Creator. His opponents argued that this would make Jesus less than God and that this was heretical.84 Much of the distinction between the differing factions was over the phrasing that Christ expressed in the New Testament to express submission to God the Father.85 The theological term for this submission is kenosis. This ecumenical council declared that Jesus Christ was true God, co-eternal and consubstantial (i.e., of the same substance) with God the Father.8687

Constantine is believed to have exiled those who refused to accept the Nicaean Creed—Arius himself, the deacon Euzoios, and the Libyan bishops Theonas of Marmarica and Secundus of Ptolemais, along with the bishops who signed the creed but refused to join in condemnation of Arius, Eusebius of Nicomedia and Theognis of Nicaea. The emperor also ordered all copies of the Thalia, the book in which Arius had expressed his teachings, to be burned. However, there is no evidence that his son and ultimate successor, Constantius II, a Semi-Arian Christian, was exiled.

Although he was committed to maintaining what the Great Church had defined at Nicaea, Constantine was also bent on pacifying the situation and eventually became more lenient toward those condemned and exiled at the council. First, he allowed Eusebius of Nicomedia, who was a protégé of his sister, and Theognis to return once they had signed an ambiguous statement of faith. The two, and other friends of Arius, worked for Arius's rehabilitation.888990

At the First Synod of Tyre in AD 335, they brought accusations against Athanasius, now bishop of Alexandria, the primary opponent of Arius. After this, Constantine had Athanasius banished since he considered him an impediment to reconciliation. In the same year, the Synod of Jerusalem under Constantine's direction readmitted Arius to communion in 336. Arius died on the way to this event in Constantinople. Some scholars suggest that Arius may have been poisoned by his opponents.91 Eusebius and Theognis remained in the Emperor's favor; when Constantine -who had been a catechumen much of his adult life- accepted baptism on his deathbed, it was from Eusebius of Nicomedia.92

Condemnation by the Council of Nicaea

Emperor Constantine the Great summoned the First Council of Nicaea, which defined the dogmatic fundaments of Christianity; these definitions served to rebut the questions posed by Arians.93 Since Arius was not a bishop, he was not allowed to sit on the council, and it was Eusebius of Nicomedia who spoke for him and the position he represented.94 All the bishops who were there were in agreement with the major theological points of the proto-orthodoxy,95 since at that time all other forms of Christianity "had by this time already been displaced, suppressed, reformed, or destroyed".9697

Although the proto-orthodox won the previous disputes, due to the more precise defining of orthodoxy, they were vanquished with their own weapons, ultimately being declared heretics, not because they would have fought against ideas regarded as theologically correct, but because their positions lacked the precision and refinement needed by the fusion of several contradictory theses accepted at the same time by later orthodox theologians.98

Of the roughly 300 bishops in attendance at the Council of Nicaea, two bishops did not sign the Nicene Creed that condemned Arianism.99 Constantine the Great also ordered a penalty of death for those who refused to surrender the Arian writings:

In addition, if any writing composed by Arius should be found, it should be handed over to the flames, so that not only will the wickedness of his teaching be obliterated, but nothing will be left even to remind anyone of him. And I hereby make a public order, that if someone should be discovered to have hidden a writing composed by Arius, and not to have immediately brought it forward and destroyed it by fire, his penalty shall be death. As soon as he is discovered in this offence, he shall be submitted for capital punishment. ...

— Edict by Emperor Constantine against the Arians100

Ten years after the Council of Nicaea, Constantine the Great, who was himself later baptized by the Arian bishop Eusebius of Nicomedia in 337 AD,101102103 convened another gathering of church leaders at the regional First Synod of Tyre in 335, attended by 310 bishops, to address various charges mounted against Athanasius by his detractors, such as "murder, illegal taxation, sorcery, and treason", following his refusal to readmit Arius into fellowship.104 Athanasius was exiled to Trier (in modern Germany) following his conviction at Tyre of conspiracy, and Arius was, effectively, exonerated.105

Athanasius eventually returned to Alexandria in 346, after the deaths of both Arius and Constantine. Though Arianism had spread, Athanasius and other Nicene Christian church leaders crusaded against Arian theology, and Arius was anathemised and condemned as a heretic once more at the ecumenical First Council of Constantinople of 381, attended by 150 bishops.106107 The Roman Emperors Constantius II (337–361) and Valens (364–378) were Arians or Semi-Arians, as was the first King of Italy, Odoacer (433?–493), and the Lombards were also Arians or Semi-Arians until the 7th century. The ruling elite of Visigothic Spain was Arian until 589. Many Goths adopted Arian beliefs upon their conversion to Christianity. The Vandals actively spread Arianism in North Africa.

Aftermath of Nicaea

The First Council of Nicaea did not end the controversy, as many bishops of the Eastern provinces disputed the homoousios, the central term of the Nicene Creed, as it had been used by Paul of Samosata, who had advocated a monarchianist Christology. Both the man and his teaching, including the term homoousios, had been condemned by the Synods of Antioch in 269.108 Hence, after Constantine's death in 337, open dispute resumed again. Constantine's son Constantius II, who had become emperor of the eastern part of the Roman Empire, actually encouraged the Arians and set out to reverse the Nicene Creed.109 His advisor in these affairs was Eusebius of Nicomedia, who had already at the Council of Nicaea been the head of the Arian party, and was made the bishop of Constantinople.

Constantius used his power to exile bishops adhering to the Nicene Creed, especially St Athanasius of Alexandria, who fled to Rome.110 In 355 Constantius became the sole Roman emperor and extended his pro-Arian policy toward the western provinces, frequently using force to push through his creed, even exiling Pope Liberius and installing Antipope Felix II.111

The Third Council of Sirmium in 357 was the high point of Arianism. The Seventh Arian Confession (Second Sirmium Confession) held that both homoousios (of one substance) and homoiousios (of similar substance) were unbiblical and that the Father is greater than the Son.112 This confession was later known as the Blasphemy of Sirmium.

