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Bulimia nervosa, or bulimia, is an eating disorder marked by episodes of binge eating followed by behaviors like vomiting, excessive exercise, or fasting to avoid weight gain. People with bulimia may also use diuretics, stimulants, or water fasting to lose weight. Although most affected individuals are of normal weight, bulimia is linked to higher risks of mental disorders such as depression, anxiety, and borderline personality disorder, as well as suicide. Genetic factors contribute 30–80% of the risk, alongside psychological stress, societal pressures from dieting culture, and obesity. Diagnosis depends on medical history but can be complicated by secrecy and overlapping conditions like anorexia nervosa and binge eating disorder.

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Signs and symptoms

Bulimia typically involves rapid and out-of-control eating, which is followed by self-induced vomiting or other forms of purging.1213 This cycle may be repeated several times a week or, in more serious cases, several times a day14 and may directly cause:

These are some of the many signs that may indicate whether someone has bulimia nervosa:21

  • A fixation on the number of calories consumed
  • A fixation on an extreme consciousness of one's weight
  • Low self-esteem and/or self-injuring
  • Suicidal tendencies
  • An irregular menstrual cycle in women
  • Regular trips to the bathroom, especially soon after eating
  • Depression, anxiety disorders, and sleep disorders
  • Frequent occurrences involving the consumption of abnormally large portions of food22
  • The use of laxatives, diuretics, and diet pills
  • Compulsive or excessive exercise
  • Unhealthy/dry skin, hair, nails, and lips
  • Fatigue, or exhaustion

As with many psychiatric illnesses, side effects such as delusions can occur, in conjunction with other signs and symptoms, leaving the person with a false belief that is not ordinarily accepted by others.23

People with bulimia nervosa may also exercise to a point that excludes other activities.24

Interoceptive

People with bulimia exhibit several interoceptive deficits, in which one experiences impairment in recognizing and discriminating between internal sensations, feelings, and emotions.25 People with bulimia may also react negatively to somatic and affective states.26 Regarding interoceptive sensation, hyposensitive individuals may not detect normal feelings of fullness at the appropriate time while eating, and are prone to eating more calories in a short period of time as a result of this decreased sensitivity.27

Examining from a neural basis also connects elements of interoception and emotion; notable overlaps occur in the medial prefrontal cortex, anterior and posterior cingulate, and anterior insula cortices, which are linked to both interoception and emotional eating.28

Related disorders

People with bulimia are at a higher risk to have an affective disorder, such as depression or general anxiety disorder. One study found 70% had depression at some time in their lives (as opposed to 26% for adult females in the general population), rising to 88% for all affective disorders combined.29 Another study in the Journal of Affective Disorders found that of the population of patients that were diagnosed with an eating disorder according to the DSM-V guidelines about 27% also suffered from bipolar disorder. Within this article, the majority of the patients were diagnosed with bulimia nervosa, the second most common condition reported was binge-eating disorder.30 Some individuals with anorexia nervosa exhibit episodes of bulimic tendencies through purging (either through self-induced vomiting or laxatives) as a way to quickly remove food in their system.31 There may be an increased risk for diabetes mellitus type 2.32 Bulimia also has negative effects on a person's teeth due to the acid passed through the mouth from frequent vomiting causing acid erosion, mainly on the posterior dental surface.

Research has shown that there is a relationship between bulimia and narcissism.333435 According to a study by the Australian National University, eating disorders are more susceptible among vulnerable narcissists. This can be caused by a childhood in which inner feelings and thoughts were minimized by parents, leading to "a high focus on receiving validation from others to maintain a positive sense of self".36

The medical journal Borderline Personality Disorder and Emotion Dysregulation notes that a "substantial rate of patients with bulimia nervosa" also have borderline personality disorder.37

A study by the Psychopharmacology Research Program of the University of Cincinnati College of Medicine "leaves little doubt that bipolar and eating disorders—particularly bulimia nervosa and bipolar II disorder—are related." The research shows that most clinical studies indicate that patients with bipolar disorder have higher rates of eating disorders, and vice versa. There is overlap in phenomenology, course, comorbidity, family history, and pharmacologic treatment response of these disorders. This is especially true of "eating dysregulation, mood dysregulation, impulsivity and compulsivity, craving for activity and/or exercise."38

