Additional information

• Images
• Videos
• Documents
• Books
• Articles

History

See also: History of writing

Writing began after pottery was invented, during the Neolithic, when clay tokens were used to record specific amounts of livestock or commodities.¹⁵ In recent years a contrarian view has arisen on the tokens being the precursor of writing.¹⁶ These tokens were initially impressed on the surface of round clay envelopes (clay bullae) and then stored in them.¹⁷ The tokens were then progressively replaced by flat tablets, on which signs were recorded with a stylus. Writing is first recorded in Uruk, at the end of the 4th millennium BC, and soon after in various parts of the Near-East.¹⁸

An ancient Mesopotamian poem gives the first known story of the invention of writing:

Because the messenger's mouth was heavy and he couldn't repeat [the message], the Lord of Kulaba patted some clay and put words on it, like a tablet. Until then, there had been no putting words on clay.

— Sumerian epic poem Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta. c. 1800 BC.¹⁹²⁰

The cuneiform writing system was in use for more than three millennia, through several stages of development, from the 31st century BC down to the second century AD.²¹ The latest firmly dateable tablet, from Uruk, dates to 79/80 AD.²² Ultimately, it was completely replaced by alphabetic writing, in the general sense, in the course of the Roman era, and there are no cuneiform systems in current use. It had to be deciphered as a completely unknown writing system in 19th-century Assyriology. It was successfully deciphered by 1857.

The cuneiform script changed considerably over more than 2,000 years. The image below shows the development of the sign SAĜ "head" (Borger nr. 184, U+12295 𒊕). Stages: shows the pictogram as it was drawn around 3000 BC shows the rotated pictogram as written from c. 2800–2600 BC shows the abstracted glyph in archaic monumental inscriptions, from c. 2600 BC is the sign as written in clay, contemporary with stage 3 represents the late 3rd millennium BC represents Old Assyrian ductus of the early 2nd millennium BC, as adopted into Hittite is the simplified sign as written by Assyrian scribes in the early 1st millennium BC and until the script's extinction.

Sumerian pictographs (c. 3300 BC)

See also: Proto-cuneiform

The cuneiform script was developed from pictographic proto-writing in the late 4th millennium BC, stemming from the near eastern token system used for accounting. The meaning and usage of these tokens is still a matter of debate.²³ These tokens were in use from the 9th millennium BC and remained in occasional use even late in the 2nd millenniumBC.²⁴ Early tokens with pictographic shapes of animals, associated with numbers, were discovered in Tell Brak, and date to the mid-4th millennium BC.²⁵ It has been suggested that the token shapes were the original basis for some of the Sumerian pictographs.²⁶

Mesopotamia's "proto-literate" period spans roughly the 35th to 32nd centuries BC. The first unequivocal written documents start with the Uruk IV period, from circa 3,300 BC, followed by tablets found in Uruk III, Jemdet Nasr, Early Dynastic I Ur and Susa (in Proto-Elamite) dating to the period until circa 2,900 BC.²⁷

Originally, pictographs were either drawn on clay tablets in vertical columns with a sharpened reed stylus or incised in stone. This early style lacked the characteristic wedge shape of the strokes.²⁸ Most Proto-Cuneiform records from this period were of an accounting nature.²⁹ The proto-cuneiform sign list has grown, as new texts are discovered, and shrunk, as variant signs are combined. The current sign list is 705 elements long with 42 being numeric and four considered pre-proto-Elamite.³⁰³¹³²

Certain signs to indicate names of gods, countries, cities, vessels, birds, trees, etc., are known as determinatives and were the Sumerian signs of the terms in question, added as a guide for the reader. Proper names continued to be usually written in purely "logographic" fashion.

Archaic cuneiform (c. 2900 BC)

Further information: Liste der archaischen Keilschriftzeichen

The first inscribed tablets were purely pictographic, which makes it technically difficult to know in which language they were written. Different languages have been proposed, though usually Sumerian is assumed.³³ Later tablets dating after c. 2900 BC start to use syllabic elements, which clearly show a language structure typical of the agglutinative Sumerian language.³⁴ The first tablets using syllabic elements date to the Early Dynastic I–II periods c. 2800 BC, and they are agreed to be clearly in Sumerian.³⁵

This is the time when some pictographic element started to be used for their phonetic value, permitting the recording of abstract ideas or personal names.³⁶ Many pictographs began to lose their original function, and a given sign could have various meanings depending on context. The sign inventory was reduced from some 1,500 signs to some 600 signs, and writing became increasingly phonological. Determinative signs were re-introduced to avoid ambiguity. Cuneiform writing proper thus arises from the more primitive system of pictographs at about that time, labeled the Early Bronze Age II epoch by historians.

The earliest known Sumerian king, whose name appears on contemporary cuneiform tablets, is Enmebaragesi of Kish (fl. c. 2600 BC).³⁷ Surviving records became less fragmentary for following reigns and by the arrival of Sargon, it had become standard practice for each major city-state to date documents by year-names, commemorating the exploits of its king.

Cuneiforms and hieroglyphs

Geoffrey Sampson stated that Egyptian hieroglyphs "came into existence a little after Sumerian script, and, probably, [were] invented under the influence of the latter",³⁸ and that it is "probable that the general idea of expressing words of a language in writing was brought to Egypt from Sumerian Mesopotamia".³⁹⁴⁰ There are many instances of Egypt-Mesopotamia relations at the time of the invention of writing, and standard reconstructions of the development of writing generally place the development of the Sumerian proto-cuneiform script before the development of Egyptian hieroglyphs, with the suggestion the former influenced the latter.⁴¹ But given the lack of direct evidence for the transfer of writing, "no definitive determination has been made as to the origin of hieroglyphics in ancient Egypt".⁴²

Early Dynastic cuneiform (c. 2500 BC)

Further information: List of cuneiform signs and Sumerian language

Early cuneiform inscriptions were made by using a pointed stylus, sometimes called "linear cuneiform".⁴³ Many of the early dynastic inscriptions, particularly those made on stone, continued to use the linear style as late as circa 2000 BC.⁴⁴

In the mid-3rd millennium BC, a new wedge-tipped stylus was introduced which was pushed into the clay, producing wedge-shaped cuneiform. This development made writing quicker and easier, especially when writing on soft clay.⁴⁵ By adjusting the relative position of the stylus to the tablet, the writer could use a single tool to make a variety of impressions.⁴⁶ For numbers, a round-tipped stylus was initially used, until the wedge-tipped stylus was generalized.⁴⁷ The direction of writing was from top-to-bottom and right-to-left.⁴⁸ Cuneiform clay tablets could be fired in kilns to bake them hard, and so provide a permanent record, or they could be left moist and recycled if permanence was not needed.⁴⁹ Most surviving cuneiform tablets were of the latter kind, accidentally preserved when fires destroyed the tablets' storage place and effectively baked them, unintentionally ensuring their longevity.⁵⁰

The script was widely used on commemorative stelae and carved reliefs to record the achievements of the ruler in whose honor the monument had been erected. The spoken language included many homophones and near-homophones, and in the beginning, similar-sounding words such as "life" [til] and "arrow" [ti] were written with the same symbol (𒋾). As a result, many signs gradually changed from being logograms to also functioning as syllabograms, so that for example, the sign for the word "arrow" would become the sign for the sound "ti".⁵¹

Syllabograms were used in Sumerian writing especially to express grammatical elements, and their use was further developed and modified in the writing of the Akkadian language to express its sounds.⁵² Often, words that had a similar meaning but very different sounds were written with the same symbol. For instance the Sumerian words 'tooth' [zu], 'mouth' [ka] and 'voice' [gu] were all written with the original pictogram for mouth (𒅗).

Words that sounded alike would have different signs; for instance, the syllable [ɡu] had fourteen different symbols.

The inventory of signs was expanded by the combination of existing signs into compound signs. They could either derive their meaning from a combination of the meanings of both original signs (e.g. 𒅗 ka 'mouth' and 𒀀 a 'water' were combined to form the sign for 𒅘 nag̃ 'drink', formally KA×A; cf. Chinese compound ideographs), or one sign could suggest the meaning and the other the pronunciation (e.g. 𒅗 ka 'mouth' was combined with the sign 𒉣 nun 'prince' to express the word 𒅻 nundum, meaning 'lip', formally KA×NUN; cf. Chinese phono-semantic compounds).⁵³

Another way of expressing words that had no sign of their own was by so-called 'Diri compounds' – sign sequences that have, in combination, a reading different from the sum of the individual constituent signs (for example, the compound IGI.A (𒅆𒀀) – "eye" + "water" – has the reading imhur, meaning "foam").⁵⁴

Several symbols had too many meanings to permit clarity. Therefore, symbols were put together to indicate both the sound and the meaning of a symbol. For instance, the word 'raven' (UGA) had the same logogram (𒉀) as the word 'soap' (NAGA), the name of a city (EREŠ), and the patron goddess of Eresh (NISABA). To disambiguate and identify the word more precisely, two phonetic complements were added – Ú (𒌑) for the syllable [u] in front of the symbol and GA (𒂵) for the syllable [ga] behind. Finally, the symbol for 'bird', MUŠEN (𒄷) was added to ensure proper interpretation. As a result, the whole word could be spelt 𒌑𒉀𒂵𒄷, i.e. Ú.NAGA.GAmušen (among the many variant spellings that the word could have).

For unknown reasons, cuneiform pictographs, until then written vertically, were rotated 90° counterclockwise, in effect putting them on their side. This change first occurred slightly before the Akkadian period, at the time of the Uruk ruler Lugalzagesi (r. c. 2294–2270 BC).⁵⁵⁵⁶ The vertical style remained for monumental purposes on stone stelas until the middle of the 2nd millennium.⁵⁷

Written Sumerian was used as a scribal language until the first century AD. The spoken language died out between about 2100 and 1700 BC.

Sumero-Akkadian cuneiform

Further information: Akkadian language

The archaic cuneiform script was adopted by the Akkadian Empire from the 23rd century BC (short chronology). The Akkadian language being East Semitic, its structure was completely different from Sumerian.⁵⁸ The Akkadians found a practical solution in writing their language phonetically, using the corresponding Sumerian phonetic signs.⁵⁹ Still, many of the Sumerian characters were retained for their logographic value as well: for example the character for "sheep" was retained, but was now pronounced immerum, rather than the Sumerian udu.⁶⁰ Such retained individual signs or, sometimes, entire sign combinations with logographic value are known as Sumerograms, a type of heterogram.

The East Semitic languages employed equivalents for many signs that were distorted or abbreviated to represent new values because the syllabic nature of the script as refined by the Sumerians was not intuitive to Semitic speakers.⁶¹ From the beginning of the Middle Bronze Age (20th century BC), the script evolved to accommodate the various dialects of Akkadian: Old Akkadian, Babylonian and Assyrian.⁶² At this stage, the former pictograms were reduced to a high level of abstraction, and were composed of only five basic wedge shapes: horizontal, vertical, two diagonals and the Winkelhaken impressed vertically by the tip of the stylus. The signs exemplary of these basic wedges are:

• AŠ (B001, U+12038) 𒀸: horizontal;
• DIŠ (B748, U+12079) 𒁹: vertical;
• GE23, DIŠ tenû (B575, U+12039) 𒀹: downward diagonal;
• GE22 (B647, U+1203A) 𒀺: upward diagonal;
• U (B661, U+1230B) 𒌋: the Winkelhaken.

Except for the Winkelhaken, which has no tail, the length of the wedges' tails could vary as required for sign composition.

Signs tilted by about 45 degrees are called tenû in Akkadian, thus DIŠ is a vertical wedge and DIŠ tenû a diagonal one. If a sign is modified with additional wedges, this is called gunû or "gunification"; if signs are cross-hatched with additional Winkelhaken, they are called šešig; if signs are modified by the removal of a wedge or wedges, they are called nutillu.

"Typical" signs have about five to ten wedges, while complex ligatures can consist of twenty or more (although it is not always clear if a ligature should be considered a single sign or two collated, but distinct signs); the ligature KAxGUR7 consists of 31 strokes.

Most later adaptations of Sumerian cuneiform preserved at least some aspects of the Sumerian script. Written Akkadian included phonetic symbols from the Sumerian syllabary, together with logograms that were read as whole words. Many signs in the script were polyvalent, having both a syllabic and logographic meaning. The complexity of the system bears a resemblance to Old Japanese, written in a Chinese-derived script, where some of these Sinograms were used as logograms and others as phonetic characters.

This "mixed" method of writing continued through the end of the Babylonian and Assyrian empires, although there were periods when "purism" was in fashion and there was a more marked tendency to spell out the words laboriously, in preference to using signs with a phonetic complement. Yet even in those days, the Babylonian syllabary remained a mixture of logographic and phonemic writing.

Elamite cuneiform

Main article: Elamite cuneiform

Elamite cuneiform was a simplified form of the Sumero-Akkadian cuneiform, used to write the Elamite language in the area that corresponds to modern Iran from the 3rd millennium BC to the 4th century BC. Elamite cuneiform at times competed with other local scripts, Proto-Elamite and Linear Elamite. The earliest known Elamite cuneiform text is a treaty between Akkadians and the Elamites that dates back to 2200 BC.⁶³ Some believe it might have been in use since 2500 BC.⁶⁴ The tablets are poorly preserved, so only limited parts can be read, but it is understood that the text is a treaty between the Akkad king Nāramsîn and Elamite ruler Hita, as indicated by frequent references like "Nāramsîn's friend is my friend, Nāramsîn's enemy is my enemy".⁶⁵

The most famous Elamite scriptures and the ones that ultimately led to its decipherment are the ones found in the trilingual Behistun inscriptions, commissioned by the Achaemenid kings.⁶⁶ The inscriptions, similar to that of the Rosetta Stone's, were written in three different writing systems. The first was Old Persian, which was deciphered in 1802 by Georg Friedrich Grotefend. The second, Babylonian cuneiform, was deciphered shortly after the Old Persian text. Because Elamite is unlike its neighboring Semitic languages, the script's decipherment was delayed until the 1840s.⁶⁷

Elamite cuneiform appears to have used far fewer signs than its Akkadian prototype and initially relied primarily on syllabograms, but logograms became more common in later texts. Many signs soon acquired highly distinctive local shape variants that are often difficult to recognise as related to their Akkadian prototypes.⁶⁸

Hittite cuneiform

Hittite cuneiform is an adaptation of the Old Assyrian cuneiform of c. 1800 BC to the Hittite language and was used from the 17th until approximately the 13th century BC. More or less the same system was used by the scribes of the Hittite Empire for two other Anatolian languages, namely Luwian (alongside the native Anatolian hieroglyphics) and Palaic, as well as for the isolate Hattic language. When the cuneiform script was adapted to writing Hittite, a layer of Akkadian logographic spellings, also known as Akkadograms, was added to the script, in addition to the Sumerian logograms, or Sumerograms, which were already inherent in the Akkadian writing system and which Hittite also kept. Thus the pronunciations of many Hittite words which were conventionally written by logograms are now unknown.

Hurrian and Urartian cuneiform

The Hurrian language (attested 2300–1000 BC) and Urartian language (attested 9th–6th century BC) were also written in adapted versions of Sumero-Akkadian cuneiform. Although the two languages are related, their writing systems seem to have been developed separately. For Hurrian, there were even different systems in different polities (in Mitanni, in Mari, in the Hittite Empire). The Hurrian orthographies were generally characterised by more extensive use of syllabograms and more limited use of logograms than Akkadian. Urartian, in comparison, retained a more significant role for logograms.⁶⁹

Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian cuneiform

In the Iron Age (c. 10th to 6th centuries BC), Assyrian cuneiform was further simplified. The characters remained the same as those of Sumero-Akkadian cuneiforms, but the graphic design of each character relied more heavily on wedges and square angles, making them significantly more abstract:

Babylonian cuneiform was simplified along similar lines during that period, albeit to a lesser extent and in a slightly different way. From the 6th century, the Akkadian language was marginalized by Aramaic, written in the Aramaic alphabet, but Akkadian cuneiform remained in use in the literary tradition well into the times of the Parthian Empire (250 BC–226 AD).⁷⁰ The last known cuneiform inscription, an astronomical text, was written in 75 AD.⁷¹ The ability to read cuneiform may have persisted until the third century AD.⁷²⁷³

Derived scripts

Old Persian cuneiform (5th century BC)

Main article: Old Persian cuneiform

The complexity of cuneiforms prompted the development of a number of simplified versions of the script. Old Persian cuneiform was developed with an independent and unrelated set of simple cuneiform characters, by Darius the Great in the 5th century BC. Most scholars consider this writing system to be an independent invention because it has no obvious connections with other writing systems at the time, such as Elamite, Akkadian, Hurrian, and Hittite cuneiforms.⁷⁴

It formed a semi-alphabetic syllabary, using far fewer wedge strokes than Assyrian used, together with a handful of logograms for frequently occurring words like "god" (𐏎), "king" (𐏋) or "country" (𐏌). This almost purely alphabetical form of the cuneiform script (36 phonetic characters and 8 logograms), was specially designed and used by the early Achaemenid rulers from the 6th century BC down to the 4th century BC.⁷⁵

Because of its simplicity and logical structure, the Old Persian cuneiform script was the first to be deciphered by modern scholars, starting with the accomplishments of Georg Friedrich Grotefend in 1802. Various ancient bilingual or trilingual inscriptions then permitted to decipher the other, much more complicated and more ancient scripts, as far back as to the 3rd millennium Sumerian script.

Ugaritic

Ugaritic was written using the Ugaritic alphabet, a standard Semitic style alphabet (an abjad) written using the cuneiform method.

Archaeology

Between half a million⁷⁶ and two million cuneiform tablets are estimated to have been excavated in modern times, of which only approximately 30,000⁷⁷–100,000 have been read or published. The British Museum holds the largest collection (approx. 130,000 tablets), followed by the Vorderasiatisches Museum Berlin, the Louvre, the Istanbul Archaeology Museums, the National Museum of Iraq, the Yale Babylonian Collection (approx. 40,000), and Penn Museum. Most of these have "lain in these collections for a century without being translated, studied or published",⁷⁸ as there are only a few hundred qualified cuneiformists in the world.⁷⁹

Decipherment

Main article: Decipherment of cuneiform

The decipherment of cuneiform began with the decipherment of Old Persian cuneiform in 1836.

The first cuneiform inscriptions published in modern times were copied from the Achaemenid royal inscriptions in the ruins of Persepolis, with the first complete and accurate copy being published in 1778 by Carsten Niebuhr. Niebuhr's publication was used by Grotefend in 1802 to make the first breakthrough – the realization that Niebuhr had published three different languages side by side and the recognition of the word "king".⁸⁰

The rediscovery and publication of cuneiform took place in the early 17th century, and early conclusions were drawn such as the writing direction and that the Achaemenid royal inscriptions are three different languages, with two different scripts. In 1620, García de Silva Figueroa dated the inscriptions of Persepolis to the Achaemenid period, identified them as Old Persian, and concluded that the ruins were the ancient residence of Persepolis. In 1621, Pietro Della Valle specified the direction of writing from left to right.