But since many persons are disturbed by questions concerning what is called in Latin substantia, but in Greek ousia, that is, to make it understood more exactly, as to 'coessential,' or what is called, 'like-in-essence,' there ought to be no mention of any of these at all, nor exposition of them in the Church, for this reason and for this consideration, that in divine Scripture nothing is written about them, and that they are above men's knowledge and above men's understanding;113

As debates raged in an attempt to come up with a new formula, three camps evolved among the opponents of the Nicene Creed. The first group mainly opposed the Nicene terminology and preferred the term homoiousios (alike in substance) to the Nicene homoousios, while they rejected Arius and his teaching and accepted the equality and co-eternality of the persons of the Trinity. Because of this centrist position, and despite their rejection of Arius, they were called "Semi-Arians" by their opponents.

The second group also avoided invoking the name of Arius, but in large part followed Arius's teachings and, in another attempted compromise wording, described the Son as being like (homoios) the Father. A third group explicitly called upon Arius and described the Son as unlike (anhomoios) the Father. Constantius wavered in his support between the first and the second party, while harshly persecuting the third.

Epiphanius of Salamis labeled the party of Basil of Ancyra in 358 "Semi-Arianism". This is considered unfair by Kelly who states that some members of the group were virtually orthodox from the start but disliked the adjective homoousios while others had moved in that direction after the out-and-out Arians had come into the open.114

The debates among these groups resulted in numerous synods, among them the Council of Serdica in 343, the Fourth Council of Sirmium in 358 and the double Council of Rimini and Seleucia in 359, and no fewer than fourteen further creed formulas between 340 and 360. This lead the pagan observer Ammianus Marcellinus to comment sarcastically: "The highways were covered with galloping bishops."115 None of these attempts was acceptable to the defenders of Nicene orthodoxy. Writing about the latter councils, Saint Jerome remarked that the world "awoke with a groan to find itself Arian."116117

After Constantius's death in 361, his successor Julian, a devotee of Rome's pagan gods, declared that he would no longer attempt to favor one church faction over another, and allowed all exiled bishops to return. This increased dissension among Nicene Christians. The emperor Valens, however, revived Constantius's policy and supported the "Homoian" party,118 exiling bishops and often using force. During this persecution many bishops were exiled to the other ends of the Roman Empire, e.g., Saint Hilary of Poitiers to the eastern provinces. These contacts and their common plight led to a rapprochement between the western supporters of the Nicene Creed and the homoousios and the eastern Semi-Arians.

Council of Constantinople

Main article: Theodosius I

It was not until the co-reigns of Gratian and Theodosius that Arianism was effectively wiped out among the ruling class and elite of the Eastern Empire. Valens died in the Battle of Adrianople in 378 and was succeeded by Theodosius I, who adhered to the Nicene Creed.119 This allowed for settling the dispute. Theodosius's wife St Flacilla was instrumental in his campaign to end Arianism.

Two days after Theodosius arrived in Constantinople, 24 November 380, he expelled the Arian bishop, Demophilus of Constantinople, and surrendered the churches of that city to Gregory of Nazianzus, the Homoiousian leader of the rather small Nicene community there, an act which provoked rioting. Theodosius had just been baptized, by bishop Acholius of Thessalonica, during a severe illness, as was common in the early Christian world. In February he and Gratian had published an edict that all their subjects should profess the faith of the bishops of Rome and Alexandria (i.e., the Nicene faith),120121 or be handed over for punishment for not doing so.

Although much of the church hierarchy in the East had opposed the Nicene Creed in the decades leading up to Theodosius's accession, he managed to achieve unity on the basis of the Nicene Creed. In 381, at the Second Ecumenical Council in Constantinople, a group of mainly Eastern bishops assembled and accepted the Nicene Creed of 381,122 which was supplemented in regard to the Holy Spirit, as well as some other changes: see Comparison of Nicene Creeds of 325 and 381. This is generally considered the end of the dispute about the Trinity and the end of Arianism among the Roman, non-Germanic peoples.123

Among medieval Germanic tribes

Main articles: Christianity in the 5th century, Germanic Christianity, Gothic Christianity, Kingdom of the Lombards, and Visigothic Kingdom

During the time of Arianism's flowering in Constantinople, the Gothic convert and Arian bishop Ulfilas (later the subject of the letter of Auxentius cited above) was sent as a missionary to the Gothic tribes across the Danube, a mission favored for political reasons by the Emperor Constantius II. The Homoians in the Danubian provinces played a major role in the conversion of the Goths to Arianism.124

Ulfilas's translation of the Bible into Gothic language and his initial success in converting the Goths to Arianism was strengthened by later events. The conversion of Goths led to a widespread diffusion of Arianism among other Germanic tribes as well, the Vandals, Langobards, Svevi, and Burgundians.125 When the Germanic peoples entered the provinces of the Western Roman Empire and began founding their own kingdoms there, most of them were Arian Christians.126

The conflict in the 4th century had seen Arian and Nicene factions struggling for control of Western Europe. In contrast, among the Arian German kingdoms established in the collapsing Western Empire in the 5th century, there existed entirely separate Arian and Nicene Churches with parallel hierarchies, each serving different sets of believers. The Germanic elites were Arians, and the Romance-majority population was Nicene.127

The Arian Germanic tribes were generally tolerant towards Nicene Christians and other religious minorities, including the Jews.128

The apparent resurgence of Arianism after Nicaea was more an anti-Nicene reaction exploited by Arian sympathizers than a pro-Arian development.129 By the end of the 4th century it had surrendered its remaining ground to Trinitarianism. In Western Europe, Arianism, which had been taught by Ulfilas, the Arian missionary to the Germanic tribes, was dominant among the Goths, Langobards and Vandals.130 By the 8th century, it had ceased to be the tribes' mainstream belief as the tribal rulers gradually came to adopt Nicene orthodoxy. This trend began in 496 with Clovis I of the Franks, then Reccared I of the Visigoths in 587 and Aripert I of the Lombards in 653.131132

The Franks and the Anglo-Saxons were unlike the other Germanic peoples in that they entered the Western Roman Empire as Pagans and were converted to Chalcedonian Christianity, led by their kings, Clovis I of the Franks, and Æthelberht of Kent and others in Britain. See also Christianity in Gaul and Christianisation of Anglo-Saxon England.133

The remaining tribes – the Vandals and the Ostrogoths – did not convert as a people nor did they maintain territorial cohesion. Having been militarily defeated by the armies of Emperor Justinian I, the remnants were dispersed to the fringes of the empire and became lost to history. The Vandalic War of 533–534 dispersed the defeated Vandals.134 Following their final defeat at the Battle of Mons Lactarius in 553, the Ostrogoths went back north and re-settled in south Austria.