Studies have shown a relationship between bulimia's effect on metabolic rate and caloric intake with thyroid dysfunction.39

Scientific research has shown that people suffering from bulimia have decreased volumes of brain matter, and that the abnormalities are reversible after long-term recovery.40

Causes

Biological

As with anorexia nervosa, there is evidence of genetic predispositions contributing to the onset of this eating disorder.41 Abnormal levels of many hormones, notably serotonin, have been shown to be responsible for some disordered eating behaviors. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) is under investigation as a possible mechanism.4243

There is evidence that sex hormones may influence appetite and eating in women and the onset of bulimia nervosa. Studies have shown that women with hyperandrogenism and polycystic ovary syndrome have a dysregulation of appetite, along with carbohydrates and fats. This dysregulation of appetite is also seen in women with bulimia nervosa. There is evidence that there is an association between polymorphisms in the ERβ (estrogen receptor β) and bulimia, suggesting there is a correlation between sex hormones and bulimia nervosa.44

Bulimia has been compared to drug addiction, though the empirical support for this characterization is limited.45 However, people with bulimia nervosa may share dopamine D2 receptor-related vulnerabilities with those with substance use disorders.46

Dieting, a common behaviour in bulimics, is associated with lower plasma tryptophan levels.47 Decreased tryptophan levels in the brain, and thus the synthesis of serotonin, such as via acute tryptophan depletion, increases bulimic urges in currently and formerly bulimic individuals within hours.4849

Abnormal blood levels of peptides important for the regulation of appetite and energy balance are observed in individuals with bulimia nervosa, but it remains unknown if this is a state or trait.50

In recent years, evolutionary psychiatry as an emerging scientific discipline has been studying mental disorders from an evolutionary perspective. If eating disorders, Bulimia nervosa in particular, have evolutionary functions or if they are new modern "lifestyle" problems is still debated.515253

Social

Media portrayals of an 'ideal' body shape are widely considered to be a contributing factor to bulimia.54 In a 1991 study by Weltzin, Hsu, Pollicle, and Kaye, it was stated that 19% of bulimics undereat, 37% of bulimics eat an average or normal amount of food, and 44% of bulimics overeat.55 A survey of 15- to 18-year-old high school girls in Nadroga, Fiji, found the self-reported incidence of purging rose from 0% in 1995 (a few weeks after the introduction of television in the province) to 11.3% in 1998.56 In addition, the suicide rate among people with bulimia nervosa is 7.5 times higher than in the general population.57

When attempting to decipher the origin of bulimia nervosa in a cognitive context, Christopher Fairburn et al.'s cognitive-behavioral model is often considered the golden standard.58 Fairburn et al.'s model discusses the process in which an individual falls into the binge-purge cycle and thus develops bulimia. Fairburn et al. argue that extreme concern with weight and shape coupled with low self-esteem will result in strict, rigid, and inflexible dietary rules. Accordingly, this would lead to unrealistically restricted eating, which may consequently induce an eventual "slip" where the individual commits a minor infraction of the strict and inflexible dietary rules. Moreover, the cognitive distortion due to dichotomous thinking leads the individual to binge. The binge subsequently should trigger a perceived loss of control, promoting the individual to purge in hope of counteracting the binge. However, Fairburn et al. assert the cycle repeats itself, and thus consider the binge-purge cycle to be self-perpetuating.59

In contrast, Byrne and Mclean's findings differed slightly from Fairburn et al.'s cognitive-behavioral model of bulimia nervosa in that the drive for thinness was the major cause of purging as a way of controlling weight. In turn, Byrne and Mclean argued that this makes the individual vulnerable to binging, indicating that it is not a binge-purge cycle but rather a purge-binge cycle in that purging comes before bingeing. Similarly, Fairburn et al.'s cognitive-behavioral model of bulimia nervosa is not necessarily applicable to every individual and is certainly reductionist. Every one differs from another, and taking such a complex behavior like bulimia and applying the same one theory to everyone would certainly be invalid. In addition, the cognitive-behavioral model of bulimia nervosa is very culturally bound in that it may not be necessarily applicable to cultures outside of Western society. To evaluate, Fairburn et al..'s model and more generally the cognitive explanation of bulimia nervosa is more descriptive than explanatory, as it does not necessarily explain how bulimia arises. Furthermore, it is difficult to ascertain cause and effect, because it may be that distorted eating leads to distorted cognition rather than vice versa.6061