In 1762, Jean-Jacques Barthélemy found that an inscription in Persepolis resembled that found on a brick in Babylon. Carsten Niebuhr made the first copies of the inscriptions of Persepolis in 1778 and settled on three different types of writing, which subsequently became known as Niebuhr I, II and III. He was the first to discover the sign for a word division in one of the scriptures. Oluf Gerhard Tychsen was the first to list 24 phonetic or alphabetic values for the characters in 1798.

Actual decipherment did not take place until the beginning of the 19th century, initiated by Georg Friedrich Grotefend in his study of Old Persian cuneiform. He was followed by Antoine-Jean Saint-Martin in 1822 and Rasmus Christian Rask in 1823, who was the first to decipher the name Achaemenides and the consonants m and n. Eugène Burnouf identified the names of various satrapies and the consonants k and z in 1833–1835. Christian Lassen contributed significantly to the grammatical understanding of the Old Persian language and the use of vowels. The decipherers used the short trilingual inscriptions from Persepolis and the inscriptions from Ganjnāme for their work.

In a final step, the decipherment of the trilingual Behistun Inscription was completed by Henry Rawlinson and Edward Hincks. Edward Hincks discovered that Old Persian is partly a syllabary.

In 2023 it was shown that automatic high-quality translation of cuneiform languages like Akkadian can be achieved using natural language processing methods with convolutional neural networks.⁸¹

Transliteration

Cuneiform has a specific format for transliteration. Because of the script's polyvalence, transliteration requires certain choices of the transliterating scholar, who must decide in the case of each sign which of its several possible meanings is intended in the original document. For example, the sign dingir (𒀭) in a Hittite text may represent either the Hittite syllable an or may be part of an Akkadian phrase, representing the syllable il, it may be a Sumerogram, representing the original Sumerian meaning, 'god' or the determinative for a deity. In transliteration, a different rendition of the same glyph is chosen depending on its role in the present context.⁸²

Therefore, a text containing DINGIR (𒀭) and A (𒀀) in succession could be construed to represent the Akkadian words "ana", "ila", god + "a" (the accusative case ending), god + water, or a divine name "A" or Water. Someone transcribing the signs would make the decision how the signs should be read and assemble the signs as "ana", "ila", "Ila" ("god"+accusative case), etc. A transliteration of these signs, would separate the signs with dashes "il-a", "an-a", "DINGIR-a" or "Da". This is still easier to read than the original cuneiform, but now the reader is able to trace the sounds back to the original signs and determine if the correct decision was made on how to read them. A transliterated document thus presents the reading preferred by the transliterating scholar as well as an opportunity to reconstruct the original text.

There are differing conventions for transliterating different languages written with Sumero-Akkadian cuneiform. The following conventions see wide use across the different fields:

• To disambiguate between homophones, i.e. between signs pronounced identically, the letters that express the pronunciation of a sign are supplemented with subscript numbers. For example, u1 stands for the glyph 𒌋, u2 stands for 𒌑, and u3 stands for 𒅇, all thought to have been pronounced /u/. No. 1 is usually treated as the default interpretation and not indicated explicitly, so u is equivalent to u1. For the numbers 2 and 3, accent diacritics are often used as well: an acute accent stands for no. 2 and a grave accent for no. 3. Thus, u is equivalent to u1 (𒌋), ú is equivalent to u2 (𒌑) and ù to u3 (𒅇). The sequence of numbering is conventional but essentially arbitrary and a consequence of the history of decipherment.
• As shown above, signs as such are represented in capital letters. The specific reading selected in the transliteration is represented in small letters. Thus, capital letters can be used to indicate a so-called Diri compound, in which a sequence of signs does not stand for a combination of their usual readings, as in the spelling 𒅆𒀀 IGI.A for the word imhur 'foam' given above. Capital letters may also be used to indicate a Sumerogram, for example, KÙ.BABBAR 𒆬𒌓 – Sumerian for "silver" – being used with the intended Akkadian reading kaspum, "silver", or simply a sign sequence of whose reading the editor is uncertain. Naturally, the "real" reading, if it is clear, will be presented in small letters in the transliteration: IGI.A will be rendered as imhur4. An Akkadogram in Hittite is indicated by capital letters as well, but they are italicised: e.g. ME-E transcribes the sign sequence 𒈨𒂊 when the intended reading is Hittite wātar "water", based on Akkadian mê "water (accusative-genitive case)".
• Another convention is that determinatives are written in superscript: thus, the sequence 𒀕𒆠 (the name of the city Uruk) is transliterated as unugki to show that the second sign, KI, meaning "earth", isn't intended to be pronounced, but only specifies the type of meaning the former sign has. In this case, that it is a place name. A few common determinatives are transliterated with abbreviations: for example, d represents the sign 𒀭 DINGIR when it serves as an indicator that one or more following signs form the name of a deity, as seen in the transliteration of 𒀭𒂗𒆤 as den-líl "Enlil". 𒁹 DIŠ 'one' and 𒊩 MUNUS 'woman' as prefixed determinatives for male and female personal names, uncommon in Sumerian, but subsequently used for some other languages, are often rendered with the abbreviations m and f for "masculine" and "feminine".
• In Sumerian transliteration, a multiplication sign ('×') is used to indicate typographic ligatures. For example, the sign 𒅻 NUNDUM, which stands for the word nundum "lip", can also be designated as KA×NUN, which indicates that it is a compound of the signs 𒅗 KA "mouth" and 𒉣 NUN "prince".

Since the Sumerian language has only been widely known and studied by scholars for approximately a century, changes in the accepted reading of Sumerian names have occurred from time to time. Thus the name of a king of Ur, 𒌨𒀭𒇉, read Ur-Bau at one time, was later read as Ur-Engur, and is now read as Ur-Nammu or Ur-Namma; for Lugal-zage-si (𒈗𒍠𒄀𒋛), a king of Uruk, some scholars continued to read Ungal-zaggisi; and so forth. With some names of the older period, there was often uncertainty whether their bearers were Sumerians or Semites. If the former, then their names could be assumed to be read as Sumerian. If they were Semites, the signs for writing their names were probably to be read according to their Semitic equivalents. Though occasionally, Semites might be encountered bearing genuine Sumerian names.

There was doubt whether the signs composing a Semite's name represented a phonetic reading or a logographic compound. Thus, e.g. when inscriptions of a Semitic ruler of Kish, whose name was written 𒌷𒈬𒍑, Uru-mu-ush, were first deciphered, that name was first taken to be logographic because uru mu-ush could be read as "he founded a city" in Sumerian, and scholars accordingly retranslated it back to the original Semitic as Alu-usharshid. It was later recognized that the URU sign (𒌷) can also be read as rí and that the name is that of the Akkadian king Rimush.

Sign inventories

See also: List of cuneiform signs and Cuneiform (Unicode block)

The Sumerian cuneiform script had on the order of 1,000 distinct signs, or about 1,500 if variants are included. This number was reduced to about 600 by the 24th century BC and the beginning of Akkadian records. Not all Sumerian signs are used in Akkadian texts, and not all Akkadian signs are used in Hittite.

A. Falkenstein (1936) lists 939 signs used in the earliest period, late Uruk, 34th to 31st centuries. See #Bibliography for the works mentioned in this paragraph. With an emphasis on Sumerian forms, Deimel (1922) lists 870 signs used in the Early Dynastic II period (28th century, Liste der archaischen Keilschriftzeichen or "LAK") and for the Early Dynastic IIIa period (26th century, Šumerisches Lexikon or "ŠL").

Rosengarten (1967) lists 468 signs used in Sumerian (pre-Sargonian) Lagash. Mittermayer and Attinger (2006, Altbabylonische Zeichenliste der Sumerisch-Literarischen Texte or "aBZL") list 480 Sumerian forms, written in Isin-Larsa and Old Babylonian times. Regarding Akkadian forms, the standard handbook for many years was Borger (1981, Assyrisch-Babylonische Zeichenliste or "ABZ") with 598 signs used in Assyrian/Babylonian writing, recently superseded by Borger (2004, Mesopotamisches Zeichenlexikon or "MesZL") with an expansion to 907 signs, an extension of their Sumerian readings and a new numbering scheme. The introduction of a cursive script in the Old Babylonian period coincided with the expansion of literacy beyond institutional settings, leading to greater variation in writing styles. This shift may have influenced the increasing number of documented signs, as reflected in later sign lists. As writing adapted to new contexts—whether for administrative, literary, or private use—the need for expanded and specialized sign inventories became more apparent.⁸³

Signs used in Hittite cuneiform are listed by Forrer (1922), Friedrich (1960) and Rüster and Neu (1989, Hethitisches Zeichenlexikon or "HZL"). The HZL lists a total of 375 signs, many with variants (for example, 12 variants are given for number 123 EGIR).

Syllabary

The tables below contain the transliteration schemes of Sumero-Akkadian syllabograms.

Akkadian V and VV syllabic glyphs⁸⁴

	Va	Ve	Vi	Vu		aV	eV	iV	uV
	a = 𒀀 á (a₂) = 𒀉à (a₃) = 𒉿a₄ = 𒀀𒀭a₅ = 𒀝a₆ = 𒌋a₇ = 𒄩a₈ = 𒌨a₉ = 𒆹a₁₀ = 𒊷a₁₁ = 𒀭a₁₂ = 𒌓a₁₃ = 𒌗a₁₄ = 𒂍	e = 𒂊 é (e₂) = 𒂍è (e₃) = 𒌓𒁺e₄ = 𒀀e₅ = 𒊩𒌆e₆ = 𒋣e₇ = 𒅗e₈ = 𒌓e₁₀ = 𒉄e₁₁ = 𒇯𒁺e₁₂ = 𒇯𒁽e₁₃ = 𒊩𒆪	i = 𒄿 í (i₂) = 𒐊ì (i₃) = 𒉌i₄ = 𒉌𒌓i₅ = 𒅗i₆ = 𒆪i₇ = 𒀀𒇉i₈ = 𒇉i₉ = 𒋖𒄑𒆪i₁₀ = 𒌓𒁺i₁₁ = 𒄭i₁₄ = 𒈬i₁₅ = 𒂊i₁₆ = 𒉿	u = 𒌋 ú (u₂) = 𒌑ù (u₃) = 𒅇u₄ = 𒌓u₅ = 𒄷𒋛u₆ = 𒅆𒂍u₇ = 𒆠𒈫u₈ = 𒇇u₉ = 𒂦u₁₀ = 𒁱u₁₁ = 𒄷u₁₂ = 𒌦u₁₃ = 𒄴u₁₄ = 𒌋𒂵u₁₆ = 𒌝u₁₇ = 𒉿u₁₈ = 𒍇u₁₉ = 𒌷u₂₀ = 𒊺u₂₁ = 𒊌u₂₂ = 𒌗u₂₃ = 𒉡		a = 𒀀 á (a₂) = 𒀉à (a₃) = 𒉿a₄ = 𒀀𒀭a₅ = 𒀝a₆ = 𒌋a₇ = 𒄩a₈ = 𒌨a₉ = 𒆹a₁₀ = 𒊷a₁₁ = 𒀭a₁₂ = 𒌓a₁₃ = 𒌗a₁₄ = 𒂍	e = 𒂊 é (e₂) = 𒂍è (e₃) = 𒌓𒁺e₄ = 𒀀e₅ = 𒊩𒌆e₆ = 𒋣e₇ = 𒅗e₈ = 𒌓e₁₀ = 𒉄e₁₁ = 𒇯𒁺e₁₂ = 𒇯𒁽e₁₃ = 𒊩𒆪	i = 𒄿 í (i₂) = 𒐊ì (i₃) = 𒉌i₄ = 𒉌𒌓i₅ = 𒅗i₆ = 𒆪i₇ = 𒀀𒇉i₈ = 𒇉i₉ = 𒋖𒄑𒆪i₁₀ = 𒌓𒁺i₁₁ = 𒄭i₁₄ = 𒈬i₁₅ = 𒂊i₁₆ = 𒉿	u = 𒌋 ú (u₂) = 𒌑ù (u₃) = 𒅇u₄ = 𒌓u₅ = 𒄷𒋛u₆ = 𒅆𒂍u₇ = 𒆠𒈫u₈ = 𒇇u₉ = 𒂦u₁₀ = 𒁱u₁₁ = 𒄷u₁₂ = 𒌦u₁₃ = 𒄴u₁₄ = 𒌋𒂵u₁₆ = 𒌝u₁₇ = 𒉿u₁₈ = 𒍇u₁₉ = 𒌷u₂₀ = 𒊺u₂₁ = 𒊌u₂₂ = 𒌗u₂₃ = 𒉡
a-			ai = 𒀀𒀀				ea = 𒀀	ia = 𒅀 iá (ia₂) = 𒐊ià (ia₃) = 𒉌ia₄ = 𒉌𒌓ia₅ = 𒈬ia₇ = 𒐃ia₈ = 𒉿ia₉ = 𒀼𒋰ia₁₀ = 𒀀	ua = 𒇇 uá (ua₂) = 𒁱ua₄ = 𒁦	-a
e-	ea = 𒀀							ie = 𒅀		-e
i-	ia = 𒅀 iá (ia₂) = 𒐊ià (ia₃) = 𒉌ia₄ = 𒉌𒌓ia₅ = 𒈬ia₇ = 𒐃ia₈ = 𒉿ia₉ = 𒀼𒋰ia₁₀ = 𒀀	ie = 𒅀	ii = 𒅀 iì (ii₃) = 𒂊	iu = 𒅀 iú (iu₂) = 𒉿		ai = 𒀀𒀀		ii = 𒅀 iì (ii₃) = 𒂊		-i
u-	ua = 𒇇 uá (ua₂) = 𒁱ua₄ = 𒁦							iu = 𒅀 iú (iu₂) = 𒉿		-u