From the 5th to the 7th century

Much of south-eastern Europe and central Europe, including many of the Goths and Vandals respectively, had embraced Arianism (the Visigoths converted to Arian Christianity in 376 through their bishop Wulfila), which led to Arianism being a religious factor in various wars in the Roman Empire.135

In the west, organized Arianism survived in North Africa, in Hispania, and parts of Italy until it was suppressed in the 6th and 7th centuries. Visigothic Spain converted to Nicene Christianity through their king Reccared I at the Third Council of Toledo in 589.136 Grimoald, King of the Lombards (662–671), and his young son and successor Garibald (671), were the last Arian kings in Europe.137138

From the 16th to the 19th century

Following the Protestant Reformation from 1517, it did not take long for Arian and other nontrinitarian views to resurface. The first recorded English antitrinitarian was John Assheton, who was forced to recant before Thomas Cranmer in 1548. At the Anabaptist Council of Venice 1550, the early Italian instigators of the Radical Reformation committed to the views of Michael Servetus,—who was burned alive by the orders of John Calvin in 1553—were promulgated by Giorgio Biandrata and others into Poland and Transylvania.139

The anti trinitarian wing of the Polish Reformation separated from the Calvinist ecclesia maior to form the ecclesia minor or Polish Brethren. These were commonly referred to as "Arians" due to their rejection of the Trinity, though in fact the Socinians, as they were later known, went further than Arius to the position of Photinus. The epithet "Arian" was also applied to the early Unitarians such as John Biddle; though in denial of the pre-existence of Christ they were again largely Socinians, not Arians.140

In 1683, when Anthony Ashley Cooper, 1st Earl of Shaftesbury, lay dying in Amsterdam—driven into exile by his outspoken opposition to King Charles II—he spoke to the minister Robert Ferguson, and professed himself an Arian.141

In the 18th century the "dominant trend" in Britain, particularly in Latitudinarianism, was toward Arianism, with which Samuel Clarke, Benjamin Hoadly, William Whiston and Isaac Newton are associated.142 To quote the Encyclopædia Britannica's article on Arianism: "In modern times some Unitarians are virtually Arians in that they are unwilling either to reduce Christ to a mere human being or to attribute to him a divine nature identical with that of the Father."143

Today

The teachings of the first two ecumenical councils that entirely reject Arianism include: the Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, the Oriental Orthodox Churches, the Assyrian Church of the East; almost all historic Protestant churches including Lutheran, Reformed, Presbyterian, Continental Reformed, Congregationalist, Anglican, Methodist, Baptist, and Free Evangelical; all entirely reject the teachings associated with Arianism.

Modern groups that currently appear to embrace some of the principles of Arianism include Unitarians and Jehovah's Witnesses. Although the origins of their beliefs are not necessarily attributed to the teachings of Arius, many of the core beliefs of Unitarians and Jehovah's Witnesses are very similar to them.144145146

Jehovah's Witnesses

Main articles: Jehovah's Witnesses beliefs § God, and Jehovah's Witnesses beliefs § Jesus Christ

Jehovah's Witnesses are often referred to as "modern-day Arians",147148 usually by their opponents,149150151 although Jehovah's Witnesses themselves have denied these claims.152 Significant similarities in doctrine include the identification of the Father as the only true God and of Jesus Christ as the first creation of God and the intermediate agent in the creation of all other things. They also deny the personhood of the Holy Spirit, which some Arians historically affirmed. Jehovah's Witnesses exclusively worship and pray to God the Father, or Jehovah, only through Jesus (the Son) as a mediator.153154

Iglesia ni Cristo

Main article: Iglesia ni Cristo

Iglesia ni Cristo's Christology has parallels with Arianism in that it affirms that the Father is the only true God, but it denies the preexistence of Christ. Thus, Iglesia ni Cristo is Socinian rather than Arian in its Christology.155

Other Socinian groups

Other Biblical Unitarians such as the Christadelphians156 and Church of God General Conference157 are also typically Socinian rather than Arian in their Christology.

The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints

Main article: Beliefs and practices of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints

The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) teaches a nontrinitarian theology concerning the nature of the Godhead. Similarities between LDS doctrines and Arianism were alleged as early as 1846.158 There are a number of key differences between Arianism and Latter-day Saint theology. Whereas Arianism is a unitarian Christian form of classical theism, Latter-day Saint theology is a non-trinitarian (but not unitarian) form of Christianity outside of classical theism. Arianism also teaches that God is eternal, was never a man, and could not incarnate as a man; in contrast, the LDS Church teaches that "God Himself is an exalted man, perfected, enthroned, and supreme."159

Whereas Arianism denies that humans can become gods, the LDS Church affirms that humans can become gods through exaltation.160 Whereas Arianism teaches that the Son was created, the LDS Church also teaches that the Son was procreated as a literal spirit child of the Heavenly Father and the Heavenly Mother161 and denies any form of creation ex nihilo; the creation of Christ ex nihilo is, in contrast, a fundamental premise of Arianism.162

The LDS church, in contrast to the Arian teaching that God is incorporeal, also teaches that God has a tangible body: "The Father has a body of flesh and bones as tangible as man's; the Son also; but the Holy Ghost has not a body of flesh and bones, but is a personage of Spirit. Were it not so, the Holy Ghost could not dwell in us."163 Arianism traditionally taught that God is incomprehensible even to the Son. In contrast, the LDS Church rejects the doctrine that God is incomprehensible.164 Though Arianism teaches that Christ is ontologically inferior and subordinate to the Father, the LDS Church teaches that Christ is equal in power and glory with the Father.

The LDS Church teaches that the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit are three separate beings united in purpose: "the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit (or Holy Ghost) [...] are three physically separate beings, but fully one in love, purpose and will",165 as illustrated in Jesus' Farewell Prayer, his baptism at the hands of John the Baptist, his transfiguration, and the martyrdom of Stephen.166 Thus, the church's first Article of Faith states: "We believe in God, the Eternal Father, and in His Son, Jesus Christ, and in the Holy Ghost."167

Latter-day Saints believe that the three are collectively "one eternal God"168 but reject the Nicene definition of the Trinity, that the three are consubstantial.169 In some respects, Latter-day Saint theology is more similar to social trinitarianism than to Arianism.