A considerable amount of literature has identified a correlation between sexual abuse and the development of bulimia nervosa. The reported incident rate of unwanted sexual contact is higher among those with bulimia nervosa than anorexia nervosa.62

When exploring the etiology of bulimia through a socio-cultural perspective, the "thin ideal internalization" is significantly responsible. The thin-ideal internalization is the extent to which individuals adapt to the societal ideals of attractiveness. Studies have shown that young women that read fashion magazines tend to have more bulimic symptoms than those women who do not. This further demonstrates the impact of media on the likelihood of developing the disorder.63 Individuals first accept and "buy into" the ideals, and then attempt to transform themselves in order to reflect the societal ideals of attractiveness. J. Kevin Thompson and Eric Stice claim that family, peers, and most evidently media reinforce the thin ideal, which may lead to an individual accepting and "buying into" the thin ideal. In turn, Thompson and Stice assert that if the thin ideal is accepted, one could begin to feel uncomfortable with their body shape or size since it may not necessarily reflect the thin ideal set out by society. Thus, people feeling uncomfortable with their bodies may result in body dissatisfaction and may develop a certain drive for thinness. Consequently, body dissatisfaction coupled with a drive for thinness is thought to promote dieting and negative effects, which could eventually lead to bulimic symptoms such as purging or bingeing. Binges lead to self-disgust which causes purging to prevent weight gain.64

A study dedicated to investigating the thin ideal internalization as a factor of bulimia nervosa is Thompson's and Stice's research. Their study aimed to investigate how and to what degree media affects the thin ideal internalization. Thompson and Stice used randomized experiments (more specifically programs) dedicated to teaching young women how to be more critical when it comes to media, to reduce thin-ideal internalization. The results showed that by creating more awareness of the media's control of the societal ideal of attractiveness, the thin ideal internalization significantly dropped. In other words, less thin ideal images portrayed by the media resulted in less thin-ideal internalization. Therefore, Thompson and Stice concluded that media greatly affected the thin ideal internalization.65 Papies showed that it is not the thin ideal itself, but rather the self-association with other persons of a certain weight that decide how someone with bulimia nervosa feels. People that associate themselves with thin models get in a positive attitude when they see thin models and people that associate with overweight get in a negative attitude when they see thin models. Moreover, it can be taught to associate with thinner people.66

Diagnosis

The onset of bulimia nervosa is often during adolescence, between 13 and 20 years of age, and many cases have previously experienced obesity, with many relapsing in adulthood into episodic bingeing and purging even after initially successful treatment and remission.67 A lifetime prevalence of 0.5 percent and 0.9 percent for adults and adolescents, respectively, is estimated among the United States population.68 Bulimia nervosa may affect up to 1% of young women and, after 10 years of diagnosis, half will recover fully, a third will recover partially, and 10–20% will still have symptoms.69

Adolescents with bulimia nervosa are more likely to have self-imposed perfectionism and compulsivity issues in eating compared to their peers. This means that the high expectations and unrealistic goals that these individuals set for themselves are internally motivated rather than by social views or expectations.70

Criteria

Bulimia Nervosa is diagnosed using the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5). The diagnostic criteria include the following:7172

  • Recurrent episodes of binge eating
  • Recurrent inappropriate compensatory behavior to prevent weight gain, like self-induced vomiting, misuse of laxatives or other medications, fasting, or excessive exercise.
  • The binge eating and compensatory behaviors both occur at least once a week for three months
  • Self-evaluation is influenced by body shape and weight.

Other methods are also used to narrow down the diagnosis, such as physical exams (measuring height, weight, and vitals, or checking skin, nails, heart and lungs), or lab tests (for blood count, electrolytes, protein, or urinalysis).