Akkadian CV and VC syllabic glyphs⁸⁵

	Ca	Ce	Ci	Cu		aC	eC	iC	uC
ʾ-	ʾa = 𒀪 ʾá (ʾa₂) = 𒄴ʾà (ʾa₃) = 𒂍ʾa₄ = 𒄩ʾa₅ = 𒉌	ʾe = 𒀪 ʾé (ʾe₂) = 𒄴	ʾi = 𒀪 ʾí (ʾi₂) = 𒄴ʾì (ʾi₃) = 𒄭	ʾu = 𒀪 ʾú (ʾu₂) = 𒄴ʾù (ʾu₃) = 𒇇ʾu₄ = 𒀀ʾu₅ = 𒄷		aʾ = 𒀪 áʾ (aʾ₂) = 𒄴àʾ (aʾ₃) = 𒂍	eʾ = 𒀪 éʾ (eʾ₂) = 𒄴èʾ (eʾ₃) = 𒂍	iʾ = 𒀪 íʾ (iʾ₂) = 𒄴	uʾ = 𒀪 úʾ (uʾ₂) = 𒄴ùʾ (uʾ₃) = 𒇇u₄ʾ = 𒌔	-ʾ
b-	ba = 𒁀 bá (ba₂) = 𒉺bà (ba₃) = 𒌍ba₄ = 𒂷ba₅ = 𒅮ba₆ = 𒌑ba₇ = 𒈦ba₈ = 𒂦ba₉ = 𒁁ba₁₀ = 𒉼ba₁₁ = 𒅤ba₁₃ = 𒈨ba₁₄ = 𒉽ba₁₅ = 𒁇	be = 𒁁 bé (be₂) = 𒁉bè (be₃) = 𒉌be₄ = 𒁀be₅ = 𒆪be₆ = 𒉿be₇ = 𒉈	bi = 𒁉 bí (bi₂) = 𒉈bì (bi₃) = 𒉿bi₄ = 𒁁𒁁bi₅ = 𒉋bi₆ = 𒁀bi₇ = 𒆪bi₉ = 𒄴	bu = 𒁍 bú (bu₂) = 𒆜bù (bu₃) = 𒅤bu₄ = 𒇥bu₅ = 𒇧, 𒇥bu₇ = 𒆪bu₈ = 𒁔bu₉ = 𒁑bu₁₀ = 𒉽𒉽bu₁₁ = 𒌑bu₁₂ = 𒌋bu₁₃ = 𒅮bu₁₄ = 𒇡bu₁₅ = 𒉻bu₁₆ = 𒉌bu₁₇ = 𒅗		ab = 𒀊 áb (ab₂) = 𒀖àb (ab₃) = 𒀜ab₄ = 𒀔	eb = 𒅁 éb (eb₂) = 𒌈	ib = 𒅁 íb (ib₂) = 𒌈	ub = 𒌒 úb (ub₂) = 𒂠ùb (ub₃) = 𒀚ub₄ = 𒇥ub₅ = 𒀛, 𒀚ub₆ = 𒀙	-b
d-	da = 𒁕 dá (da₂) = 𒋫dà (da₃) = 𒆕da₄ = 𒁮da₅ = 𒍏da₆ = 𒋳da₇ = 𒌓da₈ = 𒁖da₉ = 𒌣da₁₀ = 𒄭da₁₁ = 𒅅da₁₂ = 𒅗da₁₃ = 𒋺	de = 𒁲 dé (de₂) = 𒌣dè (de₃) = 𒉈de₄ = 𒋼de₅ = 𒊑de₆ = 𒁺de₈ = 𒊹de₉ = 𒋾	di = 𒁲 dí (di₂) = 𒊹dì (di₃) = 𒋾di₄ = 𒌉di₅ = 𒊑di₆ = 𒁺di₇ = 𒉈di₈ = 𒌣di₁₁ = 𒁴di₁₂ = 𒋼	du = 𒁺 dú (du₂) = 𒌅dù (du₃) = 𒆕du₄ = 𒌈du₅ = 𒂅du₆ = 𒇯du₇ = 𒌌du₈ = 𒃮/𒂃du₉ = 𒁔du₁₀ = 𒄭du₁₁ = 𒅗du₁₂ = 𒌇du₁₃ = 𒌉du₁₄ = 𒇽𒉈, 𒈌du₁₅ = 𒄭𒁁, 𒄰du₁₆ = 𒌚du₁₇ = 𒉈du₁₉ = 𒌣du₂₀ = 𒁕du₂₄ = 𒂄du₂₅ = 𒀲𒀴du₂₆ = 𒋛𒀀		ad = 𒀜 ád (ad₂) = 𒄉àd (ad₃) = 𒇼ad₄ = 𒍞ad₅ = 𒌑𒄉ad₆ = 𒇽𒁁, 𒇿, 𒈕	ed = 𒀉 éd (ed₂) = 𒌓𒁺èd (ed₃) = 𒇯𒁺ed₄ = 𒇯𒁽	id = 𒀉 íd (id₂) = 𒀀𒇉ìd (id₃) = 𒇉id₄ = 𒌓𒀭𒋀𒆠id₅ = 𒀀id₆ = 𒀀𒇉𒃲id₇ = 𒀀𒇉𒁲id₈ = 𒌗id₉ = 𒌗𒀭𒋀𒆠	ud = 𒌓 úd (ud₂) = 𒀾ud₄ = 𒋸ud₅ = 𒍚ud₆ = 𒌋𒂵	-d
g-	ga = 𒂵 gá (ga₂) = 𒂷gà (ga₃) = 𒃷ga₄ = 𒃻ga₅ = 𒋡ga₆ = 𒅍ga₇ = 𒅅ga₈ = 𒄄ga₁₁ = 𒄯ga₁₂ = 𒈪ga₁₄ = 𒅗ga₁₅ = 𒃮	ge = 𒄀 gé (ge₂) = 𒆤gè (ge₃) = 𒁹ge₄ = 𒄄ge₅ = 𒆠ge₆ = 𒈪ge₇ = 𒂠ge₉ = 𒉈ge₁₀ = 𒉋ge₁₁ = 𒂅ge₁₂ = 𒊩𒆳ge₁₃ = 𒁺ge₁₄ = 𒌋ge₁₅ = 𒀸ge₁₆ = 𒄃ge₁₇ = 𒈪𒉭ge₁₈ = 𒁶ge₁₉ = 𒋝𒋙𒁷, 𒉾ge₂₀ = 𒂵ge₂₁ = 𒆳ge₂₂ = 𒍻ge₂₃ = 𒀹ge₂₄ = 𒀵ge₂₆ = 𒂷ge₂₈ = 𒁨	gi = 𒄀 gí (gi₂) = 𒆤gì (gi₃) = 𒁹gi₄ = 𒄄gi₅ = 𒆠gi₆ = 𒈪gi₇ = 𒂠gi₈ = 𒅆gi₉ = 𒉈gi₁₀ = 𒉋gi₁₁ = 𒂅gi₁₂ = 𒊩𒆳gi₁₆ = 𒄃gi₁₇ = 𒈪𒉭gi₁₈ = 𒁶gi₂₅ = 𒂂gi₂₇ = 𒁍	gu = 𒄖 gú (gu₂) = 𒄘gù (gu₃) = 𒅗gu₄ = 𒄞gu₅ = 𒆪gu₆ = 𒅘gu₇ = 𒅥gu₈ = 𒄣gu₉ = 𒆰gu₁₀ = 𒈬gu₁₁ = 𒂵gu₁₃ = 𒄯gu₁₄ = 𒆠gu₁₅ = 𒈝gu₁₆ = 𒆍		ag = 𒀝 ág (ag₂) = 𒉘àg (ag₃) = 𒋃	eg = 𒅅 ég (eg₂) = 𒂊èb (eg₃) = 𒉘	ig = 𒅅 íg (ig₂) = 𒂊ìg (ig₃) = 𒉘	ug = 𒊌 úg (ug₂) = 𒄊, 𒊊ùg (ug₃) = 𒌦ug₄ = 𒌓ug₅ = 𒂦ug₇ = 𒁁ug₈ = 𒈕	-g
ḫ-	ḫa = 𒄩 ḫá (ḫa₂) = 𒄭𒀀ḫà (ḫa₃) = 𒌋ḫa₄ = 𒄭ḫa₅ = 𒌓ḫa₆ = 𒄫ḫa₈ = 𒋖𒄑	ḫe = 𒄭 ḫé (ḫe₂) = 𒃶	ḫi = 𒄭 ḫí (ḫi₂) = 𒃶	ḫu = 𒄷 ḫú (ḫu₂) = 𒆭ḫù (ḫu₃) = 𒌋ḫu₄ = 𒄯ḫu₅ = 𒈝		aḫ = 𒄴 áḫ (aḫ₂) = 𒋀àḫ (aḫ₃) = 𒌓aḫ₄ = 𒀪aḫ₅ = 𒀉aḫ₆ = 𒌔	eḫ = 𒄴 éḫ (eḫ₂) = 𒀪èḫ (eḫ₃) = 𒆪𒆪	iḫ = 𒄴 íḫ (iḫ₂) = 𒀪	uḫ = 𒄴 úḫ (uḫ₂) = 𒌔ùḫ (uḫ₃) = 𒆵uḫ₄ = 𒅜uḫ₅ = 𒀪uḫ₆ = 𒅎𒋙uḫ₇ = 𒌋𒆕	-ḫ
k-	ka = 𒅗 ká (ka₂) = 𒆍kà (ka₃) = 𒂵ka₄ = 𒋡ka₅ = 𒈜ka₆ = 𒋝𒋙𒁷, 𒉾ka₇ = 𒁽ka₈ = 𒁉ka₉ = 𒋃ka₁₀ = 𒈜𒀀ka₁₁ = 𒋼𒀀ka₁₃ = 𒄰, 𒄰ka₁₄ = 𒍪ka₁₅ = 𒆕ka₁₆ = 𒃶	ke = 𒆠 ké (ke₂) = 𒄀kè (ke₃) = 𒀝ke = 𒆤	ki = 𒆠 kí (ki₂) = 𒄀kì (ki₃) = 𒀝ki₄ = 𒆤ki₆ = 𒍪ki₇ = 𒆕ki₈ = 𒄄	ku = 𒆪 kú (ku₂) = 𒅥kù (ku₃) = 𒆬ku₄ = 𒆭ku₅ = 𒋻ku₆ = 𒄩ku₇ = 𒆯ku₈ = 𒄖ku₉ = 𒆰ku₁₀ = 𒈪ku₁₁ = 𒆠ku₁₃ = 𒄣ku₁₄ = 𒆲ku₁₅ = 𒄞ku₁₆ = 𒉈ku₁₇ = 𒄫		ak = 𒀝 àk (ak₃) = 𒋃	ek = 𒅅	ik = 𒅅	uk = 𒊌	-k
l-	la = 𒆷 lá (la₂) = 𒇲là (la₃) = 𒉡la₄ = 𒁺𒁺la₅ = 𒇳la₆ = 𒆗la₇ = 𒌓la₈ = 𒂔la₁₀ = 𒋃la₁₂ = 𒇴	le = 𒇷 lé (le₂) = 𒉌lè (le₃) = 𒅆le₄ = 𒀭le₈ = 𒀖le₉ = 𒉈le₁₀ = 𒁕	li = 𒇷 lí (li₂) = 𒉌lì (li₃) = 𒅆li₅ = 𒊭li₆ = 𒃶li₇ = 𒌨li₈ = 𒀖li₉ = 𒉈li₁₁ = 𒉣li₁₂ = 𒇺li₁₃ = 𒉋	lu = 𒇻 lú (lu₂) = 𒇽lù (lu₃) = 𒈖lu₄ = 𒈝lu₅ = 𒈜lu₆ = 𒌨lu₇ = 𒍇lu₈ = 𒌷lu₉ = 𒉺		al = 𒀠 ál (al₂) = 𒀩àl (al₃) = 𒃷al₅ = 𒌓al₆ = 𒈤al₈ = 𒌷al₉ = 𒅋	el = 𒂖 él (el₂) = 𒅋èl (el₃) = 𒀭el = 𒅌	il = 𒅋 íl (il₂) = 𒅍ìl (il₃) = 𒀭il₄ = 𒁹il₅ = 𒂖il₆ = 𒀧il₈ = 𒅌il₉ = 𒇸il₁₀ = 𒀠, 𒅋	ul = 𒌌 úl (ul₂) = 𒉡ùl (ul₃) = 𒁉𒑖ul₄ = 𒄉ul₅ = 𒂬ul₆ = 𒌓ul₇ = 𒋗𒁍ul₈ = 𒃷	-l
m-	ma = 𒈠 má (ma₂) = 𒈣mà (ma₃) = 𒂷ma₄ = 𒊬ma₅ = 𒅡ma₆ = 𒈨ma₇ = 𒈦ma₈ = 𒅿ma₉ = 𒉿ma₁₀ = 𒎙	me = 𒈨 mé (me₂) = 𒈪mè (me₃) = 𒅠, 𒀞me₄ = 𒁁me₅ = 𒀀me₆ = 𒀝me₇ = 𒃙me₈ = 𒉿me₉ = 𒇞me₁₀ = 𒅎me₁₁ = 𒀟	mi = 𒈪 mí (mi₂) = 𒊩mì (mi₃) = 𒈨mi₄ = 𒃞mi₅ = 𒉿	mu = 𒈬 mú (mu₂) = 𒊬mù (mu₃) = 𒅡mu₄ = 𒌆mu₅ = 𒉌mu₆ = 𒉺mu₇ = 𒅲mu₈ = 𒃻mu₉ = 𒄑mu₁₀ = 𒊩mu₁₁ = 𒅿mu₁₂ = 𒄷𒄭mu₁₃ = 𒆀mu₁₄ = 𒀀		am = 𒄠 ám (am₂) = 𒉘àm (am₃) = 𒀀𒀭am₄ = 𒃘am₅ = 𒃣am₆ = 𒀭am₇ = 𒉿	em = 𒅎 èm (em₃) = 𒉘em₄ = 𒅴	im = 𒅎 ím (im₂) = 𒁽ìm (im₃) = 𒉘im₅ = 𒁼im₆ = 𒁺im₇ = 𒅖𒀀𒋤	um = 𒌝 úm (um₂) = 𒌓	-m
n-	na = 𒈾 ná (na₂) = 𒈿nà (na₃) = 𒀝na₄ = 𒉌𒌓na₅ = 𒊭na₆ = 𒇽na₇ = 𒉆na₈ = 𒅘	ne = 𒉈 né (ne₂) = 𒉌nè (ne₃) = 𒄊/𒊊ne₄ = 𒋙𒉈ne₅ = 𒆠𒉈ne₆ = 𒈾ne₇ = 𒈿ne₈ = 𒉋	ni = 𒉌 ní (ni₂) = 𒅎nì (ni₃) = 𒃻ni₄ = 𒊩𒌆ni₅ = 𒉈ni₆ = 𒆸𒆸ni₇ = 𒉏ni₈ = 𒇷ni₉ = 𒌋𒌓𒆤ni₁₀ = 𒆸	nu = 𒉡 nú (nu₂) = 𒈿nù (nu₃) = 𒉏nu₄ = 𒈝nu₅ = 𒆰nu₆ = 𒉣nu₇ = 𒀕nu₈ = 𒈾nu₉ = 𒇷nu₁₀ = 𒆪nu₁₁ = 𒋓nu₁₂ = 𒇻/𒁳nu₁₃ = 𒄴		an = 𒀭 án (an₂) = 𒄒	en = 𒂗 én (en₂) = 𒋙𒀭, 𒌋𒀭èn (en₃) = 𒇷en₄ = 𒅗en₅ = 𒉺𒋼en₆ = 𒅔en₇ = 𒍠en₈ = 𒊭	in = 𒅔 in₄ = 𒂗in₅ = 𒊩𒌆in₆ = 𒀸	un = 𒌦 ún (un₂) = 𒌋ùn (un₃) = 𒂦un₄ = 𒂬un₅ = 𒌓	-n
p-	pa = 𒉺 pá (pa₂) = 𒁀pà (pa₃) = 𒅆𒊒pa₄ = 𒉽pa₅ = 𒉽𒂊pa₆ = 𒉽𒅖pa₇ = 𒄷pa₈ = 𒋃pa₉ = 𒊷pa₁₀ = 𒅆pa₁₁ = 𒃶pa₁₂ = 𒉿	pe = 𒉿 pé (pe₂) = 𒁉pè (pe₃) = 𒁁pe₄ = 𒅗pe₅ = 𒉈	pi = 𒉿 pí (pi₂) = 𒁉pì (pi₃) = 𒁁pi₄ = 𒅗pi₅ = 𒉈pi₆ = 𒉋pi₇ = 𒂺pi₈ = 𒁍	pu = 𒁍 pú (pu₂) = 𒇥pù (pu₃) = 𒅤pu₄ = 𒅤pu₆ = 𒇀pu₁₁ = 𒌑		ap = 𒀊 áp (ap₂) = 𒀖àp (ap₃) = 𒀜	ep = 𒅁 ép (ep₂) = 𒌈	ip = 𒅁 íp (ip₂) = 𒌈	up = 𒌒 úp (up₂) = 𒂠	-p
q-	qa = 𒋡 qá (qa₂) = 𒂵qà (qa₃) = 𒅗qa₄ = 𒋗𒈫qa₆ = 𒆕	qe = 𒆥 qé (qe₂) = 𒆠qè (qe₃) = 𒄀qe₄ = 𒄄	qi = 𒆥 qí (qi₂) = 𒆠qì (qi₃) = 𒄀qi₄ = 𒄄qi₅ = 𒆤qi₆ = 𒆕	qu = 𒄣 qú (₂) = 𒆪qù (₃) = 𒄖qu₅ = 𒆬qu₆ = 𒄘qu₇ = 𒄞		aq = 𒀝	eq = 𒅅	iq = 𒅅	uq = 𒊌 uq₅ = 𒂦	-q
r-	ra = 𒊏 rá (ra₂) = 𒁺rà (ra₃) = 𒌓ra₄ = 𒋥ra₅ = 𒁍ra₆ = 𒀝	re = 𒊑 ré (re₂) = 𒌷rè (re₃) = 𒆸re₆ = 𒁺re₇ = 𒁻re₁₂ = 𒆕	ri = 𒊑 rí (ri₂) = 𒌷rì (ri₃) = 𒆸ri₄ = 𒍮ri₅ = 𒉪ri₆ = 𒁺ri₈ = 𒈶ri₉ = 𒈕, 𒈗𒆚ri₁₀ = 𒂔ri₁₂ = 𒆕	ru = 𒊒 rú (ru₂) = 𒆕rù (ru₃) = 𒀸ru₄ = 𒍍ru₅ = 𒌌ru₆ = 𒂔ru₇ = 𒌨ru₈ = 𒋭ru₉ = 𒌷ru₁₀ = 𒋽ru₁₁ = 𒌾ru₁₂ = 𒂗ru₁₃ = 𒂘		ar = 𒅈 ár (ar₂) = 𒌒àr (ar₃) = 𒄯ar₅ = 𒃵	er = 𒅕 ér (er₂) = 𒀀𒅆èr (er₃) = 𒀴er₄ = 𒌷er₆ = 𒀅er₁₀ = 𒁺er₁₃ = 𒈁	ir = 𒅕 ír (ir₂) = 𒀀𒅆ìr (ir₃) = 𒀴ir₄ = 𒌷ir₅ = 𒄯ir₆ = 𒀅ir₇ = 𒆜ir₉ = 𒄊ir₁₀ = 𒁺ir₁₁ = 𒀵ir₁₃ = 𒅕ir₁₇ = 𒂆	ur = 𒌨 úr (ur₂) = 𒌫ùr (ur₃) = 𒃡ur₄ = 𒌴ur₅ = 𒄯ur₆ = 𒌌ur₇ = 𒉞ur₉ = 𒌲ur₁₀ = 𒌵ur₁₁ = 𒀳ur₁₂ = 𒋽ur₁₃ = 𒊐𒃲ur₁₄ = 𒃣	-r
s-	sa = 𒊓 sá (sa₂) = 𒁲sà (sa₃) = 𒍝sa₄ = 𒄷𒈿, 𒄷𒄭𒈿sa₅ = 𒋛𒀀sa₆ = 𒊷sa₇ = 𒅊sa₈ = 𒀭sa₉ = 𒈦sa₁₀ = 𒉛sa₁₁ = 𒋜sa₁₂ = 𒊕sa₁₃ = 𒅆𒂟sa₁₄ = 𒆗sa₁₅ = 𒃻sa₁₆ = 𒌓sa₁₇ = 𒋙𒉀sa₁₈ = 𒁉sa₁₉ = 𒊮sa₂₀ = 𒊭sa₂₁ = 𒊾	se = 𒋛 sé (se₂) = 𒍣sè (se₃) = 𒋧se₉ = 𒈻se₁₀ = 𒍝𒈹𒁲se₁₁ = 𒋝se₁₂ = 𒅊se₂₀ = 𒍢se₂₄ = 𒈺, 𒀀𒈹se₂₅ = 𒈹𒁲se₂₆ = 𒀀𒈹𒁲se₂₇ = 𒈹se₂₈ = 𒈽	si = 𒋛 sí (si₂) = 𒍣sì (si₃) = 𒋧si₄ = 𒋜si₅ = 𒅆𒂠si₆ = 𒇻si₇ = 𒌣si₈ = 𒁲si₁₁ = 𒋝si₁₂ = 𒅊si₁₃ = 𒉆si₁₄ = 𒂁si₁₅ = 𒊬si₁₆ = 𒋝si₁₇ = 𒅆si₁₈ = 𒅲, 𒅝si₁₉ = 𒆉si₂₀ = 𒍢si₂₁ = 𒆗si₂₂ = 𒄀, 𒆬si₂₃ = 𒄢	su = 𒋢 sú (su₂) = 𒍪sù (su₃) = 𒋤su₄ = 𒋜su₅ = 𒆪su₆ = 𒅾su₇ = 𒇭su₈ = 𒁻su₉ = 𒋜𒀀su₁₀ = 𒈽su₁₁ = 𒅗su₁₂ = 𒋧, 𒋛su₁₃ = 𒁍su₁₄ = 𒍮su₁₅ = 𒁉su₁₆ = 𒁔su₁₇ = 𒂄su₁₈ = 𒂅su₁₉ = 𒁺𒁺su₂₀ = 𒋆		as = 𒊍 ás (as₂) = 𒀾às (as₃) = 𒀸as₄ = 𒆹as₅ = 𒋓as₆ = 𒄱	es = 𒄑 és (es₂) = 𒌍ès (es₃) = 𒀊es = 𒅖	is = 𒄑 ís (is₂) = 𒅖ìs (is₃) = 𒀊is₅ = 𒌍	us = 𒊻 ús (us₂) = 𒍑ùs (us₃) = 𒍚us₄ = 𒊍us₅ = 𒇇	-s
ṣ-	ṣa = 𒍝 ṣà (ṣa₃) = 𒀭	ṣe = 𒍢 ṣé (ṣe₂) = 𒍣	ṣi = 𒍢 ṣí (ṣi₂) = 𒍣ṣì (ṣi₃) = 𒋛ṣi₄ = 𒂠	ṣu = 𒍮 ṣú (ṣu₂) = 𒍪		aṣ = 𒊍 áṣ (aṣ₂) = 𒀾àṣ (aṣ₃) = 𒀸	eṣ = 𒄑 èṣ (eṣ₃) = 𒀊	iṣ = 𒄑 íṣ (iṣ₂) = 𒅖ìṣ (iṣ₃) = 𒀊	uṣ = 𒊻 úṣ (uṣ₂) = 𒍑uṣ₄ = 𒊍	-ṣ
ś-	śa = 𒊓 śá (śa₂) = 𒁲	śe = 𒋛 śé (śe₂) = 𒋝	śi = 𒋛 śí (śi) = 𒋜śì (śi) = 𒋝	śu = 𒋢 śú (śu₂) = 𒋜śù (śu₃) = 𒋤		aś = 𒀾		iś = 𒅖 iś₇ = 𒀊	uś = 𒍑	-ś
š-	ša = 𒊭 šá (ša₂) = 𒃻šà (ša₃) = 𒊮ša₄ = 𒁺ša₅ = 𒀝ša₆ = 𒊷ša₇ = 𒊑ša₈ = 𒊬ša₉ = 𒄣ša₁₀ = 𒊓ša₁₁ = 𒇽ša₁₂ = 𒊩ša₁₃ = 𒊹ša₁₄ = 𒂷ša₁₅ = 𒅆𒂟ša₁₆ = 𒂠ša₁₇ = 𒅇ša₂₁ = 𒁉ša₂₂ = 𒄷𒈿, 𒄷𒄭𒈿ša₂₃ = 𒁈ša₂₄ = 𒊕ša₂₅ = 𒌑	še = 𒊺 šé (še₂) = 𒋛šè (še₃) = 𒂠še₄ = 𒈻še₅ = 𒍝𒈹𒁲še₆ = 𒉈še₇ = 𒀀𒀭še₈ = 𒋁še₉ = 𒋙𒀭, 𒌋𒀭, 𒁇𒀭še₁₀ = 𒆪še₁₁ = 𒈜še₁₂ = 𒈺, 𒀀𒈹še₁₃ = 𒁺še₁₄ = 𒋃še₁₅ = 𒌁še₁₆ = 𒋀še₁₇ = 𒈹𒁲še₁₈ = 𒀀𒈹𒁲še₁₉ = 𒋧še₂₀ = 𒅆, 𒂠še₂₁ = 𒄷𒈿še₂₂ = 𒂞še₂₃ = 𒈹še₂₄ = 𒈽še₂₅ = 𒆂še₂₆ = 𒅝še₂₇ = 𒋞še₂₈ = 𒅗še₂₉ = 𒈂, 𒇽𒃸	ši = 𒅆 ší (ši₂) = 𒋛šì (ši₃) = 𒋝ši₄ = 𒂠ši₅ = 𒆪ši₆ = 𒋆ši₇ = 𒅊	šu = 𒋗 šú (šu₂) = 𒋙šù (šu₃) = 𒂠šu₄ = 𒌋šu₅ = 𒇟šu₆ = 𒇠šu₇ = 𒃻šu₁₀ = 𒈬šu₁₁ = 𒋢šu₁₂ = 𒆃šu₁₃ = 𒁉šu₁₄ = 𒋳šu₁₅ = 𒍮šu₁₆ = 𒌋𒌓		aš = 𒀸 áš (aš₂) = 𒀾àš (aš₃) = 𒐋aš₄ = 𒐄aš₅ = 𒋁𒋦aš₆ = 𒋁, 𒀊aš₇ = 𒋓aš₈ = 𒄱aš₉ = 𒑀aš₁₀ = 𒁹aš₁₁ = 𒀹	eš = 𒌍 éš (eš₂) = 𒂠èš (eš₃) = 𒀊eš₄ = 𒁹eš₅ = 𒐈eš₆ = 𒐁eš₇ = 𒑘eš₈ = 𒆜eš₉ = 𒀀𒅆eš₁₀ = 𒀀eš₁₁ = 𒊑eš₁₂ = 𒉊eš₁₃ = 𒉉eš₁₅ = 𒅖eš₁₆ = 𒐺eš₁₇ = 𒈨𒌍eš₁₈ = 𒀹eš₁₉ = 𒄑eš₂₀ = 𒀸eš₂₁ = 𒐻eš₂₂ = 𒇵eš₂₃ = 𒀼	iš = 𒅖 íš (iš₂) = 𒆜ìš (iš₃) = 𒌍𒌍iš₄ = 𒁹iš₅ = 𒅗iš₆ = 𒄑iš₇ = 𒀊iš₈ = 𒀹iš₉ = 𒂠iš₁₀ = 𒍑iš₁₁ = 𒇵iš₁₂ = 𒇴	uš = 𒍑 úš (uš₂) = 𒁁ùš (uš₃) = 𒃣uš₄ = 𒌆uš₅ = 𒉦uš₆ = 𒉥uš₇ = 𒅲uš₈ = 𒀳uš₁₀ = 𒊻uš₁₁ = 𒅜uš₁₅ = 𒅜uš₁₆ = 𒋛𒀀uš₁₇ = 𒄮uš₁₈ = 𒌍uš₁₉ = 𒄑	-š
t-	ta = 𒋫 tá (ta₂) = 𒁕tà (ta₃) = 𒋳ta₄ = 𒁮ta₅ = 𒌓ta₆ = 𒋺ta₇ = 𒉿ta₈ = 𒄭	te = 𒋼 té (te₂) = 𒊹tè (te₃) = 𒉁te₄ = 𒉈te₅ = 𒌆te₆ = 𒋃te₈ = 𒀉te₉ = 𒋾te₁₀ = 𒁲te₁₁ = 𒉿	ti = 𒋾 tí (ti₂) = 𒊹tì (ti₃) = 𒁴ti₄ = 𒁲ti₅ = 𒁁ti₇ = 𒋼ti₈ = 𒀉ti₉ = 𒉈ti₁₀ = 𒌗	tu = 𒌅 tú (tu₂) = 𒌓tù (tu₃) = 𒁺tu₄ = 𒌈tu₅ = 𒋗𒉀tu₆ = 𒅲tu₇ = 𒄰, 𒄰tu₈ = 𒉏tu₉ = 𒌆tu₁₀ = 𒄽tu₁₁ = 𒄸tu₁₂ = 𒌇tu₁₃ = 𒇧tu₁₄ = 𒋃tu₁₅ = 𒅎tu₁₆ = 𒂀tu₁₇ = 𒀀𒋗𒉀tu₁₈ = 𒂅tu₁₉ = 𒌉tu₂₀ = 𒆕tu₂₁ = 𒇯tu₂₂ = 𒉀tu₂₃ = 𒉂tu₂₄ = 𒂃, 𒃮tu₂₅ = 𒉐		at = 𒀜 át (at₂) = 𒄉at₆ = 𒇽𒁁, 𒇿	et = 𒀉	it = 𒀉 ít (it₂) = 𒀀𒇉it₄ = 𒌓𒀭𒋀𒆠it₉ = 𒌗𒀭𒋀𒆠	ut = 𒌓 út (ut₂) = 𒀾ut₄ = 𒋸, 𒋳𒌆ut₅ = 𒍚ut₆ = 𒌋𒂵	-t
ṭ-	ṭa = 𒁕 ṭá (ṭa₂) = 𒋫ṭà (ṭa₃) = 𒄭ṭa₄ = 𒁮	ṭe = 𒁲 ṭé (ṭe₂) = 𒊹ṭè (ṭe₃) = 𒉈ṭe₄ = 𒋼ṭe₅ = 𒌣ṭe₆ = 𒋾	ṭi = 𒁲 ṭí (ṭi₂) = 𒊹ṭì (ṭi₃) = 𒋾ṭi₄ = 𒋼ṭi₅ = 𒉈ṭi₆ = 𒉿	ṭu = 𒂅 ṭú (ṭu₂) = 𒌅ṭù (ṭu₃) = 𒁺ṭu₄ = 𒌈ṭu₅ = 𒂃ṭu₆ = 𒅗		aṭ = 𒀜 áṭ (aṭ₂) = 𒄉	eṭ = 𒀉	iṭ = 𒀉	uṭ = 𒌓	-ṭ
w-	wa = 𒉿 wá (wa₂) = 𒁀wà (wa₃) = 𒌑wa₄ = 𒊀wa₆ = 𒈠	we = 𒉿 wé (we₂) = 𒊄	wi = 𒉿 wí (wi₂) = 𒊅wi₄ = 𒈪wi₅ = 𒃾	wu = 𒉿 wú (wu₂) = 𒊇wù (wu₃) = 𒊈wu₄ = 𒈬		aw = 𒉿	ew = 𒉿	iw = 𒉿	uw = 𒉿	-w
y- (j-)	ya / ja = 𒉿	ye / je = 𒉿	yi / ji = 𒉿 yí / jí (yi₂ / ji₂) = 𒅀yì / jì (yi₃ / ji₃) = 𒂊	yu / ju = 𒉿		ay / aj = 𒀀𒀀				-y (-j)
z-	za = 𒍝 zá (za₂) = 𒉌𒌓zà (za₃) = 𒍠za₄ = 𒉣za₅ = 𒀭	ze = 𒍣 zé (ze₂) = 𒍢zè (ze₃) = 𒂠	zi = 𒍣 zí (zi₂) = 𒍢zì (zi₃) = 𒂠zi₄ = 𒀓zi₇ = 𒆠𒉈zi₈ = 𒆗	zu = 𒍪 zú (zu₂) = 𒅗zù (zu₃) = 𒍮zu₄ = 𒁁zu₅ = 𒉙zu₆ = 𒋤zu₇ = 𒂄zu₈ = 𒆛zu₉ = 𒆉		az = 𒊍 áz (az₂) = 𒀾àz (az₃) = 𒀸	ez = 𒄑 éz (ez₂) = 𒌍èz (ez₃) = vez₅ = 𒅖	iz = 𒄑 íz (iz₂) = 𒅖ìz (iz₃) = 𒀊	uz = 𒊻 úz (uz₂) = 𒍑ùz (uz₃) = 𒍚uz₄ = 𒊍uz₅ = 𒇇uz₆ = 𒍚uz₇ = 𒌍	-z