Spiritism

According to the reincarnationist religion of Spiritism started by French educator Allan Kardec in the 19th century, Jesus is the highest-order of spirit that has ever incarnated on Earth and is distinct from God, by whom he was created. Jesus is not considered God or part of God as in Nicene Christianity, but is nonetheless the ultimate model of human love, intelligence, and forgiveness,170 often cited as the governor of Earth.

See also

  • Christianity portal

Notes

Citations

Sources

Further reading

References

  1. Brennecke 2018. - Brennecke, Hanns Christof (2018). "Arianism". In Hunter, David G.; van Geest, Paul J. J.; Lietaert Peerbolte, Bert Jan (eds.). Brill Encyclopedia of Early Christianity Online. Leiden and Boston: Brill Publishers. doi:10.1163/2589-7993_EECO_SIM_00000280. ISSN 2589-7993. S2CID 231892603. https://doi.org/10.1163%2F2589-7993_EECO_SIM_00000280 ↩

  2. Witherington 2007, p. 241. - Witherington, B. (2007). The Living Word of God: Rethinking the Theology of the Bible. Baylor University Press. ISBN 978-1-60258-017-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=xEvXKTG9Mf4C ↩

  3. "Modern Day Arians". https://www.watchman.org/articles/other-religious-topics/modern-day-arians-who-are-they/ ↩

  4. Stone, Barton W. "An Address to the Christian Churches in Kentucky, Tennessee & Ohio on Several Important Doctrines of Religion (1821)". Archived from the original on 1 December 2013. https://archive.today/20131201210351/https://webfiles.acu.edu/departments/Library/HR/restmov_nov11/www.mun.ca/rels/restmov/texts/bstone/ADDR-2ND.HTM ↩

  5. "Pagan Trinity Exposed". https://yrm.org/pagan-trinity-exposed/ ↩

  6. Brennecke 2018. - Brennecke, Hanns Christof (2018). "Arianism". In Hunter, David G.; van Geest, Paul J. J.; Lietaert Peerbolte, Bert Jan (eds.). Brill Encyclopedia of Early Christianity Online. Leiden and Boston: Brill Publishers. doi:10.1163/2589-7993_EECO_SIM_00000280. ISSN 2589-7993. S2CID 231892603. https://doi.org/10.1163%2F2589-7993_EECO_SIM_00000280 ↩

  7. Berndt & Steinacher 2014. - Berndt, Guido M.; Steinacher, Roland (2014). Arianism: Roman Heresy and Barbarian Creed (1st ed.). London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-14-09-44659-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=8RsGDAAAQBAJ ↩

  8. Kohler, Kaufmann; Krauss, Samuel. "ARIANISM". Jewish Encyclopedia. Kopelman Foundation. Archived from the original on 10 January 2012. Retrieved 1 December 2020. /wiki/Kaufmann_Kohler ↩

  9. Brennecke 2018. - Brennecke, Hanns Christof (2018). "Arianism". In Hunter, David G.; van Geest, Paul J. J.; Lietaert Peerbolte, Bert Jan (eds.). Brill Encyclopedia of Early Christianity Online. Leiden and Boston: Brill Publishers. doi:10.1163/2589-7993_EECO_SIM_00000280. ISSN 2589-7993. S2CID 231892603. https://doi.org/10.1163%2F2589-7993_EECO_SIM_00000280 ↩

  10. "Arius wanted to emphasise the transcendence and sole divinity of God [...]. God alone is, for Arius, without beginning, unbegotten and eternal. In the terminology of negative theology, Arius stresses monotheism with ever-renewed attempts. God can only be understood as creator. He denies the co-eternal state of the Logos with God since otherwise God would be stripped of his absolute uniqueness. God alone is, and thus he was not always Father. [...] Following Proverbs 8:22–25, Arius is able to argue that the Son was created. For Arius the Logos belongs wholly on the side of the Divine, but he is markedly subordinate to God. Berndt & Steinacher 2014 - Berndt, Guido M.; Steinacher, Roland (2014). Arianism: Roman Heresy and Barbarian Creed (1st ed.). London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-14-09-44659-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=8RsGDAAAQBAJ ↩

  11. "A heresy of the Christian Church, started by Arius, bishop of Alexandria (d. 336), who taught that the Son is not equivalent to the Father (ὁμοούσιος gr:homoousios ≅ lt:consubstantialis) ... The very insistence upon the more subordinate relationship of the Son—that is, the Messiah—to God-the-father is much nearer to the Jewish doctrine of the Messiah than to the conception of the full divinity of the Son, as enunciated at Nicaea."[7] /wiki/Heresy_in_Christianity ↩

  12. Berndt & Steinacher 2014. - Berndt, Guido M.; Steinacher, Roland (2014). Arianism: Roman Heresy and Barbarian Creed (1st ed.). London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-14-09-44659-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=8RsGDAAAQBAJ ↩

  13. Arius used the two words as synonyms[8] ↩

  14. Arius believed that Jesus came into existence before time existed,[8] ↩

  15. Berndt & Steinacher 2014. - Berndt, Guido M.; Steinacher, Roland (2014). Arianism: Roman Heresy and Barbarian Creed (1st ed.). London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-14-09-44659-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=8RsGDAAAQBAJ ↩

  16. Jesus was considered a creature but not like the other creatures.[9] ↩

  17. Phan 2011, pp. 6–7. - Phan, Peter C. (2011). The Cambridge Companion to the Trinity. Cambridge Companions to Religion. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-87739-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=yG3Vei_6whUC&pg=PA7 ↩

  18. Kohler, Kaufmann; Krauss, Samuel. "ARIANISM". Jewish Encyclopedia. Kopelman Foundation. Archived from the original on 10 January 2012. Retrieved 1 December 2020. /wiki/Kaufmann_Kohler ↩