Treatment

There are two main types of treatment given to those with bulimia nervosa; psychopharmacological and psychosocial treatments.73

Psychotherapy

Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) is considered the gold standard for the treatment of bulimia nervosa. This approach focuses on helping patients identify and change distorted thought patterns related to eating, body image, and self worth.7475

CBT helps patients identify and challenge the distorted thinking individuals might have about food, weight and body image. It also helps by offering the chance to identify the unhelpful thoughts about food and body image.76

By using CBT people record how much food they eat and periods of vomiting with the purpose of identifying and avoiding emotional fluctuations that bring on episodes of bulimia on a regular basis, as a component of this therapy is food journaling.77 CBT is necessarily good for those with bulimia as it targets the binge-purge cycle, which is the hallmark of bulimia.787980 People undergoing CBT who exhibit early behavioral changes are most likely to achieve the best treatment outcomes in the long run.81

Researchers have also reported some positive outcomes for interpersonal psychotherapy and dialectical behavior therapy.8283 These therapies have good outcomes for treating bulimia, especially in patients with emotional regulation difficulties or interpersonal issues. While these therapies are not as extensively researched as CBT, they can be beneficial when integrated into a comprehensive treatment plan.84

For adolescents, Family-Based therapy (FBT) has been identified as an effective treatment. FBT involves the family in the treatment process, where parents are empowered to take an active role in helping their child recover from bulimia nervosa. This approach is particularly helpful in younger patients who are still living with their families85

The use of CBT has been shown to be quite effective for treating bulimia nervosa (BN) in adults, but little research has been done on effective treatments of BN for adolescents.86 Although CBT is seen as more cost-efficient and helps individuals with BN in self-guided care, Family Based Treatment (FBT) might be more helpful to younger adolescents who need more support and guidance from their families.87 Adolescents are at the stage where their brains are still quite malleable and developing gradually.88 Therefore, young adolescents with BN are less likely to realize the detrimental consequences of becoming bulimic and have less motivation to change,89 which is why FBT would be useful to have families intervene and support the teens.90 Working with BN patients and their families in FBT can empower the families by having them involved in their adolescent's food choices and behaviors, taking more control of the situation in the beginning and gradually letting the adolescent become more autonomous when they have learned healthier eating habits.91

Medication

Antidepressants, particularly selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRI), are often prescribed to treat bulimia nervosa, especially when comorbid depression or anxiety disorders are present. However, medications alone are generally not sufficient and are typically used in conjunction with psychotherapy.9293 Compared to placebo, the use of a single antidepressant has been shown to be effective.94 Combining medication with counseling can improve outcomes in some circumstances.95 Some positive outcomes of treatments can include: abstinence from binge eating, a decrease in obsessive behaviors to lose weight and in shape preoccupation, less severe psychiatric symptoms, a desire to counter the effects of binge eating, as well as an improvement in social functioning and reduced relapse rates.96

A combination of psychotherapy, especially CBT and pharmacological treatments, such as SSRIs, often lead to better outcomes for individuals with bulimia. Combining both approaches is particularly beneficial in severe or chronic cases, where behavioral modification and mood stabilization are crucial.97

Alternative medicine

Some researchers have also claimed positive outcomes in hypnotherapy.98 The first use of hypnotherapy in Bulimic patients was in 1981. When it comes to hypnotherapy, Bulimic patients are easier to hypnotize than Anorexia Nervosa patients. In Bulimic patients, hypnotherapy focuses on learning self-control when it comes to binging and vomiting, strengthening stimulus control techniques, enhancing ones ego, improving weight control, and helping overweight patients see their body differently (have a different image).99

Risk factors

Being female and having bulimia nervosa takes a toll on mental health. Women frequently reported an onset of anxiety at the same time of the onset of bulimia nervosa.100 The approximate female-to-male ratio of diagnosis is 10:1.101 In addition to cognitive, genetic, and environmental factors, childhood gastrointestinal problems and early pubertal maturation also increase the likelihood of developing bulimia nervosa.102 Another concern with eating disorders is developing a coexisting substance use disorder.103