Akkadian VCV syllabic glyphs⁸⁶

	aCV	eCV	iCV	uCV
-ʾ-	àʾa = 𒆹			uʾa = 𒇇𒀀
		eʾi = 𒂍𒀀		uʾi = 𒇇𒀀
		eʾu = 𒂍𒀀		uʾu = 𒇇𒀀
-b-	aba = 𒀊 àba (aba₃) = 𒀜aba₄ = 𒀔			úba (uba₂) = 𒂠 ùba (uba₃) = 𒀚uba₅ = 𒀛, 𒀚
				ubi = 𒃴 úbi (ubi₂) = 𒋦
				ubu = 𒀹 úbu (ubu₂) = 𒌒
-d-		edi = 𒃄	idi = 𒃟
				udu = 𒇻 údu (udu₂) = 𒋗𒁁
-g-	aga = 𒂆 ága (aga₂) = 𒉘àga (aga₃) = 𒂅	ega = 𒀀𒈪𒀀 éga (ega₂) = 𒉧	iga = 𒅅	uga = 𒌑𒉀𒂵 úga (uga₂) = 𒀀𒅗
		ege = 𒂠 ége (ege₂) = 𒊩𒂠
		egi = 𒂠 égi (egi₂) = 𒊩𒂠	igi = 𒅆 ígi (igi₂) = 𒅊ìgi (igi₃) = 𒆠𒊕
	agu = 𒂆	egu = 𒀀𒆪	igu = 𒅆	ugu = 𒌋𒅗 úgu (uga₂) = 𒀀𒅗ùgu (ug₃) = 𒀀𒊕ugu₄ = 𒆪ugu₅ = 𒊨
-ḫ-	aḫa = 𒄴 áḫa (aḫa₂) = 𒋀àḫa (aḫa₃) = 𒉽
		eḫe = 𒀉𒌓𒁺
	aḫi = 𒋀 áḫi (aḫi₂) = 𒀉	eḫi = 𒀉𒌓𒁺
				uḫu = 𒄴 úḫu (uḫu₂) = 𒌔
-i-	aia = 𒀀𒀀 áia (aia₂) = 𒀀àia (aia₃) = 𒌨aia₄ = 𒆹			uia = 𒌋𒐊
-k-	aka = 𒀝 áka (aka₂) = 𒉘àka (aka₃) = 𒋃aka₄ = 𒆍
		eki = 𒂊
		iku = 𒃷	uku = 𒂆 úku (uku₂) = 𒇳𒁺ùku (uku₃) = 𒌦uku₄ = 𒊌uku₅ = 𒇳𒁺𒁺
-l-	ala = 𒌷 ála (ala₂) = 𒌷𒈨𒌍àla (ala₃) = 𒀠	ela = 𒀀𒆗	ila = 𒀭 íla (ila₂) = 𒅍	ula = 𒌌 úla (ula₂) = 𒃪
	ale = 𒌷	ele = 𒌋𒅗 éle (ele₂) = 𒂖
	ali = 𒌷	ili = 𒀭 íli (ili₂) = 𒅍ili₅ = 𒂖ili₆ = 𒁹ili₇ = 𒀭𒈨𒌍		uli = 𒅴
	alu / ālu = 𒌷		ilu = 𒀭	ulu = 𒌌 úlu (ulu₂) = 𒄴𒈨𒌋ùlu (ulu₃) = 𒍇ulu₄ = 𒌷
-m-	ama = 𒂼 áma (ama₂) = 𒄠àma (ama₃) = 𒄀𒇻ama₄ = 𒃘ama₅ = 𒃣ama₆ = 𒆾			uma = 𒍻
	ame = 𒂼 áme (ame₂) = 𒃣	eme = 𒅴 éme (eme₂) = 𒎘ème (eme₃) = 𒊩𒀲eme₄ = 𒂼eme₅ = 𒊩𒄸eme₆ = 𒀲𒊩eme₇ = 𒊩𒀠eme₈ = 𒃣
			imi = 𒅎 ími (imi₂) = 𒂼
				umu = 𒌝
-n-	ana = 𒁹 ána (ana₂) = 𒀭àna (ana₃) = 𒀸		ina = 𒀸 ína (ina₂) = 𒅆
		eni = 𒂗	ini = 𒅔 íni (ini₂) = 𒅆ini₄ = 𒅆𒈫
	anu = 𒀭	enu = 𒂗 ēnu = 𒅆	īnu = 𒅆, 𒅆 īnuᴵᴵ = 𒅆, 𒅆𒈫ínu (inu₂) = 𒅆	unu = 𒀔 únu (unu₂) = 𒋼𒀕ùnu (unu₃) = 𒀖𒆪unu₄ = 𒌦unu₅ = 𒀊unu₆ = 𒋼𒀊unu₇ = 𒋽𒀕unu₈ = 𒍑unu₉ = 𒆒𒋙 / 𒆓unu₁₀ = 𒄃unu₁₁ = 𒍝𒈽𒀕unu₁₂ = 𒁐
-q-	aqa = 𒀝
-r-	ara = 𒊭 ára (ara₂) = 𒌒àra (ara₃) = 𒄯ara₄ = 𒌓𒁺ara₅ = 𒄯𒄯ara₆ = 𒁺ara₇ = 𒌓ara₈ = 𒅈	era = 𒀴𒊏 éra (era₂) = 𒀀𒅆èra (era₃) = 𒃞era₄ = 𒃢	íra = 𒀀𒅆	ura₁₅ = 𒋀𒀕 ura₁₆ = 𒋀𒀊
	ari = 𒌵 ári (ari₂) = 𒁁àri (ari₃) = 𒉺ari₅ = 𒉺𒈨𒌍ari₆ = 𒋧	eri = 𒌷 eri₄ = 𒌷 ?eri₁₁ = 𒀔eri₁₂ = 𒀊eri₁₃ = 𒈁eri₁₄ = 𒅕eri₁₅ = 𒃞eri₁₆ = 𒃢	iri = 𒌷 iri₈ = 𒁁iri₁₁ = 𒀕iri₁₂ = 𒀊iri₁₄ = 𒅕	uri = 𒌵 úri (uri₂) = 𒋀𒀕ùri (uri₃) = 𒋀uri₄ = 𒁁uri₅ = 𒋀𒀊
	aru = 𒉺	eru = 𒀴 éru (eru₂) = 𒊕𒊩èru (eru₃) = 𒊟eru₄ = 𒀀𒂔eru₅ = 𒂔		uru = 𒌷 úru (uru₂) = 𒍍ùru (uru₃) = 𒋀uru₄ = 𒀳uru₅ = 𒋽uru₆ = 𒉞uru₇ = 𒌲uru₈ = 𒌫uru₉ = 𒋞𒁁uru₁₀ = 𒊠uru₁₁ = 𒌾uru₁₂ = 𒃡uru₁₃ = 𒌨uru₁₄ = 𒋀𒀕uru₁₅ = 𒋀𒀊uru₁₆ = 𒂗uru₁₇ = 𒍇uru₁₈ = 𒌸uru₁₉ = 𒌵
-s-	asa = 𒊍			usa = 𒐍, 𒑄
	asi = 𒀀𒌁	esi = 𒆗	isi = 𒅖	usi = 𒃥
				usu = 𒀉𒆗 úsu (usu₂) = 𒍑
-š-	aša = 𒀸 áša (aša₂) = 𒀾àša (aša₃) = 𒐋aša₅ = 𒃷	eša = 𒀀𒌁 éša (eša₂) = 𒌍
		eše = 𒌍 éše (eše₂) = 𒂠èše (eše₃) = 𒑘eše₄ = 𒀀𒌁
			iši = 𒅖 íši (iši₂) = 𒋙𒀯
				ušu = 𒁔 úšu (ušu₂) = 𒌋𒌓ùšu (ušu₃) = 𒌍
-t-			ita₄ = 𒀭𒀀𒇉 ita₅ = 𒀀𒇉	uta = 𒌓
			iti = 𒌗 íti (iti₂) = 𒌛ìti (iti₃) = 𒆜𒌗iti₄ = 𒀭𒀀𒇉iti₅ = 𒀀𒇉iti₆ = 𒌓𒀭𒋀𒆠iti₇ = 𒌗𒀭𒋀𒆠
			itu = 𒌗 ítu (itu₂) = 𒌛itu₄ = 𒀭𒀀𒇉itu₅ = 𒀀𒇉	utu = 𒌓 útu (utu₂) = 𒌋𒂵ùtu (utu₃) = 𒌋𒌋utu₄ = 𒆠𒆠utu₅ = 𒀾
-y- (-i̭- / -j-)	aya / ai̭a / aja = 𒀀𒀀		iya / ija = 𒀀𒀀
	aye / ai̭e / aje = 𒀀𒀀		iye / ije = 𒀀𒀀
	ayi / ai̭i / aji = 𒀀𒀀		iyi / iji = 𒀀𒀀
	ayu / ai̭u / aju = 𒀀𒀀		iyu / iju = 𒀀𒀀
-z-	aza = 𒊍			ùza (uza₃) = 𒍚
			izi = 𒉈 ízi (izi₂) = 𒆠𒉈
	azu = 𒉙		izu = 𒉈	uzu = 𒍜 úzu (uzu₂) = 𒉙ùzu (uzu₃) = 𒊻uzu₅ = 𒌋𒌓