  19. Wiles 1996, p. 5. - Wiles, Maurice (1996). Archetypal heresy: Arianism through the centuries. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 9780191520594. OCLC 344023364. https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/344023364 ↩

  20. Phan 2011, p. 6. - Phan, Peter C. (2011). The Cambridge Companion to the Trinity. Cambridge Companions to Religion. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-87739-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=yG3Vei_6whUC&pg=PA7 ↩

  21. "Athanasius, Five-time exile for fighting 'orthodoxy'". 8 August 2008. Retrieved 10 August 2018. https://www.christianitytoday.com/history/people/theologians/athanasius.html ↩

  22. "Athanasius, Five-time exile for fighting 'orthodoxy'". 8 August 2008. Retrieved 10 August 2018. https://www.christianitytoday.com/history/people/theologians/athanasius.html ↩

  23. Johnson, Samuel (1828). A Dictionary of the English Language: In Which the Words Are Deduced from their Originals; and Illustrated in Their Different Significations by Examples from the Best Writers. Beeves and Turner. https://books.google.com/books?id=GwoBC7QlWYMC&q=the+history+of+arianism&pg=PP7 ↩

  24. "Athanasius, Five-time exile for fighting 'orthodoxy'". 8 August 2008. Retrieved 10 August 2018. https://www.christianitytoday.com/history/people/theologians/athanasius.html ↩

  25. Ferguson 2005, p. 267. - Ferguson, Everett (2005). Church History. Vol. 1 : From Christ to pre-Reformation. Harper Collins. ISBN 978-0-310-20580-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=1swbOorjzw0C&q=pro-Arian+development ↩

  26. Ferguson 2005, p. 267. - Ferguson, Everett (2005). Church History. Vol. 1 : From Christ to pre-Reformation. Harper Collins. ISBN 978-0-310-20580-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=1swbOorjzw0C&q=pro-Arian+development ↩

  27. "R.E. Roberts, The Theology of Tertullian (1924), Chapter 7 (pp. 140–148)". www.tertullian.org. Retrieved 15 December 2022. https://www.tertullian.org/articles/roberts_theology/roberts_07.htm ↩

  28. Giles, Kevin (2012). The Eternal Generation of the Son: Maintaining Orthodoxy in Trinitarian Theology. InterVarsity Press. ISBN 978-0-8308-3965-0. 978-0-8308-3965-0 ↩

  29. "Catholic Encyclopedia: Arianism". www.newadvent.org. Retrieved 10 April 2023. https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01707c.htm ↩

  30. Beisner, E. Calvin (2004). God in Three Persons. Wipf and Stock Publishers. ISBN 978-1-59244-545-5. 978-1-59244-545-5 ↩

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  32. "Liberius | pope | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 16 April 2023. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Liberius ↩

  33. Ambrose of Milan, Epistles iv ↩

  34. "Catholic Encyclopedia: Pope Liberius". www.newadvent.org. Retrieved 16 April 2023. https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/09217a.htm ↩

  35. Wordsworth, Christopher (1847). Letters to M. Gondon, Author of 'Mouvement Religieux en Angleterre', 'Conversion de Cent Cinquante Ministres Anglicans', Etc. Etc. Etc: On the Destructive Character of the Church of Rome, Both in Religion and Polity. F. & J. Rivington. https://books.google.com/books?id=8-xhAAAAcAAJ&dq=Pope+Liberius+converted+to+Arianism+-wikipedia&pg=PA229 ↩

  36. inst.), James Todd (examiner for the Protestant educ (1879). A Protestant text book of the Romish controversy. https://books.google.com/books?id=wtYCAAAAQAAJ&dq=Pope+Liberius+converted+to+Arianism+-wikipedia&pg=PA188 ↩

  37. The British and Foreign Evangelical Review and Quarterly Record of Christian Literature. Johnstone & Hnuter. 1875. https://books.google.com/books?id=tw8EAAAAQAAJ&dq=Pope+Liberius+converted+to+Arianism+-wikipedia&pg=PA271 ↩

  38. Hanson 2005, pp. 127–128. - Hanson, R. P. C. (2005). The Search for the Christian Doctrine of God: The Arian Controversy 318–381 AD. A&C Black. ISBN 978-0-567-03092-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=tclFM-nRh2IC&pg=PA557 ↩

  39. Pullan 1905, p. 87. - Pullan, Leighton (1905). Early Christian Doctrine. Oxford Church Text Books (3rd ed.). New York: Edwin S. Gorham. ↩

  40. Ritchie, Mark S. "The Story of the Church – Part 2, Topics 2 & 3". The Story of the Church. http://www.ritchies.net/p2wk2.htm ↩

  41. Bauckham 1989, p. 75. - Bauckham, Richard (1989). "Review of Arius: Heresy and Tradition by Rowan Williams". Themelios. 14 (2): 75. ↩

  42. "Arius | Biography, Beliefs, & Facts". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 12 April 2023. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Arius ↩

  43. Hesiod (24 June 2022). "Arius and Neoplatonism". Discourses on Minerva. Retrieved 12 April 2023. https://minervawisdom.com/2022/06/24/arius-and-neoplatonism/ ↩

  44. "The Early Unitarians: Arius and His Followers". people.wku.edu. Retrieved 12 April 2023. https://people.wku.edu/jan.garrett/arius.htm ↩

  45. Spencer, Ian (5 April 2007). "Plato: proto-trinitarian, or the Father of Arianism? – Trinities". Retrieved 12 April 2023. https://trinities.org/blog/plato-proto-trinitarian-or-the-father-of-arianism/ ↩

  46. Ribolov, Svet (1 January 2013). "A New Look at Arius' Philosophical Background". Church Studies. 10: 203–212. https://www.academia.edu/20120195 ↩

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  50. "Newman Reader – Arians of the 4th Century – Chapter 1–5". www.newmanreader.org. Retrieved 9 April 2023. https://www.newmanreader.org/works/arians/chapter1-5.html ↩

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  57. Phan 2011, p. 72. - Phan, Peter C. (2011). The Cambridge Companion to the Trinity. Cambridge Companions to Religion. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-87739-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=yG3Vei_6whUC&pg=PA7 ↩

  58. "Auxentius on Wulfila: Translation by Jim Marchand". http://faculty.georgetown.edu/jod/texts/auxentius.trans.html ↩