Epidemiology

There is little data on the percentage of people with bulimia in general populations.104 Most studies conducted thus far have been on convenience samples from hospital patients, high school or university students; research on bulimia nervosa among ethnic minorities has also been limited.105 Existing studies have yielded a wide range of results: between 0.1% and 1.4% of males, and between 0.3% and 9.4% of females.106 Studies on time trends in the prevalence of bulimia nervosa have also yielded inconsistent results.107 According to Gelder, Mayou and Geddes (2005) bulimia nervosa is prevalent between 1 and 2 percent of women aged 15–40 years. Bulimia nervosa occurs more frequently in developed countries108 and in cities, with one study finding that bulimia is five times more prevalent in cities than in rural areas.109 There is a perception that bulimia is most prevalent amongst girls from middle-class families;110 however, in a 2009 study girls from families in the lowest income bracket studied were 153 percent more likely to be bulimic than girls from the highest income bracket.111 According to a study conducted in 2022 by Silen et al., which conglomerated statistics using various methods such as SCID, MRFS, EDE, SSAGA, and EDDI, the US, Finland, Australia, and the Netherlands had an estimated 2.1%, 2.4%, 1.0%, and 0.8% prevalence of bulimia nervosa among females under 30 years of age.112 This demonstrates the prevalence of bulimia nervosa in developed, Western, first-world countries, indicating an urgency in treating adolescent women. Additionally, these statistics may be misrepresentative of the true population affected with bulimia nervosa due to potential underreporting bias.

There are higher rates of eating disorders in groups involved in activities which idealize a slim physique, such as dance,113 gymnastics, modeling, cheerleading, running, acting, swimming, diving, rowing and figure skating. Bulimia is thought to be more prevalent among whites;114 however, a more recent study showed that African-American teenage girls were 50 percent more likely than white girls to exhibit bulimic behavior, including both binging and purging.115

CountryYearSample size and type% affected
Portugal20062,028 high school students0.3% female116
Brazil20041,807 students (ages 7–19)0.8% male1.3% female117
Spain20042,509 female adolescents (ages 13–22)1.4% female118
Hungary2003580 Budapest residents0.4% male3.6% female119
Australia19984,200 high school students0.3% combined120
United States19961,152 college students0.2% male1.3% female121
Norway199519,067 psychiatric patients0.7% male7.3% female122
Canada19958,116 (random sample)0.1% male1.1% female123
Japan19952,597 high school students0.7% male1.9% female124
United States1992799 college students0.4% male5.1% female125

History

Etymology

The term bulimia comes from Greek βουλιμία boulīmia, "ravenous hunger", a compound of βοῦς bous, "ox" and λιμός, līmos, "hunger".126 Literally, the scientific name of the disorder, bulimia nervosa, translates to "nervous ravenous hunger".

Before the 20th century

Although diagnostic criteria for bulimia nervosa did not appear until 1979, evidence suggests that binging and purging were popular in certain ancient cultures. The first documented account of behavior resembling bulimia nervosa was recorded in Xenophon's Anabasis around 370 B.C, in which Greek soldiers purged themselves in the mountains of Asia Minor. It is unclear whether this purging was preceded by binging.127 In ancient Egypt, physicians recommended purging once a month for three days to preserve health.128 This practice stemmed from the belief that human diseases were caused by the food itself. In ancient Rome, elite society members would vomit to "make room" in their stomachs for more food at all-day banquets.129 Emperors Claudius and Vitellius both were gluttonous and obese, and they often resorted to habitual purging.130

Historical records also suggest that some saints who developed anorexia (as a result of a life of asceticism) may also have displayed bulimic behaviors.131 Saint Mary Magdalen de Pazzi (1566–1607) and Saint Veronica Giuliani (1660–1727) were both observed binge eating—giving in, as they believed, to the temptations of the devil.132 Saint Catherine of Siena (1347–1380) is known to have supplemented her strict abstinence from food by purging as reparation for her sins. Catherine died from starvation at age thirty-three.133