Akkadian CVV and CVC syllabic glyphs⁸⁷

	CaV/CaC	CeV/CeC	CiV/CiC	CuV/CuC
b-	baʾ = 𒁁
	bab = 𒉽 báb (bab₂) = 𒌓
	bad = 𒁁 bàd (bad₃) = 𒂦bad₄ = 𒆠𒆗bad₅ = 𒅆		bid = 𒂍 bíd (bid₂) = 𒁁bìd (bid₃) = 𒆪
	bag = 𒄷		big = 𒋝	bug = 𒈮
	baḫ = 𒄷 bàḫ (baḫ₃) = 𒈜			buḫ = 𒈜
	bak = 𒄷		bik = 𒋝	buk = 𒈮
	bal = 𒁄 bál (bal₂) = 𒁔bàl (bal₃) = 𒀡bal₄ = 𒀦	bel = 𒉈 bél (bel₂) = 𒉋	bil = 𒉈 bíl (bil₂) = 𒉋bìl (bil₃) = 𒄑𒉋bil₄ = 𒄑𒉈	bul = 𒇧 búl (bul₂) = 𒁔bùl (bul₃) = 𒁄bul₄ = 𒅮bul₅ = 𒇡
				bum = 𒅤 búm (bum₂) = 𒁆, 𒂀bùm (bum₃) = 𒅗
	ban = 𒉼 bán (ban₂) = 𒑏bàn (ban₃) = 𒌉ban₄ = 𒆕		bin = 𒀳	bun = 𒇌 bún (bun₂) = 𒅮
	bap = 𒉽
	baq = 𒄷		biq = 𒋝
	bar = 𒁇 bár (bar₂) = 𒁈bàr (bar₃) = 𒁖bar₄ = 𒉌𒂟bar₅ = 𒋞bar₆ = 𒌓bar₇ = 𒉈bar₈ = 𒂙	ber = 𒄵 bér (ber₂) = 𒌓ber₇ = 𒊯	bir = 𒄵 bír (bir₂) = 𒌓bìr (bir₃) = 𒂟bir₄ = 𒂔bir₅ = 𒉆, 𒉅bir₆ = 𒊶bir₇ = 𒊯bir₈ = 𒀀𒋤bir₉ = 𒉈bir₁₀ = 𒄊	bur = 𒁓 búr (bur₂) = 𒁔bùr (bur₃) = 𒌋bur₄ = 𒋓𒁓bur₅ = 𒉅bur₆ = 𒆤, 𒆦bur₈ = 𒄬bur₁₀ = 𒇧bur₁₁ = 𒆠𒂗𒆕bur₁₂ = 𒁍bur₁₃ = 𒉽𒉽bur₁₄ = 𒂙
			bís (bis₂) = 𒄫
	baš = 𒈦	beš₁₂ = 𒌓	biš = 𒄫	buš = 𒆜 búš (buš₂) = 𒄫
	bat = 𒁁 bat (bát₂) = 𒉻bat (bàt₃) = 𒂦bat₅ = 𒅆	bet = 𒂍	bit = 𒂍 bít (bit₂) = 𒁁
	baṭ = 𒁁		biṭ = 𒂍
			biz = 𒁉
d-
	dab = 𒁳 dáb (dab₂) = 𒋰dàb (dab₃) = 𒄭dab₄ = 𒁾dab₅ = 𒆪dab₆ = 𒍏		dib = 𒁳 díb (dib₂) = 𒆪	dub = 𒁾 dúb (dub₂) = 𒂀dùb (dub₃) = 𒄭
	dad = 𒋺		did = 𒅎	dud = 𒉺𒍜
	dag = 𒁖 dág (dag₂) = 𒌓dàg (dag₃) = 𒉌𒂟dag₄ = 𒆦dag₅ = 𒅗dag₆ = 𒋳		dig = 𒉌	dug = 𒂁 dúg (dug₂) = 𒌇dùg (dug₃) = 𒄭dug₄ = 𒅗dug₅ = 𒂅
	daḫ = 𒈭	deḫ = 𒁾 déḫ (deḫ₂) = 𒌝dèḫ (deḫ₃) = 𒉏	diḫ = 𒁾 díḫ (diḫ₂) = 𒌝dìḫ (diḫ₃) = 𒉏	duḫ = 𒂃
	dak = 𒁖 dàk (dak₃) = 𒉌𒂟		dik = 𒉌	duk = 𒂁 dúk (duk₂) = 𒌇
	dal = 𒊑 dál (dal₂) = 𒈦𒄘𒃼dàl (dal₃) = 𒀸	del = 𒀸 dél (del₂) = 𒇺	dil = 𒀸	dul = 𒌋𒌆 dúl (dul₂) = 𒇥dùl (dul₃) = 𒊨dul₄ = 𒂈dul₅ = 𒌆dul₆ = 𒇯dul₇ = 𒊕dul₈ = 𒁳dul₉ = 𒌪dul₁₀ = 𒁍
	dam = 𒁮 dám (dam₂) = 𒌓dàm (dam₃) = 𒌈	dém = 𒁶	dim = 𒁴 dím (dim₂) = 𒁶dìm (dim₃) = 𒊐𒃵, 𒈕dim₄ = 𒉽𒉽dim₅ = 𒂀	dum = 𒌈 dùm (dum₃) = 𒁮dum₄ = 𒁴
	dan = 𒆗 dán (dan₂) = 𒃞dàn (dan₃) = 𒃩dan₄ = 𒃋dan₅ = 𒁷dan₆ = 𒍕dan₇ = 𒃃	den = 𒁷	din = 𒁷 dín (din₂) = 𒆗dìn (din₃) = 𒁶	dun = 𒂄 dùn (dun₃) = 𒂅dun₄ = 𒂈dun₅ = 𒁔dun₆ = 𒆗
	dap = 𒁳 dáp (dap₂) = 𒋰		dip = 𒁳	dup = 𒁾 dúp (dup₂) = 𒂀
	daq = 𒁖 dàq (daq₃) = 𒉌𒂟daq₁₀ = 𒋳		diq = 𒉌	duq = 𒂁
	dar = 𒁯 dár (dar₂) = 𒅁dàr (dar₃) = 𒁰dar₄ = 𒁱dar₆ = 𒋻	der = 𒋛𒀀	dir = 𒋛𒀀 dír (dir₂) = 𒁯dìr (dir₃) = 𒀭dir₄ = 𒌁	dur = 𒄙 dúr (dur₂) = 𒂉, 𒆪dùr (dur₃) = 𒀲𒀴dur₄ = 𒁉𒑖dur₅ = 𒀀dur₇ = 𒁍dur₈ = 𒂦dur₉ = 𒂄dur₁₀ = 𒊿dur₁₁ = 𒌅
	das = 𒌨
	daš = 𒌨 dáš (daš₂) = 𒁹dàš (daš₃) = 𒀾daš₄ = 𒁯	deš = 𒁹 déš (deš₂) = 𒀸dèš (deš₃) = 𒌨deš₄ = 𒈨deš₅ = 𒀹	diš = 𒁹 díš (diš₂) = 𒀸diš₅ = 𒀹	duš = 𒆪 dúš (duš₂) = 𒁹
	dat = 𒋺
g-	gab = 𒃮 gáb (gab₂) = 𒆏gàb (gab₃) = 𒅘		gib = 𒄃 gíb (gib₂) = 𒁉𒑖gìb (gib₃) = 𒈪𒉭	gub = 𒁺 gúb (gub₂) = 𒇷gùb (gub₃) = 𒆏gub₄ = 𒉌gub₅ = 𒀜𒆤
	gad = 𒃰		gid = 𒆤 gíd (gid₂) = 𒁍gìd (gid₃) = 𒊓gid₄ = 𒃰gid₆ = 𒋺	gud = 𒄞 gúd (gud₂) = 𒊥gùd (gud₃) = 𒌑𒆠𒋧𒂵gud₄ = 𒋻gud₅ = 𒃴gud₆ = 𒈝gud₇ = 𒆪gud₈ = 𒆸gud₉ = 𒋃gud₁₀ = 𒁆, 𒂀
	gag = 𒆕		gig = 𒈪𒉭 gíg (gig₂) = 𒈪gìg (gig₃) = 𒄃gig₄ = 𒂅	gug = 𒍝𒄢 gúg (gug₂) = 𒈖gùg (gug₃) = 𒃻𒈖gug₄ = 𒍤𒆸gug₅ = 𒈙gug₆ = 𒅗𒆕
	gak = 𒆕		gik = 𒈪𒉭	gúk (guk₂) = 𒈖
	gal = 𒃲 gál (gal₂) = 𒅅gàl (gal₃) = 𒍇gal₄ = 𒊩gal₅ = 𒋼gal₈ = 𒌓gal₉ = 𒆗gal₁₀ = 𒇽𒁹	gel = 𒄃 gél (gel₂) = 𒆸	gil = 𒄃 gíl (gil₂) = 𒆸gìl (gil₃) = 𒅍	gul = 𒄢 gúl (gul₂) = 𒆰gùl (gul₃) = 𒋼
	gam = 𒃵 gám (gam₂) = 𒄰gàm (gam₃) = 𒆛gam₄ = 𒃶	gem = 𒁶 gèm (gem₃) = 𒊩𒆳	gim = 𒁶 gím (gim₂) = 𒂅gìm (gim₃) = 𒊩𒆳gim₄ = 𒁽gim₅ = 𒁼gim₆ = 𒁺gim₇ = 𒁍gim₈ = 𒃰𒋺𒄑	gum = 𒄣 gúm (gum₂) = 𒈝gùm (gum₃) = 𒉈gum₄ = 𒃵
	gan = 𒃶 gán (gan₂) = 𒃷gàn (gan₃) = 𒁽gan₇ = 𒃵	gen = 𒁺 gèn (gen₃) = 𒆳gen₇ = 𒁶	gin = 𒁺 gín (gin₂) = 𒂅gìn (gin₃) = 𒆳gin₄ = 𒍤𒆸gin₆ = 𒄀gin₇ = 𒁶gin₈ = 𒄯	gun = 𒄘𒌦 gún (gun₂) = 𒄘gùn (gun₃) = 𒁯gun₄ = 𒀕gun₅ = 𒈝
	gap = 𒃮 gáp (gap₂) = 𒆏		gíp (gip₂) = 𒄒	gup = 𒁺 gúp (gup₂) = 𒇷
			giq = 𒈪𒉭	guq = 𒍝𒄢
	gar = 𒃻 gár (gar₂) = 𒂶gàr (gar₃) = 𒃼gar₄ = 𒄞𒄞gar₅ = 𒈖gar₆ = 𒉣gar₇ = 𒈥gar₈ = 𒋞gar₉ = 𒂵gar₁₀ = 𒂶gar₁₁ = 𒂶gar₁₂ = 𒂶gar₁₃ = 𒋽gar₁₄ = 𒋼𒀀gar₁₉ = 𒃸	ger = 𒄫 gér (ger₂) = 𒄈gèr (ger₃) = 𒁺ger₁₅ = 𒂠	gir = 𒄫 gír (gir₂) = 𒄈gìr (gir₃) = 𒄊gir₄ = 𒌋𒀜gir₅ = 𒁽gir₆ = 𒁼gir₇ = 𒁺gir₈ = 𒆸gir₉ = 𒀚gir₁₀ = 𒉈gir₁₁ = 𒂡gir₁₂ = 𒅔gir₁₃ = 𒋃gir₁₄ = 𒄩gir₁₅ = 𒂠gir₁₆ = 𒄌gir₁₇ = 𒅗	gur = 𒄥 gúr (gur₂) = 𒑲gùr (gur₃) = 𒅍gur₄ = 𒆸gur₅ = 𒍀, 𒅫gur₆ = 𒃸gur₇ = 𒄦gur₈ = 𒋽gur₉ = 𒉒gur₁₀ = 𒆥gur₁₁ = 𒂵gur₁₂ = 𒉽gur₁₃ = 𒉌gur₁₄ = 𒄯gur₁₅ = 𒌴gur₁₆ = 𒆳gur₁₇ = 𒄕gur₁₈ = 𒅗gur₁₉ = 𒉣𒆠gur₂₂ = 𒇉
	gas = 𒄤 gás (gas₂) = 𒄣		gis = 𒄑
	gaṣ = 𒄤		giṣ = 𒄑
	gaš = 𒁉	geš = 𒄑 géš (geš₂) = 𒁹gèš (geš₃) = 𒍑geš₄ = 𒀸	giš = 𒄑 gíš (giš₂) = 𒁹gìš (giš₃) = 𒍑	guš = 𒋢
	gat = 𒃰 gát (gat₂) = 𒆐gàt (gat₃) = 𒆑		git = 𒆤 gít (git₂) = 𒁍
			gíṭ (giṭ₂) = 𒁍
	gaz = 𒄤 gáz (gaz₂) = 𒄣gàz (gaz₃) =	gez = 𒄑	giz = 𒄑	guz = 𒈝 gúz (guz₂) = 𒁍gùz (guz₃) = 𒆪
ḫ-	ḫab = 𒆸 ḫáb (ḫab₂) = 𒇥			ḫub = 𒄽 ḫúb (ḫub₂) = 𒄸
	ḫad = 𒉺 ḫád (ḫad₂) = 𒌓ḫad (ḫad₃) = 𒊷ḫad₄ = 𒆒, 𒆓			ḫud = 𒉺 ḫúd (ḫud₂) = 𒌓ḫùd (ḫud₃) = 𒄰ḫud₄ = 𒊷
				ḫug = 𒂠
	ḫal = 𒄬 ḫál (ḫal₂) = 𒍮			ḫul = 𒅆𒌨 ḫúl (ḫul₂) = 𒄾ḫùl (ḫul₃) = 𒄒ḫul₄ = 𒅆𒌪
				ḫum = 𒈝
				ḫun = 𒂠
	ḫap = 𒆸			ḫup = 𒄽 ḫúp (ḫup₂) = 𒄸
	ḫar = 𒄯 ḫár (ḫar₂) = 𒄞ḫàr (ḫar₃) = 𒇽𒆸, 𒈊ḫar₄ = 𒁚	ḫer = 𒂡	ḫir = 𒂡 ḫír (ḫir₂) = 𒄯	ḫur = 𒄯
	ḫas = 𒋻 ḫás (ḫas₂) = 𒉺ḫàs (ḫas₃) = 𒍨			ḫus = 𒈝 ḫús (ḫus₂) = 𒋻
	ḫaṣ = 𒋻 ḫáṣ (ḫaṣ₂) = 𒉺
	ḫaš = 𒋻 ḫáš (ḫaš₂) = 𒍨ḫàš (ḫaš₃) = 𒌓ḫaš₄ = 𒍮	ḫeš = 𒌓 ḫéš (ḫeš₂) = 𒍨ḫeš₅ = 𒇽𒃷, 𒈂	ḫiš = 𒌓 ḫiš (ḫíš₂) = 𒍨ḫiš (ḫìš₃) = 𒂟ḫiš₄ = 𒄭𒄊	ḫuš = 𒄭𒄊 ḫúš (ḫuš₂) = 𒄊
	ḫat = 𒉺
	ḫaṭ = 𒉺
	ḫaz = 𒋻 ḫáz (ḫaz₂) = 𒉺			ḫuz = 𒈝
k-				kua = 𒄩 kua (kuá₂) = 𒌔
	kab = 𒆏 káb (kab₂) = 𒅘		kib = 𒄒	kub = 𒁺 kùb (kub₃) = 𒄸kub₄ = 𒆤
	kad = 𒃰 kád (kad₂) = 𒆐kàd (kad₃) = 𒆑kad₄ = 𒆒kad₅ = 𒆓kad₆ = 𒍦kad₈ = 𒀽		kid = 𒆤 kíd (kid₂) = 𒋺kìd (kid₃) = 𒀝kid₄ = 𒋃kid₅ = 𒆒kid₆ = 𒆓kid₇ = 𒅎𒋺, 𒅏kid₈ = 𒊩𒋺kid₉ = 𒃰kid₁₀ = 𒁍	kud = 𒋻 kùd (kud₃) = 𒆪kud₆ = 𒆑
	kag = 𒆕 kág (kag₂) = 𒅗		kíg (kig₂) = 𒆥	kug = 𒆬
	kak = 𒆕		kik = 𒈪𒉭	kuk = 𒆬 kúk (kuk₂) = 𒈖
	kal = 𒆗 kál (kal₂) = 𒃲kàl (kal₃) = 𒆕kal₄ = 𒊩	kel = 𒆸 kèl (kel₃) = 𒇔	kil = 𒆸 kíl (kil₂) = 𒄃kìl (kil₃) = 𒇔kil₄ = 𒃰𒋺	kul = 𒆰 kúl (kul₂) = 𒄢
	kam = 𒄰 kám (kam₂) = 𒃶kàm (kam₃) = 𒆒, 𒆓kam₄ = 𒆛	kem = 𒁶	kim = 𒁶 kím (kim₂) = 𒆒, 𒆓kìm (kim₃) = 𒁍kim₄ = 𒁽kim₅ = 𒁼kim₆ = 𒁺	kum = 𒄣 kúm (kum₂) = 𒉈kùm (kum₃) = 𒉽𒅊𒉣𒈨𒂬kum₄ = 𒌓kum₅ = 𒅖
	kan = 𒃶 kán (kan₂) = 𒃷kàm (kan₃) = 𒊝kan₄ = 𒆍kan₅ = 𒅸kan₆ = 𒅤	kèn (ken₃) = 𒆳	kin = 𒆥 kín (kin₂) = 𒄯kìn (kin₃) = 𒆳kin₄ = 𒆸𒆸kin₅ = 𒌺kin₇ = 𒁺kin₈ = 𒁶	kun = 𒆲 kún (kun₂) = 𒉺kùn (kun₃) = 𒄣kun₄ = 𒄿𒇻 / 𒄿𒁳kun₅ = 𒌉𒂠kun₈ = 𒈧kun₉ = 𒉈kun₁₀ = 𒆥
	kap = 𒆏 kàp (kap₃) = 𒃮	kep = 𒄒	kip = 𒄒	kup = 𒁺 kùp (kup₃) = 𒄸kup₄ = 𒆤
	kaq = 𒆕
	kar = 𒋼𒀀 kár (kar₂) = 𒃸kàr (kar₃) = 𒃼kar₄ = 𒄫kar₅ = 𒃻	ker = 𒄫 ker₆ = 𒀘ker₇ = 𒉑	kir = 𒄫 kír (kir₂) = 𒀚kìr (kir₃) = 𒆸kir₄ = 𒅗kir₅ = 𒁁kir₆ = 𒀘kir₇ = 𒉑kir₈ = 𒋼𒀀kir₉ = 𒄩kir₁₀ = 𒄊kir₁₁ = 𒊩𒃢kir₁₂ = 𒌋𒂘kir₁₃ = 𒌋𒀜kir₁₄ = 𒅯kir₁₅ = 𒋃kir₁₆ = 𒃼kir₁₇ = 𒉐	kur = 𒆳 kúr (kur₂) = 𒉽kùr (kur₃) = 𒄥kur₄ = 𒆸kur₅ = 𒋻kur₆ = 𒉻kur₇ = 𒅆𒂟kur₇ = 𒅆𒃻 (old)kur₈ = 𒅥kur₉ = 𒆭, 𒋽kur₁₁ = 𒉣𒆠kur₁₂ = 𒍀kur₁₅ = 𒂵
	kas = 𒆜 kás (kas₂) = 𒁉kàs (kas₃) = 𒄤kas₄ = 𒁽kas₅ = 𒁼kas₆ = 𒄣kas₇ = 𒋃		kis = 𒆧 kís (kis₂) = 𒄑	kus = 𒋢 kús (kus₂) = 𒈝
	kaṣ = 𒆜 káṣ (kaṣ₂) = 𒁉kàṣ (kaṣ₃) = 𒄤		kiṣ = 𒆧	kúṣ (kuṣ₂) = 𒈝