  59. John 17:3 https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=John%2017:3&version=nrsv ↩

  60. John 1:18 https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=John%201:18&version=nrsv ↩

  61. Proverbs 8:22–29, Revelation 3:14, Colossians 1:15 https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Proverbs%208:22–29&version=nrsv ↩

  62. "Auxentius on Wulfila: Translation by Jim Marchand". http://faculty.georgetown.edu/jod/texts/auxentius.trans.html ↩

  63. Luke 24:49 https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Luke%2024:49&version=nrsv ↩

  64. Acts 1:8 https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Acts%201:8&version=nrsv ↩

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  66. Forrest 1856, p. 6. - Forrest, J. (1856). Some Account of the Origin and Progress of Trinitarian Theology: In the Second, Third, and Succeeding Centuries, and of the Manner in which Its Doctrines Gradually Supplanted the Unitarianism of the Primitive Church. Crosby, Nichols, and Company. https://books.google.com/books?id=eVgfAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA6 ↩

  67. Berndt & Steinacher 2014. - Berndt, Guido M.; Steinacher, Roland (2014). Arianism: Roman Heresy and Barbarian Creed (1st ed.). London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-14-09-44659-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=8RsGDAAAQBAJ ↩

  68. Hanson 2005, pp. 557–558. - Hanson, R. P. C. (2005). The Search for the Christian Doctrine of God: The Arian Controversy 318–381 AD. A&C Black. ISBN 978-0-567-03092-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=tclFM-nRh2IC&pg=PA557 ↩

  69. Hanson 2005, pp. 558–559. - Hanson, R. P. C. (2005). The Search for the Christian Doctrine of God: The Arian Controversy 318–381 AD. A&C Black. ISBN 978-0-567-03092-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=tclFM-nRh2IC&pg=PA557 ↩

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  72. Bethune-Baker 2004. - Bethune-Baker, J. F. (2004). The Meaning of Homoousios in the 'Constantinopolitan' Creed. Wipf and Stock. ISBN 978-1-59244-898-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=JDFLAwAAQBAJ ↩

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  79. "The oneness of Essence, the Equality of Divinity, and the Equality of Honor of God the Son with the God the Father."[59]:  92–95 ↩

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  83. As quoted by John Damascene: God is unoriginate, unending, eternal, constant, uncreated, unchanging, unalterable, simple, incomplex, bodiless, invisible, intangible, indescribable, without bounds, inaccessible to the mind, uncontainable, incomprehensible, good, righteous, that Creator of all creatures, the almighty Pantocrator.[59]:  57 /wiki/John_Damascene ↩

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  85. Pomazansky, Michael (Protopresbyter) (1984). Pravoslavnoye Dogmaticheskoye Bogosloviye [Orthodox Dogmatic Theology: A concise exposition]. Translated by Rose, Seraphim (Hieromonk). Platina, California: Saint Herman of Alaska Brotherhood. ↩

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  87. First, the central focus of the creed is the Trinitarian nature of God. The Nicene fathers argued that the Father was always a Father, and consequently that the Son always existed with him, co-equally and con-substantially. The Nicene fathers fought against the belief that the Son was unequal to the Father, because it effectively destroyed the unity of the Godhead. Rather, they insisted that such a view was in contravention of such Scriptures as John 10:30 "I and the Father are one" and John 1:1 "the Word was God." Saint Athanasius declared that the Son had no beginning, but had an "eternal derivation" from the Father, and therefore was co-eternal with him, and equal to God in all aspects. In a similar vein the Cappadocian Fathers argued that the Holy Spirit was also co-eternal with the Father and the Son and equal to God in all aspects. The Church Fathers held that to deny equality to any of the Persons of the Trinity was to rob God of existence and constituted the greatest heresy.[63] ↩

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  96. Ehrman 2003, p. 250. - Ehrman, Bart D. (2003). Lost Christianities: The Battles for Scripture and the Faiths We Never Knew. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-972712-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=vDzRCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA250 ↩

  97. Ehrman 2009, p. 259. - Ehrman, Bart D. (2009). Jesus, Interrupted: Revealing the Hidden Contradictions in the Bible (And Why We Don't Know About Them). HarperOne. ISBN 978-0-06-186328-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=L4OPxbnM1YkC&pg=PA259 ↩

  98. Ehrman 2003, pp. 253–255. - Ehrman, Bart D. (2003). Lost Christianities: The Battles for Scripture and the Faiths We Never Knew. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-972712-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=vDzRCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA250 ↩

  99. Chadwick 1960, pp. 171–195. - Chadwick, Henry (July 1960). "Faith and Order at the Council of Nicaea: a Note on the Background of the Sixth Canon". The Harvard Theological Review. 53 (3): 171–195. doi:10.1017/S0017816000027000. JSTOR 1508399. S2CID 170956611. https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0017816000027000 ↩

  100. "Emperor Constantine's Edict against the Arians". fourthcentury.com. 23 January 2010. Archived from the original on 19 August 2011. Retrieved 20 August 2011. https://web.archive.org/web/20110819215807/http://www.fourthcentury.com/index.php/urkunde-33 ↩

  101. Lenski, Noel Emmanuel (2006). "The Reign of Constantine". The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Constantine. Cambridge Companions to the Ancient World. Cambridge University Press. p. 82. ISBN 978-0-521-52157-4. Retrieved 18 September 2024. Instead, only 80 kilometers into his journey the infirm emperor fell deathly ill at Nicomedia, where he received baptism at the hands of the Arianizing bishop Eusebius.Smith, Kyle (2019) [2016]. Constantine and the Captive Christians of Persia: Martyrdom and Religious Identity in Late Antiquity. Transformation of the Classical Heritage. University of California Press. p. 58 fn. 41. ISBN 978-0-520-30839-8. Retrieved 18 September 2024. That the Arian bishop Eusebius of Nicomedia presided over Constantine's baptism was perhaps the most embarrassing aspect of the emperor's last days for some commentators writing several centuries later. Theophanes, a ninth-century Byzantine chronicler, claims it is a lie and that the bishop Sylvester baptized Constantine in Rome.Kaatz, Kevin W. (2012). Early Controversies and the Growth of Christianity. Praeger Series on the Ancient World. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 113. ISBN 978-0-313-38360-1. Retrieved 18 September 2024.Canella, Tessa (2018). "Sylvester I". In Hunter, David G.; Geest, Paul van; Lietaert Peerbolte, L. J. (eds.). Brill encyclopedia of early Christianity online. Leiden: Brill. ISSN 2589-7993. OCLC 1079362334. Its purpose was also to hand down another version of Constantine's conversion, one that was different to that disseminated by pagan sources, and especially to amend the historical memory of the Arian baptism that the emperor received at the end of his life, and instead to attribute an unequivocally orthodox baptism to him, imparted by Sylvester himself to a leprous and persecuting Constantine. 978-0-521-52157-4978-0-520-30839-8978-0-313-38360-1 ↩