While the psychological disorder "bulimia nervosa" is relatively new, the word "bulimia", signifying overeating, has been present for centuries.134 The Babylon Talmud referenced practices of "bulimia", yet scholars believe that this simply referred to overeating without the purging or the psychological implications bulimia nervosa.135 In fact, a search for evidence of bulimia nervosa from the 17th to late 19th century revealed that only a quarter of the overeating cases they examined actually vomited after the binges. There was no evidence of deliberate vomiting or an attempt to control weight.136

20th century

Globally, bulimia was estimated to affect 3.6 million people in 2015.137 About 1% of young women have bulimia at a given point in time and about 2% to 3% of women have the condition at some point in their lives.138 The condition is less common in the developing world.139 Bulimia is about nine times more likely to occur in women than men.140 Among women, rates are highest in young adults.141 Bulimia was named and first described by the British psychiatrist Gerald Russell in 1979.142143

At the turn of the century, bulimia (overeating) was described as a clinical symptom, but rarely in the context of weight control.144 Purging, however, was seen in anorexic patients and attributed to gastric pain rather than another method of weight control.145

In 1930, admissions of anorexia nervosa patients to the Mayo Clinic from 1917 to 1929 were compiled. Fifty-five to sixty-five percent of these patients were reported to be voluntarily vomiting to relieve weight anxiety.146 Records show that purging for weight control continued throughout the mid-1900s. Several case studies from this era reveal patients with the modern description of bulimia nervosa.147 In 1939, Rahman and Richardson reported that out of their six anorexic patients, one had periods of overeating, and another practiced self-induced vomiting.148 Wulff, in 1932, treated "Patient D", who would have periods of intense cravings for food and overeat for weeks, which often resulted in frequent vomiting.149 Patient D, who grew up with a tyrannical father, was repulsed by her weight and would fast for a few days, rapidly losing weight. Ellen West, a patient described by Ludwig Binswanger in 1958, was teased by friends for being fat and excessively took thyroid pills to lose weight, later using laxatives and vomiting.150 She reportedly consumed dozens of oranges and several pounds of tomatoes each day, yet would skip meals. After being admitted to a psychiatric facility for depression, Ellen ate ravenously yet lost weight, presumably due to self-induced vomiting.151 However, while these patients may have met modern criteria for bulimia nervosa, they cannot technically be diagnosed with the disorder, as it had not yet appeared in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders at the time of their treatment.152

An explanation for the increased instances of bulimic symptoms may be due to the 20th century's new ideals of thinness.153 The shame of being fat emerged in the 1940s when teasing remarks about weight became more common. The 1950s, however, truly introduced the trend of aspiration for thinness.154

In 1979, Gerald Russell first published a description of bulimia nervosa, in which he studied patients with a "morbid fear of becoming fat" who overate and purged afterward.155 He specified treatment options and indicated the seriousness of the disease, which can be accompanied by depression and suicide.156 In 1980, bulimia nervosa first appeared in the DSM-III.157

After its appearance in the DSM-III, there was a sudden rise in the documented incidents of bulimia nervosa.158 In the early 1980s, incidents of the disorder rose to about 40 in every 100,000 people.159 This decreased to about 27 in every 100,000 people at the end of the 1980s/early 1990s.160 However, bulimia nervosa's prevalence was still much higher than anorexia nervosa's, which at the time occurred in about 14 people per 100,000.161

In 1991, Kendler et al. documented the cumulative risk for bulimia nervosa for those born before 1950, from 1950 to 1959, and after 1959.162 The risk for those born after 1959 is much higher than those in either of the other cohorts.163

21st century

In the 21st century, bulimia nervosa remains a significant public health concern. Data from 2001 to 2003 indicates that approximately 0.3% of U.S. adults experience bulimia nervosa in a given year, with a higher prevalence among females (0.5%) compared to males (0.1%).164

Globally, the age-standardized prevalence rates of bulimia nervosa have risen from 134.19 per 100,000 individuals in 1990 to 160.25 per 100,000 individuals in 2017, reflecting an annual increase of 0.71%.165

See also

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Bulimia nervosa. Wikiquote has quotations related to Bulimia nervosa.

References

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