	kaš = 𒁉 káš (kaš₂) = 𒆜kàš (kaš₃) = 𒍒kaš₄ = 𒁽kaš₅ = 𒁺kaš₆ = 𒄤	keš = 𒆧 kéš (keš₂) = 𒂡kèš (keš₃) = 𒋙𒀭𒄲keš₄ = 𒊔keš₇ = 𒁝keš₈ = 𒁞keš₉ = 𒁬keš₁₈ = 𒌔	kiš = 𒆧 kíš (kiš₂) = 𒂡kiš₅ = 𒋝𒋙𒁷, 𒉾kiš₈ = 𒁞kiš₉ = 𒁬kiš₁₆ = 𒌑𒄉kiš₁₇ = 𒄉	kuš = 𒋢 kúš (kuš₂) = 𒊨kùš (kuš₃) = 𒌑kuš₄ = 𒉺𒀭kuš₅ = 𒌋𒄊kuš₆ = 𒆯kuš₇ = 𒅖kuš₈ = 𒄾kuš₉ = 𒆵kuš₁₀ = 𒋝𒋙𒁷, 𒉾
	kat = 𒃰 kát (kat₂) = 𒆐kàt (kat₃) = 𒆑kat₄ = 𒆒kat₅ = 𒆓kat₇ = 𒋗	ket = 𒆤	kit = 𒆤 kít (kit₂) = 𒋺kit₉ = 𒃰kit₁₆ = 𒁍	kut = 𒋻 kút (kut₂) = 𒃰
			kiṭ = 𒆤
	kaz₈ = 𒄮 kaz₉ = 𒌓𒄯			kuz = 𒋢 kùz (kuz₃) = 𒆪
l-	lab = 𒆗 láb (lab₂) = 𒈜	leb = 𒈜	lib = 𒈜 líb (lib₂) = 𒆗lìb (lib₃) = 𒊮lib₄ = 𒅆lib₅ = 𒊠	lub = 𒈜
	lad = 𒆳		lid = 𒀖 líd (lid₂) = 𒉌	lud = 𒂁
	lag = 𒋃		lig = 𒌨	lug = 𒇻 lúg (lug₂) = 𒉺
	laḫ = 𒌓 láḫ (laḫ₂) = 𒂟làḫ (laḫ₃) = 𒈛laḫ₄ = 𒁻laḫ₅ = 𒁺𒁺laḫ₆ = 𒁺laḫ₇ = 𒁽		liḫ = 𒌓 líḫ (liḫ₂) = 𒂟lìḫ (liḫ₃) = 𒈛liḫ₄ = 𒇺	luḫ = 𒈛
	lak = 𒋃		lik = 𒌨 lík (lik₂) = 𒋃
	lal = 𒇲 lál (lal₂) = 𒇳làl (lal₃) = 𒋭lal₄ = 𒇸lal₅ = 𒋙𒌍lal₆ = 𒋙𒉈	lél (lel₂) = 𒆤 lel₄ = 𒆦	lil = 𒇸 líl (lil₂) = 𒆤lìl (lil₃) = 𒋙𒌍lil₅ = 𒋙𒉈lil₆ = 𒄘lil₇ = 𒂁𒋡𒁓lil₈ = 𒈑	lul = 𒈜
	lam = 𒇴 lám (lam₂) = 𒉈làm (lam₃) = 𒁮lam₄ = 𒐂lam₅ = 𒅆lam₆ = 𒉆lam₇ = 𒇶	lem = 𒅆 lem₄ = 𒉈	lim = 𒅆 lím (lim₂) = 𒐂lìm (lim₃) = 𒇴	lum = 𒈝 lúm (lum₂) = 𒅆lùm (lum₃) = 𒂁lum₄ = 𒇴
				lan = 𒉺
	lap = 𒆗	lép (₂) = 𒆗	lip = 𒈜 líp (lip₂) = 𒆗lìp (lip₃) = 𒊮	lup = 𒈜
	laq = 𒋃	leq = 𒌨	liq = 𒌨 líq (liq₂) = 𒋃lìq (liq₃) = 𒀀𒄷𒋛
	lar = 𒉺		lir = 𒉪
			lis = 𒇺
			liš = 𒇺
	lat = 𒆳		lit = 𒀖	lut = 𒂁
			liṭ = 𒀖 líṭ (liṭ₂) = 𒂁
			liz = 𒇺
m-				mua = 𒉺
	maʾ = 𒈣
	mad = 𒆳		mid = 𒁁	mud = 𒄷𒄭 múd (mud₂) = 𒁁mùd (mud₃) = 𒉸mud₄ = 𒆸𒌋𒆕mud₅ = 𒋆mud₆ = 𒊬mud₇ = 𒍤𒆸mud₈ = 𒉳
				mug = 𒈮 múg (mug₂) = 𒊩𒆷
	maḫ = 𒈤 máḫ (maḫ₂) = 𒀠màḫ (maḫ₃) = 𒌋𒅗	meḫ = 𒈤	miḫ = 𒈤	muḫ = 𒌋𒅗 múḫ (muḫ₂) = 𒊚muḫ₄ = 𒊨
				muk = 𒈮
	mal = 𒂷 mál (mal₂) = 𒋛𒀀mal₄ = 𒇺	mel = 𒅖 mèl (mel₃) = 𒆠𒉈	mil = 𒅖	mul = 𒀯 múl (mul₂) = 𒋼mùl (mul₃) = 𒄮mul₄ = 𒌌mul₅ = 𒃷
	mam = 𒌋𒌋 mám (mam₂) = 𒊩màm (mam₃) = 𒊩𒈠		mim = 𒈫 mím (mim₂) = 𒈹mìm (mim₃) = 𒌋𒌋mim₄ = 𒊩𒈠	mum = 𒌣
	man = 𒌋𒌋 màn (man₃) = 𒐀	men = 𒃞 mén (men₂) = 𒈨mèn (men₃) = 𒁺men₄ = 𒇙men₅ = 𒌋𒌋	min = 𒈫 mín (min₂) = 𒊩mìn (min₃) = 𒌋𒌋min₄ = 𒊩𒌆min₅ = 𒐀min₆ = 𒋰min₇ = 𒃞min₈ = 𒑊	mun = 𒁵 mún (mun₂) = 𒌣mun₄ = 𒋀mun₅ = 𒌋𒁵mun₆ = 𒌋𒁴
				muq = 𒈮
	mar = 𒈥 már (mar₂) = 𒀫màr (mar₃) = 𒃻mar₅ = 𒌉mar₆ = 𒄯	mer = 𒂆 mér (mer₂) = 𒅎mèr (mer₃) = 𒄈mer₄ = 𒋃	mir = 𒂆 mír (mir₂) = 𒅎mir₅ = 𒂧	mur = 𒄯 múr (mur₂) = 𒌘mùr (mur₃) = 𒅎mur₆ = 𒆠𒂗𒆕mur₇ = 𒋞mur₈ = 𒈱mur₁₀ = 𒌆
	mas = 𒈦	mes = 𒈩 més (mes₂) = 𒁾mès (mes₃) = 𒈨𒌍	mis = 𒈩	mus = 𒈲
	maṣ = 𒈦	meṣ = 𒈩	miṣ = 𒈩
	maś = 𒈦
	maš = 𒈦 máš (maš₂) = 𒈧màš (maš₃) = 𒈦𒉺maš₄ = 𒉺	meš = 𒈨𒌍 méš (meš₂) = 𒈨mèš (meš₃) = 𒈩	miš = 𒈩 míš (miš₂) = 𒈨𒌍mìš (miš₃) = 𒄑	muš = 𒈲 múš (muš₂) = 𒈽mùš (muš₃) = 𒈹muš₄ = 𒄮muš₅ = 𒋀muš₆ = 𒁑muš₇ = 𒁹muš₈ = 𒄷muš₉ = 𒈪
	mat = 𒆳 mát (mat₂) = 𒁁màt (mat₃) = 𒄷𒄭	met = 𒁁	mit = 𒁁	mut = 𒄷𒄭 mút (mut₂) = 𒁁
	maṭ = 𒆳	meṭ = 𒁁	miṭ = 𒁁	muṭ = 𒄷𒄭
n-	nab = 𒀮 náb (nab₂) = 𒀯nàb (nab₃) = 𒀭𒀭nab₄ = 𒅊		nib = 𒊋 níb (nib₂) = 𒀮
	nad = 𒆳 nàd (nad₃) = 𒈿		nid = 𒍑	nud = 𒈿
	nag = 𒅘 nág (nag₂) = 𒉀		nig = 𒊩𒌨 níg (nig₂) = 𒃻nig₆ = 𒌋𒌓𒆤	nug = 𒋐 núg (nug₂) = 𒋊
	náḫ (naḫ₂) = 𒂠
	nak = 𒅘 nák (nak₂) = 𒉀nàk (nak₃) = 𒊩𒌨	nék (nek₂) = 𒃻	nik = 𒊩𒌨 ník (nik₂) = 𒃻nik₅ = 𒅘
	nam = 𒉆 nám (nam₂) = 𒌆nàm (nam₃) = 𒉏nam₄ = 𒅊	nem = 𒉏 ném (nem₂) = 𒊩𒌆	nim = 𒉏 ním (nim₂) = 𒊩𒌆nìm (nim₃) = 𒌋𒌓nim₄ = 𒈝nim₅ = 𒃻	num = 𒉏 núm (num₂) = 𒈝
	nan = 𒋀 nán (nan₂) = 𒋀𒆠nàn (nan₃) = 𒌍	nen = 𒊩𒌆 nen₉ = 𒊩𒆪	nin = 𒊩𒌆 nín (nin₂) = 𒈹nìn (nin₃) = 𒆸𒆸nin₄ = 𒆸nin₅ = 𒐏nin₆ = 𒃻nin₇ = 𒇧𒇧nin₉ = 𒊩𒆪nin₁₀ = 𒊩𒋠	nun = 𒉣 nūn = 𒄩nún (nun₂) = 𒀀𒄩𒋻𒁺nùn (nun₃) = 𒁍
	nap = 𒀮 náp (nap₂) = 𒀯		níp (nip₂) = 𒀮
	naq = 𒅘		niq = 𒊩𒌨 níq (niq₂) = 𒃻
	nar = 𒈜 nàr (nar₃) = 𒉪	ner = 𒉪	nir = 𒉪 nír (nir₂) = 𒍝𒂅nìr (nir₃) = 𒍝𒉏nir₄ = 𒍝𒋢nir₅ = 𒍝𒅁nir₆ = 𒆗nir₇ = 𒍝𒂆	nur = 𒉪
		nes = 𒌋𒌋	nis = 𒌋𒌋 nís (nis₂) = 𒄑	nus = 𒉭
	naš = 𒌋𒌋	neš = 𒌋𒌋 néš (neš₂) = 𒄑	niš = 𒌋𒌋 níš (niš₂) = 𒄑
	nat = 𒆳 nát (nat₂) = 𒄿		nit = 𒍑
		neṭ = 𒍑	niṭ = 𒍑
				nuz = 𒉭
p-	pab = 𒉽
	pad = 𒉻 pád (pad₂) = 𒁁pàd (pad₃) = 𒅆𒊒pad₄ = 𒅆pad₅ = 𒉽𒂊pad₆ = 𒉽𒅖		pid = 𒂍 píd (pid₂) = 𒁁
	pag = 𒄷		pig = 𒋝	pug = 𒈮
	paḫ = 𒈜 pàḫ (paḫ₃) = 𒄷		piḫ = 𒈜	puḫ = 𒈜
	pak = 𒄷		pik = 𒋝	puk = 𒈮
	pal = 𒁄	pel = 𒉈 pél (pel₂) = 𒉋pel₅ = 𒉭	pil = 𒉈 píl (pil₂) = 𒉋pìl (pil₃) = 𒄑𒉋pil₄ = 𒄑𒉈pil₅ = 𒉋pil₆ = 𒋓pil₇ = 𒄊 / 𒊊	pul = 𒇧 púl (pul₂) = 𒁔pùl (pul₃) = 𒁄
				pum = 𒅤
	pan = 𒉼 pán (pan₂) = 𒈜pàn (pan₃) = 𒅆		pin = 𒀳
	pap = 𒄷
	paq = 𒄷		piq = 𒋝	púq (puq₂) = 𒄷
	par = 𒌓 pár (par₂) = 𒁇pàr (par₃) = 𒁖par₄ = 𒆦par₅ = 𒂟par₆ = 𒁈par₇ = 𒉌𒂟	per = 𒌓 pér (per₂) = 𒂟pèr (per₃) = 𒄵	pir = 𒌓 pír (pir₂) = 𒂟pìr (pir₃) = 𒄵pir₆ = 𒉆	pur = 𒁓 pur₁₃ = 𒉽𒉽
			pis = 𒄫	pus = 𒄫
	paš = 𒄫	peš = 𒄫 péš (peš₂) = 𒋝𒋙𒁷, 𒉾pèš (peš₃) = 𒈠peš₄ = 𒊯peš₅ = 𒆒peš₆ = 𒆓peš₇ = 𒌉peš₈ = 𒋗𒃶peš₉ = 𒌓𒀀peš₁₀ = 𒆠𒀀peš₁₁ = 𒄩peš₁₂ = 𒌓peš₁₃ = 𒊴	piš = 𒄫 píš (piš₂) = 𒋝𒋙𒁷, 𒉾piš₄ = 𒊯piš₅ = 𒆒piš₆ = 𒆓piš₁₀ = 𒆠𒀀	púš (puš₂) = 𒉽𒄬 pùš (puš₃) = 𒄫puš₄ = 𒂅
	pat = 𒉻 pát (pat₂) = 𒁁	pet = 𒂍 pét (pet₂) = 𒁁	pit = 𒂍 pít (pit₂) = 𒁁
	paṭ = 𒉻 páṭ (pat₂) = 𒁁		piṭ = 𒂍
q-	qab = 𒃮 qáb (qab₂) = 𒆏qàb (qab₃) = 𒁕	qeb = 𒄒	qib = 𒄒	qub = 𒁺
	qad = 𒋗 qád (qad₂) = 𒋗𒈫qàd (qad₃) = 𒃰qad₄ = 𒈨qad₆ = 𒆐		qid = 𒆤 qíd (qid₂) = 𒁍qid₄ = 𒃰	qud = 𒋻
	qal = 𒃲 qàl (qal₃) = 𒍇qal₄ = 𒆗	qel = 𒆸	qil = 𒆸 qíl (qil₂) = 𒄃	qul = 𒆰 qúl (qul₂) = 𒄢
	qam = 𒑲 qám (qam₂) = 𒄰		qim = 𒁶	qum = 𒄣 qúm (qum₂) = 𒉈qùm (qum₃) = 𒈝
	qan = 𒃶 qán (qan₂) = 𒄀		qin = 𒆥	qun = 𒆲
	qap = 𒃮 qáp (qap₂) = 𒆏		qip = 𒄒	qup = 𒁺 qúp (qup₂) = 𒄽
	qaq = 𒆕		qiq = 𒈪𒉭
	qar = 𒃼 qár (qar₂) = 𒋼𒀀qàr (qar₃) = 𒃻qar₄ = 𒂶qar₅ = 𒄫	qer = 𒄫 qèr (qer₃) = 𒆸qer₅ = 𒃼qer₁₀ = 𒄩	qir = 𒄫 qír (qir₂) = 𒉐qìr (qir₃) = 𒆸qir₆ = 𒀘qir₇ = 𒄊qir₈ = 𒄌qir₉ = 𒋃qir₁₀ = 𒄩	qur = 𒄥 qúr (qur₂) = 𒆳qùr (qur₃) = 𒑲qur₄ = 𒉽
			qis = 𒆧
			qiš = 𒆧
	qat = 𒋗 qát (qat₂) = 𒋗𒈫qàt (qat₃) = 𒃰qat₅ = 𒆒qat₆ = 𒆐qat₇ = 𒆑qat₈ = 𒆓	qet = 𒆤	qit = 𒆤 qít (qit₂) = 𒁍qìt (qit₃) = 𒁁	qut = 𒋻
r-	rab = 𒊐 ráb (rab₂) = 𒃲ràb (rab₃) = 𒈗rab₄ = 𒆗	reb = 𒆗	rib = 𒆗	rub = 𒆗
	rad = 𒋥 rád (rad₂) = 𒅐	red = 𒈩	rid = 𒈩	rud = 𒋥
	rag = 𒊩		rig = 𒋆 ríg (rig₂) = 𒍮rìg (rig₃) = 𒋖𒄑rig₅ = 𒊑rig₆ = 𒊪rig₇ = 𒉺𒄸𒁺rig₈ = 𒉺𒄸rig₉ = 𒄸𒁺rig₁₀ = 𒉺𒁣rig₁₁ = 𒈩𒊒rig₁₃ = 𒈲	rug = 𒊿 rúg (rug₂) = 𒉆𒋢
	raḫ = 𒈛 ráḫ (raḫ₂) = 𒊏		riḫ = 𒈛	ruḫ = 𒈛
	rak = 𒊩		rik = 𒋆 rík (rik₂) = wikt:rik₄ = 𒊿rik₁₃ = 𒈲	ruk = 𒊿
	ram = 𒉘 rám (ram₂) = 𒀸	rem = 𒆸 rém (rem₂) = 𒀖	rim = 𒆸 rím (rim₂) = 𒀖rìm (rim₃) = 𒉈𒊒rim₄ = 𒁽rim₅ = 𒀸	rum = 𒀸 rúm (rum₂) = 𒉈𒊒rùm (rum₃) = 𒉏
			rin = 𒆸 rín (rin₂) = 𒂟rìn (rin₃) = 𒇔rin₄ = 𒈸rin₅ = 𒈕, 𒈕rin₆ = 𒆜
	rap = 𒊐		rip = 𒆗
	raq = 𒊩	req = 𒋆	riq = 𒋆 ríq (riq₂) = 𒍮	ruq = 𒊿
	ras = 𒆜	res = 𒊕	ris = 𒊕
	raš = 𒆜 ráš (raš₂) = 𒌇	reš = 𒊕	riš = 𒊕	ruš = 𒄭𒄊
	rat = 𒋥		rit = 𒈩 rít (rit₂) = 𒋥
	raṭ = 𒋥		riṭ = 𒈩	ruṭ = 𒋥
s-
			siu = 𒌣
	sab = 𒉺𒅁		sib = 𒈨 síb (sib₂) = 𒉺𒇻sìb (sib₃) = 𒍦	sub = 𒅢 súb (sub₂) = 𒁻sùb (sub₃) = 𒄛sub₄ = 𒅡sub₅ = 𒈰sub₆ = 𒋳sub₇ = 𒊒
	sad = 𒆳 sád (sad₂) = 𒃪sàd (sad₃) = 𒂿sad₄ = 𒃖	sed = 𒈻 séd (sed₂) = 𒋃sèd (sed₃) = 𒈺, 𒀀𒈹sed₄ = 𒈹𒁲sed₅ = 𒀀𒈹𒁲sed₆ = 𒈹sed₇ = 𒈽sed₈ = 𒍝𒈹𒁲	sid = 𒈻 síd (sid₂) = 𒋃	sud = 𒋤 súd (sud₂) = 𒋥sùd (sud₃) = 𒋢𒆳𒊒sud₄ = 𒁍sud₅ = 𒂬
	sag = 𒊕 ság (sag₂) = 𒉺𒃶sàg (sag₃) = 𒉺sag₄ = 𒈗sag₅ = 𒋃sag₆ = 𒍠sag₇ = 𒃶sag₈ = 𒆗sag₉ = 𒊷sag₁₀ = 𒅆𒂟sag₁₁ = 𒆥	seg = 𒋝	sig = 𒋝 síg (sig₂) = 𒋠sìg (sig₃) = 𒉺sig₄ = 𒋞sig₅ = 𒅆𒂟sig₆ = 𒊷sig₇ = 𒅊sig₈ = 𒃰𒋺𒄑sig₉ = 𒋛sig₁₀ = 𒋧sig₁₁ = 𒉺𒃶sig₁₂ = 𒈬sig₁₄ = 𒊾, 𒅲, 𒅝sig₁₅ = 𒆗sig₁₆ = 𒃶sig₁₇ = 𒄀sig₁₈ = 𒆥	sug = 𒆹 súg (sug₂) = 𒁻sùg (sug₃) = 𒍇sug₄ = 𒋤sug₅ = 𒂅sug₆ = 𒋢sug₇ = 𒅲sug₈ = 𒇭sug₉ = 𒉭sug₁₀ = 𒁺𒁺