  102. Gonzalez, Justo (1984). The Story of Christianity Vol. 1. Harper Collins. p. 176. ISBN 0-06-063315-8. 0-06-063315-8 ↩

  103. Chapman 1909. - Chapman, Henry Palmer (1909). "Eusebius of Nicomedia" . In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 5. New York: Robert Appleton Company. https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia_(1913)/Eusebius_of_Nicomedia ↩

  104. "Athanasius, Five-time exile for fighting 'orthodoxy'". 8 August 2008. Retrieved 10 August 2018. https://www.christianitytoday.com/history/people/theologians/athanasius.html ↩

  105. Socrates of Constantinople, Church History, book 1, chapter 33. Anthony F. Beavers, Chronology of the Arian Controversy. /wiki/Socrates_of_Constantinople ↩

  106. "First Council of Constantinople, Canon 1". ccel.org. http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf214.ix.viii.i.html ↩

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  108. Chapman 1911. - Chapman, Henry Palmer (1911). "Paul of Samosata" . In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 11. New York: Robert Appleton Company. https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia_(1913)/Paul_of_Samosata ↩

  109. Hall, Christopher A. (July 2008). "How Arianism Almost Won". Christian History | Learn the History of Christianity & the Church. Retrieved 16 January 2021. https://www.christianitytoday.com/history/issues/issue-85/how-arianism-almost-won.html ↩

  110. Reardon, Patrick Henry (8 August 2008). "Athanasius". Christian History | Learn the History of Christianity & the Church. Retrieved 16 January 2021. https://www.christianitytoday.com/history/people/theologians/athanasius.html ↩

  111. Chapman 1910. - Chapman, Henry Palmer (1910). "Pope Liberius" . In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 9. New York: Robert Appleton Company. https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia_(1913)/Pope_Liberius ↩

  112. Chapman 1912. - Chapman, Henry Palmer (1912). "Semiarians and Semiarianism" . In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 13. New York: Robert Appleton Company. https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia_(1913)/Semiarians_and_Semiarianism ↩

  113. "Second Creed of Sirmium or 'The Blasphemy of Sirmium'". www.fourthcentury.com. Retrieved 9 March 2017. http://www.fourthcentury.com/index.php/second-creed-of-sirmium-or-the-blasphemy-of-sirmium/ ↩

  114. Kelly 1978, p. 249. - Kelly, J.N.D. (1978). Early Christian Doctrines. San Francisco: HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-06-064334-8. ↩

  115. Schaff, Philip (18 December 2019). The Complete History of the Christian Church (With Bible). e-artnow. The pagan Ammianus Marcellinus says of the councils under Constantius: "The highways were covered with galloping bishops;" and even Athanasius rebuked the restless flutter of the clergy. https://books.google.com/books?id=uK3oDwAAQBAJ&q=%22The+highways+were+covered+with+galloping+bishops.%22&pg=PT1710 ↩

  116. "The history of Christianity's greatest controversy". Christian Science Monitor. 9 September 1999. ISSN 0882-7729. Retrieved 16 January 2021. https://www.csmonitor.com/1999/0909/p21s1.html ↩

  117. "On battling Arianism: then and now". Legatus. Retrieved 16 January 2021. https://legatus.org/news/on-battling-arianism-then-and-now ↩

  118. Macpherson 1912. - Macpherson, Ewan (1912). "Flavius Valens" . In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 15. New York: Robert Appleton Company. https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia_(1913)/Flavius_Valens ↩

  119. Early in his reign, during a serious illness, Theodosius had accepted Christian baptism. In 380 he proclaimed himself a Christian of the Nicene Creed, and he called a council at Constantinople to put an end to the Arian heresy (which, contrary to Nicene doctrine, claimed Jesus was created), which had divided the empire for over half a century. At Constantinople, 150 bishops gathered and revised the Nicene Creed of A.D. 325 into the creed we know today. Arianism has never made a serious challenge since.[89] ↩

  120. Bury, J.B. "History of the Later Roman Empire". penelope.uchicago.edu. University of Chicago. Vol. 1 Chap. XI. Retrieved 16 January 2021. https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/BURLAT/11*.html ↩

  121. "Sozomen's Church History VII.4". ccel.org. http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf202.iii.xii.iv.html ↩

  122. The text of this version of the Nicene Creed is available at "The Holy Creed Which the 150 Holy Fathers Set Forth, Which is Consonant with the Holy and Great Synod of Nice". ccel.org. Retrieved 27 November 2010. /wiki/Nicene_Creed ↩

  123. "Arianism | Definition, History, & Controversy | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 20 April 2022. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Arianism ↩

  124. Szada, Marta (February 2021). "The Missing Link: The Homoian Church in the Danubian Provinces and Its Role in the Conversion of the Goths". Zeitschrift für Antikes Christentum / Journal of Ancient Christianity. 24 (3). Berlin and Boston: De Gruyter: 549–584. doi:10.1515/zac-2020-0053. eISSN 1612-961X. ISSN 0949-9571. S2CID 231966053. /wiki/Berlin ↩

  125. Kohler, Kaufmann; Krauss, Samuel. "ARIANISM". Jewish Encyclopedia. Kopelman Foundation. Archived from the original on 10 January 2012. Retrieved 1 December 2020. /wiki/Kaufmann_Kohler ↩