	saḫ = 𒆤 sáḫ (saḫ₂) = 𒋚sàḫ (saḫ₃) = 𒂄saḫ₄ = 𒄗saḫ₆ = 𒄩𒀀saḫ₇ = 𒀄	seḫ = 𒋚 séḫ (seḫ₂) = 𒆤	siḫ = 𒋚 síḫ (siḫ₃) = 𒆤siḫ₄ = 𒈹siḫ₅ = 𒄗	suḫ = 𒈽 súḫ (suḫ₂) = 𒋦sùḫ (suḫ₃) = 𒄗, 𒋦suḫ₄ = 𒆤suḫ₅ = 𒆪suḫ₆ = 𒁼suḫ₇ = 𒈬suḫ₁₀ = 𒈹
	sak = 𒊕 sàk (sak₃) = 𒉺sak₆ = 𒍠		sik = 𒋝 sík (sik₂) = 𒋠	suk = 𒆹 sùk (suk₃) = 𒍇suk₅ = 𒂅
	sal = 𒊩 sál (sal₂) = 𒁲sàl (sal₃) = 𒉌sal₄ = 𒋡		sil = 𒋻 síl (sil₂) = 𒉣sìl (sil₃) = 𒋡sil₅ = 𒂬sil₆ = 𒂢sil₇ = 𒂣sil₈ = 𒋓sil₉ = 𒂤sil₁₀ = 𒂴	sul = 𒂄 súl (sul₂) = 𒉌sùl (sul₃) = 𒅾sul₄ = 𒇭
	sam = 𒌑 sám (sam₂) =		sim = 𒉆 sím (sim₂) = 𒋧sìm (sim₃) = 𒁲sim₄ = 𒆸sim₅ = 𒍮	sum = 𒋧 súm (sum₂) = 𒍮sùm (sum₃) = 𒋢sum₄ = 𒅾sum₅ = 𒍦sum₆ = 𒋳
	san = 𒊕 sán (san₂) = 𒊿sàn (san₃) = 𒉓san₄ =		sin = 𒌍 sín (sin₂) = 𒉆sìn (sin₃) = 𒋃, 𒂗𒍪	sun = 𒁁 sún (sun₂) = 𒄢sùn (sun₃) = 𒋧sun₄ = 𒅾sun₅ = 𒁔sun₆ = 𒊿sun₇ = 𒆗
	sap = 𒉺𒅁 sáp (sap₂) = 𒂟sàp (sap₃) = 𒉺𒇻		sip = 𒈨 síp (sip₂) = 𒉺𒇻sìp (sip₃) = 𒍦sip₄ = 𒉺𒅁	súp (sup₂) = 𒁻
	saq = 𒊕		siq = 𒋝	suq = 𒆹
	sar = 𒊬 sár (sar₂) = 𒊹sàr (sar₃) = 𒉌sar₄ = 𒋤sar₅ = 𒈹sar₆ = 𒇡sar₇ = 𒈜sar₈ = 𒋧	ser = 𒋤 sèr (ser₃) = 𒂡	sir = 𒋤 sír (sir₂) = 𒁍sìr (sir₃) = 𒂡sir₄ = 𒋓sir₅ = 𒉡	sur = 𒋩 súr (sur₂) = 𒊨sùr (sur₃) = 𒄮sur₄ = 𒊯sur₅ = 𒇲sur₆ = 𒆠𒃲sur₇ = 𒆠𒆕sur₈ = 𒇡sur₉ = 𒋪sur₁₀ = 𒈣𒅊sur₁₁ = 𒆪sur₁₂ = 𒇭sur₁₄ = 𒊕
	sas = 𒆠𒆗	ses = 𒋀	sis = 𒋀	sus = 𒈽 sús (sus₂) = 𒈹
			siš = 𒋀	suš = 𒆪 súš (suš₂) = 𒉌sùš (suš₃) = 𒁍
	sat = 𒆳			sít (sit₂) = 𒋃
ṣ-	ṣab = 𒂟		ṣib = 𒍦 ṣíb (ṣib₂) = 𒍨
	ṣaḫ = 𒉈	ṣeḫ = 𒋚 ṣéḫ (ṣeḫ₂) = 𒉈	ṣiḫ = 𒋚 ṣíḫ (ṣiḫ₂) = 𒉈
	ṣak = 𒍠
	ṣal = 𒉌		ṣil = 𒉣 ṣíl (ṣil₂) = 𒈪ṣìl (ṣil₃) = 𒀭𒊨ṣil₄ = 𒄑𒈪
			ṣim = 𒍮	ṣum = 𒍮
			ṣin = 𒌍
	ṣap = 𒂟		ṣip = 𒍦
	ṣar = 𒇡 ṣár (ṣar₂) = 𒀫ṣàr (ṣar₃) = 𒈲	ṣer = 𒈲	ṣir = 𒈲	ṣur = 𒀫 ṣúr (ṣur₂) = 𒈲
			ṣiṣ = 𒁁
ś-			śig = 𒋠
			śik = 𒋠
	śal = 𒊩
			śim = 𒋆 śím (śim₂) = 𒉆	śum = 𒋳 śúm (śum₂) = 𒋧
			śín (śin₂) = 𒉆
	śar = 𒊬 śár (śar₂) = 𒊹śàr (śar₃) = 𒈗			śur = 𒋩 śúr (śur₂) = 𒊨
š-	šab = 𒉺𒅁 šab₄ = 𒈨šab₅ = 𒉺𒇻	šeb = 𒈨 šéb (šeb₂) = 𒊒	šib = 𒈨 šíb (šib₂) = 𒊒šìb (šib₃) = 𒉺𒅁	šub = 𒊒 šùb (šub₃) = 𒉺𒅁šub₄ = 𒈰šub₅ = 𒍤𒆸šub₆ = 𒋃šub₇ = 𒍝𒈽šub₈ = 𒍝𒈹
	šad = 𒆳 šád (šad₂) = 𒈬šàd (šad₃) = 𒃻	šed = 𒋃 šèd (šed₃) = 𒉫šed₄ = 𒆑šed₅ = 𒆒 / 𒆓šed₆ = 𒆪šed₇ = 𒈻šed₈ = 𒍝𒈹𒁲šed₉ = 𒈺šed₁₀ = 𒈹𒁲šed₁₁ = 𒀀𒈹𒁲šed₁₂ = 𒈹šed₁₃ = 𒈽šed₁₄ = 𒆂šed₁₅ = 𒅝šed₁₆ = 𒋞šed₁₇ = 𒅗	šid = 𒋃 šíd (šid₂) = 𒆐šìd (šid₃) = 𒋺	šud = 𒋤 šud (šud₂) = 𒁍šud (šud₃) = 𒆃šud₄ = 𒋃
	šag = 𒊕 šàg (šag₃) = 𒉺šag₄ = 𒊮šag₅ = 𒊷šag₆ = 𒋝	šèg (šeg₃) = 𒀀𒀭 šeg₄ = 𒀀𒋙𒉀šeg₅ = 𒍋, 𒎆šeg₆ = 𒉈šeg₇ = 𒅎šeg₈ = 𒋙𒉀šeg₉ = 𒊾šeg₁₀ = 𒆂šeg₁₁ = 𒅝šeg₁₂ = 𒋞šeg₁₃ = 𒅗šeg₁₄ = 𒅎𒀀𒀭	šig = 𒋝 šíg (šig₂) = 𒋠šig₅ = 𒍋, 𒎆šig₆ = 𒋞	šug = 𒉻
	šaḫ = 𒋚 šáḫ (šaḫ₂) = 𒂄šàḫ (šaḫ₃) = 𒆤	šeḫ = 𒋚	šiḫ = 𒋚 šíḫ (šiḫ₂) = 𒆤	šuḫ = 𒈽 šúḫ (šuḫ₂) = 𒋚
	šak = 𒊕 šak₆ = 𒋝	šék (šek₂) = 𒋠	šik = 𒋝 šík (šik₂) = 𒋠šik₆ = 𒋞	šuk = 𒉻 šúk (šuk₂) = 𒈮šùk (šuk₃) = 𒆹
	šal = 𒊩 šál (šal₂) = 𒋡šàl (šal₃) = 𒉌šal₅ = 𒁲	šel = 𒋻 šel₄ = 𒊩	šil = 𒋻 šìl (šil₃) = 𒌋šil₄ = 𒇺	šul = 𒂄 šùl (šul₂) = 𒁲
	šam = 𒌑 šám (šam₂) = šàm (šam₃) = 𒉓šam₄ = 𒉆	šem = 𒋆 šèm (šem₃) = 𒀚šem₄ = 𒀙šem₅ = 𒀘šem₆ = 𒀖𒋺, 𒀛šem₇ = 𒅖𒍏	šim = 𒋆 ším (šim₂) = 𒉆	šum = 𒋳 šum (šum₂) = 𒋧šum (šum₃) = 𒈬šúm₄ = 𒁁šùm₅ = 𒁔
	šan = 𒉓 šán (šan₂) = 𒋳šàn (šan₃) = 𒊿	šen = 𒊿 šén (šen₂) = 𒍏šèn (šen₃) = 𒉆šen₄ = 𒁾šen₅ = 𒅖𒍏šen₆ = 𒅖	šin = 𒊿 šín (šin₂) = 𒈫	šun = 𒊿𒊿 šún (šun₂) = 𒀯šùn (šun₃) = 𒄢šun₄ = 𒋧
	šap = 𒉺𒅁 šap₅ = 𒉺𒇻		šip = 𒈨 šìp (šip₃) = 𒉺𒅁	šup = 𒊒 šúp (šup₂) = 𒀸šùp (šup₃) = 𒉺𒅁
	šaq = 𒊕	šéq (šeq₂) = 𒋠	šiq = 𒋝 šíq (šiq₂) = 𒋠šiq₄ = 𒆂	šuq = 𒉻
	šar = 𒊬 šár (šar₂) = 𒊹šàr (šar₃) = 𒈗šar₄ = 𒌋𒌋šar₅ = 𒅎šar₆ = 𒁈šar₇ = 𒋻šar₈ = 𒉌	šer = 𒋓 šér (šer₂) = 𒁍šèr (šer₃) = 𒂡šer₄ = 𒍜šer₇ = 𒉪šer₉ = 𒊬šer₁₁ = 𒄊𒁇	šir = 𒋓 šír (šir₂) = 𒁍šìr (šir₃) = 𒂡šir₄ = 𒍜šir₅ = 𒉡šir₆ = 𒌉šir₈ = 𒋤šir₉ = 𒊬šir₁₀ = 𒈲	šur = 𒋩 šúr (šur₂) = 𒊨šùr (šur₃) = 𒋓šur₄ = 𒇳𒊬šur₅ = 𒇲𒆸šur₆ = 𒇳𒆸
	šas = 𒋀
	šaṣ = 𒋀	šeṣ = 𒋀	šiṣ = 𒋀
	šaš = 𒋀	šeš = 𒋀 šéš (šeš₂) = 𒋁šèš (šeš₃) = 𒀅šeš₄ = 𒂞	šiš = 𒋀 šíš (šiš₂) = 𒋁	šuš = 𒌋 šúš (šuš₂) = 𒋙šùš (šuš₃) = 𒅖šuš₄ = 𒋳šuš₅ = 𒇟šuš₆ = 𒇠
	šat = 𒆳 šàt (šat₃) = 𒃻	šet = 𒋃	šit = 𒋃	šut = 𒋤
	šaṭ = 𒆳		šiṭ = 𒋃	šuṭ = 𒋤
			šiz = 𒋀	šuz = 𒋤
t-	tab = 𒋰 táb (tab₂) = 𒄉tab₄ = 𒋰tab₅ = 𒍏	teb = 𒁳	tib = 𒁳	tub = 𒁾 túb (tub₂) = 𒂀
	tad = 𒋺		tid = 𒅎	tud = 𒌅 túd (tud₂) = 𒉺𒍜
	tag = 𒋳 tág (tag₂) = 𒁖tàg (tag₃) = 𒉌𒂟tag₄ = 𒋺	tèg (teg₃) = 𒋼	tig = 𒄘 tíg (tig₂) = 𒉌tig₄ = 𒋾	tug = 𒌇 túg (tug₂) = 𒌆tùg (tug₃) = 𒂁𒂁tug₄ = 𒇧tug₇ = 𒅎𒋺, 𒅏tug₈ = 𒂅
	tak = 𒈭 ták (tak₂) = 𒂃 / 𒃮tàk (tak₃) = 𒈬		tik = 𒄘 tík (tik₂) = 𒉌	tuk = 𒌇 túk (tuk₂) = 𒌆tùk (tuk₃) = 𒂁tuk₄ = 𒇧tuk₇ = 𒅎𒋺, 𒅏
	tal = 𒊑 tál (tal₂) = 𒉿tàl (tal₃) = 𒀸tal₄ = 𒁹tal₅ = 𒆒𒆒, 𒆓𒆓	tel = 𒁁	til = 𒁁 tíl (til₂) = 𒇯tìl (til₃) = 𒋾til₄ = 𒀸til₅ = 𒁹til₆ = 𒆒𒆒, 𒆓𒆓til₇ = 𒉿til₉ = 𒈦	tul = 𒌋𒌆 túl (tul₂) = 𒇥tul₄ = 𒌉tul₅ = 𒇯tul₆ = 𒂈tul₇ = 𒌪tul₈ = 𒇀
	tam = 𒌓 tám (tam₂) = 𒁮tàm (tam₃) = 𒁴tam₄ = 𒌈	tem = 𒁴	tim = 𒁴 tím (tim₂) = 𒌈tìm (tim₃) = 𒁷	tum = 𒌈 túm (tum₂) = 𒁺tùm (tum₃) = 𒉐tum₄ = 𒉏tum₅ = 𒆪tum₈ = 𒁴tum₉ = 𒅎tum₁₀ = 𒁮tum₁₁ = 𒉑tum₁₂ = 𒌅
	tan = 𒆗 tán (tan₂) = 𒃞tàn (tan₃) = 𒃩, 𒌨tan₄ = 𒃋tan₆ = 𒍕tan₇ = 𒃃	ten = 𒋼 tén (ten₂) = 𒁷tèn (ten₃) = 𒂆	tin = 𒁷 tìn (tin₃) = 𒂆	tun = 𒄽 tún (tun₂) = 𒄸tùn (tun₃) = 𒂅tun₄ = 𒂄
	tap = 𒋰	tep = 𒁳	tip = 𒁳	tup = 𒁾 túp (tup₂) = 𒂀
	taq = 𒋳 táq (taq₂) = 𒁖tàq (taq₃) = 𒉌𒂟		tiq = 𒄘 tíq (tiq₂) = 𒉌	tuq = 𒌇 tùq (tuq₃) = 𒂁
	tar = 𒋻 tár (tar₂) = 𒁯tàr (tar₃) = 𒁰tar₅ = 𒄀	ter = 𒌁 tér (ter₂) = 𒋻tèr (ter₃) = 𒁯ter₄ = 𒋛𒀀ter₅ = 𒉼	tir = 𒌁 tír (tir₂) = 𒋻tìr (tir₃) = 𒁯tir₄ = 𒋛𒀀tir₅ = 𒉼	tur = 𒌉 túr (tur₂) = 𒄙tùr (tur₃) = 𒉣𒇬tur₄ = 𒄒tur₅ = 𒌅tur₆ = 𒆸tur₇ = 𒆪tur₈ = 𒁍
	tas = 𒌨	tés (tes₂) = 𒌨	tis = 𒁹 tís (tis₂) = 𒌨
	taṣ = 𒌨	téṣ (tes₂) = 𒌨	tíṣ (tis₂) = 𒌨
	taš = 𒌨 táš (taš₂) = 𒁹tàš (taš₃) = 𒀾	téš (teš₂) = 𒌨	tiš = 𒁹 tíš (tiš₂) = 𒌨	tuš = 𒆪
	tat = 𒋺
	taz = 𒌨	tiz = 𒁹 tíz (tiz₂) = 𒌨
ṭ-	ṭab = 𒋰 ṭàb (ṭab₃) = 𒁳ṭab₄ = 𒍏ṭab₆ = 𒄭		ṭib = 𒁳 ṭíb (ṭib₂) = 𒄭	ṭub = 𒁾 ṭúb (ṭub₂) = 𒂀
	ṭad = 𒋺
	ṭaḫ = 𒈭 ṭáḫ (ṭaḫ₂) = 𒂃 / 𒃮			ṭuḫ = 𒂃 / 𒃮
	ṭak = 𒁖			ṭug = 𒂁
				ṭuk = 𒂁
	ṭal = 𒊑		ṭil = 𒀸 ṭíl (ṭil₂) = 𒁁	ṭul = 𒇥 ṭùl (ṭul₃) = 𒇯
	ṭam = 𒁮 ṭám (ṭam₂) = 𒌓	ṭém (ṭem₂) = 𒁶	ṭim = 𒁴 ṭím (ṭim₂) = 𒁶	ṭum = 𒌈
	ṭan = 𒆗		ṭin = 𒁷
	ṭap = 𒋰	ṭep = 𒁳	ṭip = 𒁳	ṭup = 𒁾 ṭúp (ṭup₂) = 𒂀
	ṭar = 𒋻 ṭár (ṭar₂) = 𒁯ṭàr (ṭar₃) = 𒁰	ṭer = 𒋛𒀀 ṭer₅ = 𒌁	ṭir = 𒋛𒀀 ṭír (ṭir₂) = 𒋻ṭìr (ṭir₃) = 𒋩ṭir₄ = 𒁯ṭir₅ = 𒌁	ṭur = 𒄙 ṭúr (ṭur₂) = 𒆪ṭùr (ṭur₃) = 𒌉ṭur₄ = 𒄒ṭur₅ = 𒀀
			ṭiš = 𒁹
	ṭaṭ = 𒋺
w-				wuk = 𒈮
			wil = 𒅖
	wan = 𒌋𒌋
	war = 𒁇 wár (war₂) = 𒈥wàr (war₃) = 𒀴			wir = 𒄊|
	waš = 𒈦		wiš = 𒈨𒌍	wuš = 𒈲
z-	zab = 𒂟	zeb = 𒍦	zib = 𒍦 zíb (zib₂) = 𒍨zìb (zib₃) = 𒄞zib₄ = 𒅗	zub = 𒆛 zúb (zub₂) = 𒍦
			zid = 𒍣 zíd (zid₂) = 𒂠
	zag = 𒍠 zág (zag₂) = 𒉺zàg (zag₃) = 𒋃		zig = 𒍨 zíg (zig₂) = 𒋝zìg (zig₃) = 𒍣	zug = 𒆹 zúg (zug₂) = 𒅗zùg (zug₃) = 𒊢zug₄ = 𒅲
	zaḫ = 𒉈 záḫ (zaḫ₂) = 𒄩𒀀zàḫ (zaḫ₃) = 𒀄		ziḫ = 𒄗	zuḫ = 𒅗
	zak = 𒍠 zák (zak₂) = 𒉺	zek = 𒍨	zik = 𒍨 zík (zik₂) = 𒋝	zuk = 𒆹
	zal = 𒉌 zál (zal₂) = 𒇡	zel = 𒉣	zil = 𒉣 zíl (zil₂) = 𒋳	zul = 𒂄
				zum = 𒍮 zúm (zum₂) = 𒊪
	zap = 𒂟 záp (zap₂) = 𒆪		zip = 𒍦
	zaq = 𒍠 záq (zaq₂) = 𒉺zaq₄ = 𒍨		ziq = 𒍨 zíq (ziq₂) = 𒋝	zuq = 𒆹
	zar = 𒇡 zár (zar₂) = 𒉌zàr (zar₃) = 𒋧zar₄ = 𒆰zar₅ = 𒁁zar₆ = 𒁁𒀸	zer = 𒆰 zèr (zer₃) = 𒈲	zir = 𒆰 zír (zir₂) = 𒂠𒅗zìr (zir₃) = 𒈲	zur = 𒀫 zúr (zur₂) = 𒋪zùr (zur₃) = 𒈣𒅊zur₄ = 𒇡zur₅ = 𒇲zur₈ = 𒊭
			zis = 𒁁
	zaz = 𒁁	zez = 𒁁	ziz = 𒁁 zíz (ziz₂) = 𒀾zìz (ziz₃) = 𒄮ziz₄ = 𒄓ziz₅ = 𒋳