  126. Kohler, Kaufmann; Krauss, Samuel. "ARIANISM". Jewish Encyclopedia. Kopelman Foundation. Archived from the original on 10 January 2012. Retrieved 1 December 2020. /wiki/Kaufmann_Kohler ↩

  127. "7.5: Successor Kingdoms to the Western Roman Empire". Humanities LibreTexts. 16 December 2016. Retrieved 16 January 2021. Most of them were Christians, but, crucially, they were not Catholic Christians, who believed in the doctrine of the Trinity, that God is one God but three distinct persons of the Father, the Son (Jesus Christ), and the Holy Spirit. They were rather Arians, who believed that Jesus was lesser than God the Father (see Chapter Six). Most of their subjects, however, were Catholics. https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/History/World_History/Book%3A_World_History_-_Cultures_States_and_Societies_to_1500_(Berger_et_al.)/07%3A_Western_Europe_and_Byzantium_circa_500-1000_CE/7.05%3A_Successor_Kingdoms_to_the_Western_Roman_Empire ↩

  128. Kohler, Kaufmann; Krauss, Samuel. "ARIANISM". Jewish Encyclopedia. Kopelman Foundation. Archived from the original on 10 January 2012. Retrieved 1 December 2020. /wiki/Kaufmann_Kohler ↩

  129. Ferguson 2005, p. 200. - Ferguson, Everett (2005). Church History. Vol. 1 : From Christ to pre-Reformation. Harper Collins. ISBN 978-0-310-20580-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=1swbOorjzw0C&q=pro-Arian+development ↩

  130. Fanning, Steven C. (1 April 1981). "Lombard Arianism Reconsidered". Speculum. 56 (2): 241–258. doi:10.2307/2846933. ISSN 0038-7134. JSTOR 2846933. S2CID 162786616. https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.2307/2846933 ↩

  131. "Clovis of the Franks | British Museum". www.britishmuseum.org. Retrieved 16 January 2021. https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/term/BIOG141386 ↩

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  133. Frassetto, Michael, Encyclopedia of barbarian Europe, (ABC-Clio, 2003), p. 128. ↩

  134. Procopius, Secret Histories, Chapter 11, 18 ↩

  135. The inhibiting and paralyzing force of superstitious beliefs penetrated to every department of life, and the most primary and elementary activities of society were influenced. War, for example, was not a simple matter of a test of strength and courage, but supernatural matters had to be taken carefully into consideration. When Clovis said of the Goths in southern Gaul, 'I take it hard that these Arians should hold a part of the Gauls; let us go with God's aid and conquer them and bring the land under our dominion', [note: see p. 45 (Book II:37)] he was not speaking in a hypocritical or arrogant manner but in real accordance with the religious sentiment of the time. What he meant was that the Goths, being heretics, were at once enemies of the true God and inferior to the orthodox Franks in their supernatural backing. Considerations of duty, strategy, and self-interest all reinforced one another in Clovis's mind. However, it was not always the orthodox side that won. We hear of a battle fought a few years before Gregory became Bishop of Tours between King Sigebert and the Huns, [note: Book IV:29] in which the Huns 'by the use of magic arts caused various false appearances to arise before their enemies and overcame them decisively.[102] /wiki/Clovis_I ↩

  136. Thompson, E. A. (1960). "The Conversion of the Visigoths to Catholicism". Nottingham Medieval Studies. 4: 4. doi:10.1484/J.NMS.3.5. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

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  138. "GARIBALDO, re dei Longobardi in "Dizionario Biografico"". www.treccani.it (in Italian). Retrieved 16 January 2021. https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/re-dei-longobardi-garibaldo_(Dizionario-Biografico) ↩

  139. Roland Bainton, Hunted Heretic. The Life and Death of Michael Servetus /wiki/Roland_Bainton ↩

  140. George Huntston Williams. The Radical Reformation, 3rd edition. Volume 15 of Sixteenth Century Essays and Studies. Ann Arbor, MI: Edwards Brothers, 1992 /wiki/George_Huntston_Williams ↩

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  142. William Gibson, Robert G. Ingram Religious identities in Britain, 1660–1832 p. 92 ↩

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  147. Institute for Metaphysical Studies – The Arian Christian Bible – Metaphysical Institute, 2010. p. 209. Retrieved 10 June 2014. https://books.google.com/books?id=KRkzOWYc7JkC&pg=PA210 ↩

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  149. Dorsett, Tommy (29 April 2003). "Modern Day Arians: Who Are They?". Retrieved 2 May 2012. http://www.believersweb.org/view.cfm?ID=644 ↩

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  158. Mattison, Hiram. A Scriptural Defence of the Doctrine of the Trinity: Or a Check to Modern Arianism as Taught by Campbellites, Hicksites, New Lights, Universalists and Mormons, and Especially by a Sect Calling Themselves "Christians". L. Colby, 1846. https://books.google.com/books?id=cQtMAAAAYAAJ&dq=mormon+arianism&pg=PR1 ↩

  159. "Exaltation". The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. Retrieved 1 May 2023. https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/manual/gospel-principles/chapter-47-exaltation?lang=eng ↩

  160. Doctrine and Covenants 132:20 /wiki/Doctrine_and_Covenants ↩

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  162. McBride, Matthew. "'Man Was Also in the Beginning with God'". Church of Jesus Christ. Retrieved 3 April 2021. https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/manual/revelations-in-context/man-was-also-in-the-beginning-with-god?lang=eng ↩

  163. Doctrine and Covenants 130:22 /wiki/Doctrine_and_Covenants ↩

  164. Holland, Jeffrey R. (November 2007), "The Only True God and Jesus Christ Whom He Hath Sent", Ensign, p. 40 /wiki/Jeffrey_R._Holland ↩

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  166. "Gospel Topics: Godhead". The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. Retrieved 9 August 2021. https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/manual/gospel-topics/godhead?lang=eng ↩

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  168. Alma 11:44 https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Book_of_Mormon_(1981)/Alma#11:44 ↩

  169. Holland, Jeffrey R. (November 2007), "The Only True God and Jesus Christ Whom He Hath Sent", Ensign, p. 40 /wiki/Jeffrey_R._Holland ↩

  170. Zimmermann, Zalmino (2011). Theory of Mediumship. Allan Kardec. pp. 380–381. ↩