Numerals

Main article: Babylonian cuneiform numerals

The Sumerians used a base-60 numerical system. A number, such as "70", would be represented with the digit for "60" (𒁹) and the digit for "10" (𒌋): 𒁹𒌋. It's important to mention that the number for "60" is the same as the number for "1";⁸⁸ the reason this number isn't read as "11" is because of the order of the numbers: 60 then 10, not 10 then 60.

Usage

Cuneiform script was used in many ways in ancient Mesopotamia. Besides the well-known clay tablets and stone inscriptions, cuneiform was also written on wax boards.⁸⁹ One example from the 8th century BC was found at Nimrud. The wax contained toxic amounts of arsenic.⁹⁰ It was used to record laws, like the Code of Hammurabi. It was also used for recording maps, compiling medical manuals, and documenting religious stories and beliefs, among other uses. In particular it is thought to have been used to prepare surveying data and draft inscriptions for Kassite stone kudurru.⁹¹⁹² Studies by Assyriologists like Claus Wilcke⁹³ and Dominique Charpin⁹⁴ suggest that cuneiform literacy was not reserved solely for the elite but was common for average citizens.

According to the Oxford Handbook of Cuneiform Culture,⁹⁵ cuneiform script was used at a variety of literacy levels: average citizens needed only a basic, functional knowledge of cuneiform script to write personal letters and business documents. Citizens with a higher degree of literacy put the script to more technical use, listing medicines and diagnoses and writing mathematical equations. Scholars held the highest literacy level of cuneiform and mostly focused on writing as a complex skill and an art form.

Modern usage

Cuneiform is occasionally used nowadays as inspiration for logos.

Unicode

Main articles: Cuneiform (Unicode block), Cuneiform Numbers and Punctuation (Unicode block), and Early Dynastic Cuneiform (Unicode block)

As of version 16.0, the following ranges are assigned to the Sumero-Akkadian Cuneiform script in the Unicode Standard:⁹⁶

• U+12000–U+123FF (922 assigned characters) Cuneiform
• U+12400–U+1247F (116 assigned characters) Cuneiform Numbers and Punctuation
• U+12480–U+1254F (196 assigned characters) Early Dynastic Cuneiform
• In proposal phase Proto-cuneiform⁹⁷

The final proposal for Unicode encoding of the script was submitted by two cuneiform scholars working with an experienced Unicode proposal writer in June 2004.⁹⁸ The base character inventory is derived from the list of Ur III signs compiled by the Cuneiform Digital Library Initiative of UCLA based on the inventories of Miguel Civil, Rykle Borger (2003) and Robert Englund. Rather than opting for a direct ordering by glyph shape and complexity, according to the numbering of an existing catalog, the Unicode order of glyphs was based on the Latin alphabetic order of their "last" Sumerian transliteration as a practical approximation. Once in Unicode, glyphs can be automatically processed into segmented transliterations.⁹⁹

Corpus

Numerous efforts have been made since the 19th century to create a corpus of known cuneiform inscriptions. In the 21st century, the Cuneiform Digital Library Initiative and Open Richly Annotated Cuneiform Corpus are two of the most significant projects.

List of major cuneiform tablet discoveries

Location	Number of tablets	Initial discovery	Language
Nineveh	20,000–24,000100	1840	Akkadian
Nippur	60,000101	1851
Girsu	40,000–50,000102	1877
Dūr-Katlimmu	500103	1879
Sippar	60,000–70,000104105	1880	Babylonian
Amarna	382	1887	Canaano-Akkadian
Nuzi	10,000–20,000106	1896	Akkadian, Hurro-Akkadian
Assur	16,000107	1898	Akkadian
Hattusa	30,000108	1906	Hittite, Hurrian
Drehem	100,000109		Sumerian
Kanesh	23,000110	1925111	Akkadian
Ugarit	1,500	1929	Ugaritic, Hurrian
Persepolis	15,000–18,000112	1933	Elamite, Old Persian
Mari	20,000–25,000113	1933	Akkadian
Alalakh	300114	1937	Akkadian, Hurro-Akkadian
Abu Salabikh	500115	1963	Sumerian, Akkadian
Ebla	approx. 5,000116	1974	Sumerian, Eblaite
Nimrud	244	1952	Neo-Assyrian, Neo-Babylonian

See also

• Hieratic
• Elamite cuneiform
• Hittite cuneiform
• Journal of Cuneiform Studies
• List of cuneiform signs
• List of museums of ancient Near Eastern art
• Old Persian cuneiform
• Ugaritic alphabet
• Urartian cuneiform
• Babylonokia: a 21st-century cuneiform artwork

Notes

Bibliography

• Adkins, Lesley, Empires of the Plain: Henry Rawlinson and the Lost Languages of Babylon, New York, St. Martin's Press (2003) ISBN 978-0-312-33002-6
• Bogacz, Bartosz; Mara, Hubert (June 30, 2022). "Digital Assyriology—Advances in Visual Cuneiform Analysis". Journal on Computing and Cultural Heritage. 15 (2): 1–22. doi:10.1145/3491239. S2CID 248843112.
• R. Borger, Assyrisch-Babylonische Zeichenliste, 2nd ed., Neukirchen-Vluyn (1981)
• Borger, Rykle (2004). Dietrich, Manfried [in German]; Loretz, Oswald [in German] (eds.). Mesopotamisches Zeichenlexikon [Mesopotamian Signs' List]. Alter Orient und Altes Testament (in German). Vol. 305. Münster: Ugarit Verlag. ISBN 978-3-927120-82-2.
• Burnouf, E. (1836). "Mémoire sur deux Inscriptions Cunéiformes trouvées près d'Hamadan et qui font partie des papiers du Dr Schulz", [Memoir on two cuneiform inscriptions [that were] found near Hamadan and that form part of the papers of Dr. Schulz], Imprimerie Royale, Paris.
• Cammarosano, M. (2017–2018) "Cuneiform Writing Techniques", cuneiform.neocities.org (with further bibliography)
• Charvát, Petr. "Cherchez la femme: The SAL Sign in Proto-Cuneiform Writing". La famille dans le Proche-Orient ancien: réalités, symbolismes et images: Proceedings of the 55e Rencontre Assyriologique Internationale, Paris, edited by Lionel Marti, University Park, USA: Penn State University Press, 2021, pp. 169–182
• Daniels, Peter; Bright, William (1996). The World's Writing Systems. Oxford University Press. p. 146. ISBN 978-0-19-507993-7.
• A. Deimel (1922), Liste der archaischen Keilschriftzeichen ("LAK"), WVDOG 40, Berlin.
• A. Deimel (1925–1950), Šumerisches Lexikon, Pontificum Institutum Biblicum.
• F. Ellermeier, M. Studt, Sumerisches Glossar
  • vol. 1: 1979–1980, ISBN 978-3-921747-08-7, ISBN 978-3-921747-10-0
  • vol. 3.2: 1998–2005, A-B ISBN 978-3-921747-24-7, D-E ISBN 978-3-921747-25-4, G ISBN 978-3-921747-29-2
  • vol. 3.3: ISBN 978-3-921747-22-3 (font CD ISBN 978-3-921747-23-0)
  • vol. 3.5: ISBN 978-3-921747-26-1
  • vol 3.6: 2003, Handbuch Assur ISBN 978-3-921747-28-5
• Robert K. Englund, Roger J. Matthews, "Proto-Cuneiform Texts from Diverse Collections", Berlin: Gebr. Mann 1996 ISBN 978-3786118756
• Robert K. Englund and Rainer M.Boehmer, "Archaic Administrative Texts from Uruk – The Early Campaigns", (ATU Bd. 5), Berlin: Gebr. Mann Verlag 1994 ISBN 978-3786117452
• A. Falkenstein, Archaische Texte aus Uruk, Berlin-Leipzig (1936)
• E. Forrer, Die Keilschrift von Boghazköi, Leipzig (1922)
• J. Friedrich, Hethitisches Keilschrift-Lesebuch, Heidelberg (1960)
• Jean-Jacques Glassner, The Invention of Cuneiform, English translation, Johns Hopkins University Press (2003), ISBN 978-0-8018-7389-8.
• Hayes, John L. (2000). A Manual of Sumerian Grammar and Texts. Aids and Research Tools in Ancient Near Eastern Studies. Vol. 5 (2d ed.). Malibu: Undena Publications. ISBN 978-0-89003-197-1.
• Heeren (1815) "Ideen über die Politik, den Verkehr und den Handel der vornehmsten Volker der alten Welt", vol. i. pp. 563 seq., translated into English in 1833.
• DSpace Hershkovitz, Yehonatan, "The Adaptation Process of Cuneiform in the Old Babylonian Period", Dissertation, Harvard University, 2023
• Kramer, Samuel Noah (1981). "Appendix B: The Origin of the Cuneiform Writing System". History Begins at Sumer: Thirty-Nine Firsts in Man's Recorded History (3d revised ed.). Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 381–383. ISBN 978-0-8122-7812-5.
• René Labat, Manuel d'epigraphie Akkadienne, Geuthner, Paris (1959); 6th ed., extended by Florence Malbran-Labat (1999), ISBN 978-2-7053-3583-0.
• Lassen, Christian (1836) Die Altpersischen Keil-Inschriften von Persepolis. Entzifferung des Alphabets und Erklärung des Inhalts. [The Old-Persian cuneiform inscriptions of Persepolis. Decipherment of the alphabet and explanation of its content.] Eduard Weber, Bonn, (Germany).
• Mittermayer, Catherine; Attinger, Pascal (2006). Altbabylonische Zeichenliste der Sumerisch-Literarischen Texte. Orbis Biblicus et Orientalis. Vol. Special Edition. Academic Press Fribourg. ISBN 978-3-7278-1551-5.
• O. Neugebauer, A. Sachs (eds.), Mathematical Cuneiform Texts, New Haven (1945).
• [7] Ouyang, Xiaoli, and Christine Proust, "Place-Value Notations in the Ur III Period: Marginal Numbers in Administrative Texts", Cultures of Computation and Quantification in the Ancient World: Numbers, Measurements, and Operations in Documents from Mesopotamia, China and South Asia. Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 267–356, 2023
• Patri, Sylvain (2009). "La perception des consonnes hittites dans les langues étrangères au XIIIe siècle." Zeitschrift für Assyriologie und vorderasiatische Archäologie 99(1): 87–126. doi:10.1515/ZA.2009.003.
• Prichard, James Cowles (1844). "Researches Into the Physical History of Mankind", 3rd ed., vol IV, Sherwood, Gilbert and Piper, London.
• Philippe Quenet, "The Diffusion of the Cuneiform Writing System in Northern Mesopotamia: The Earliest Archaeological Evidence", Iraq, vol. 67, no. 2, pp. 31–40, 2005
• Rattenborg, Rune, Smidt, Gustav Ryberg, Johansson, Carolin, Melin-Kronsell, Nils and Nett, Seraina, "The Archaeological Distribution of the Cuneiform Corpus: A Provisional Quantitative and Geospatial Survey", Altorientalische Forschungen, vol. 50, no. 2, pp. 178-205, 2003
• Rawlinson, Henry (1847) "The Persian Cuneiform Inscription at Behistun, decyphered and translated; with a Memoir on Persian Cuneiform Inscriptions in general, and on that of Behistun in Particular", The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, vol. X. JSTOR 25581217.
• Rune Rattenborg et al., Open Access Index for the Geographical Distribution of the Cuneiform Corpus, University of Uppsala, Cuneiform Digital Library Journal, Cuneiform Digital Library Initiative, 2021:001 ISSN 1540-8779
• Y. Rosengarten, Répertoire commenté des signes présargoniques sumériens de Lagash, Paris (1967)
• Chr. Rüster, E. Neu, Hethitisches Zeichenlexikon (HZL), Wiesbaden (1989)
• Nikolaus Schneider, Die Keilschriftzeichen der Wirtschaftsurkunden von Ur III nebst ihren charakteristischsten Schreibvarianten, Keilschrift-Paläographie; Heft 2, Rom: Päpstliches Bibelinstitut (1935).
• Wolfgang Schramm, Akkadische Logogramme, Goettinger Arbeitshefte zur Altorientalischen Literatur (GAAL) Heft 4, Goettingen (2003), ISBN 978-3-936297-01-0.
• F. Thureau-Dangin, Recherches sur l'origine de l'écriture cunéiforme, Paris (1898).
• Ronald Herbert Sack, Cuneiform Documents from the Chaldean and Persian Periods, (1994) ISBN 978-0-945636-67-0

External links

Wikibooks has a book on the topic of: Alphabetical list of all Unicode cuneiform signs

• R-CNN based PolygonalWedge Detection Learned from Annotated 3D Renderings and Mapped Photographs of Open Data Cuneiform Tablets – 2023 – Stötzner, Ernst et al.
• AI: Researchers develop automatic text recognition for ancient cuneiform tablets
• Cuneiform Digital Library Initiative
• Tablet Collections, Cornell University
• Finding aid to the Columbia University Cuneiform Collection at Columbia University. Rare Book & Manuscript Library
• The Cuneiform Wide Web: From Card Catalogues to Digital Assyriology – Shai Gordin and Avital Romach – ANE Today – Oct 2022 Archived November 11, 2022, at the Wayback Machine
• A sign list by Assyriologist Kateřina Šašková, featuring Ur III and Neo-Assyrian cuneiform shapes, their composition and pronunciations

References

1. /kjuːˈniː.ɪfɔːrm/ kew-NEE-ih-form, /kjuːˈneɪ.ɪfɔːrm/[1][2] kew-NAY-ih-form, or /ˈkjuːnɪfɔːrm/[1] KEW-nih-form /wiki/Help:IPA/English ↩

2. Jagersma, Abraham Hendrik (2010). A descriptive grammar of Sumerian (PDF) (Thesis). Leiden: Faculty of the Humanities, Leiden University. p. 15. In its fully developed form, the Sumerian script is based on a mixture of logographic and phonographic writing. There are basically two types of signs: word signs, or logograms, and sound signs, or phonograms. https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/bitstream/handle/1887/16107/Binnenwerk-jagersma.pdf?sequence=2 ↩

3. Sara E. Kimball; Jonathan Slocum. "Hittite Online". The University of Texas at Austin Linguistics Research Center. Early Indo-European OnLine. 2 The Cuneiform Syllabary. Archived from the original on November 7, 2023. Hittite is written in a form of the cuneiform syllabary, a writing system in use in Sumerian city-states in Mesopotamia by roughly 3100 B.C.E. and used to write a number of languages in the ancient Near East until the first century B.C.E. https://lrc.la.utexas.edu/eieol/hitol/10 ↩

4. Olson, David R.; Torrance, Nancy (February 16, 2009). The Cambridge Handbook of Literacy. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-86220-2. 978-0-521-86220-2 ↩

5. "The origins of writing". www.bl.uk. Archived from the original on March 11, 2022. Retrieved May 10, 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20220311085214/https://www.bl.uk/history-of-writing/articles/where-did-writing-begin ↩

6. Sara E. Kimball; Jonathan Slocum. "Hittite Online". The University of Texas at Austin Linguistics Research Center. Early Indo-European OnLine. 2 The Cuneiform Syllabary. Archived from the original on November 7, 2023. ...by approximately 2350 B.C.E. documents were written in cuneiform in Akkadian. Sumerian, a long extinct language, is related to no known language, ancient or modern, and its structure differed from that of Akkadian, which made it necessary to modify the writing system. https://lrc.la.utexas.edu/eieol/hitol/10 ↩

7. Huehnergard, John (2004). "Akkadian and Eblaite". The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the World's Ancient Languages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 218. ISBN 978-0-521-56256-0. Connected Akkadian texts appear c. 2350 and continue more or less uninterrupted for the next two and a half millennia... 978-0-521-56256-0 ↩

8. Sara E. Kimball; Jonathan Slocum. "Hittite Online". The University of Texas at Austin Linguistics Research Center. Early Indo-European OnLine. 2 The Cuneiform Syllabary. Archived from the original on November 7, 2023. These modifications are important, because the Hittites borrowed them when they borrowed the writing system, probably from a north Syrian source, in the early second millennium B.C.E. In borrowing this system, the Hittites retained conventions established for writing Sumerian and Akkadian... https://lrc.la.utexas.edu/eieol/hitol/10 ↩

9. Archi, Alfonso (2015). "How the Anitta text reached Hattusa". Saeculum: Gedenkschrift für Heinrich Otten anlässlich seines 100. Geburtstags. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. ISBN 978-3-447-10365-7. The existence of the Anitta text demonstrates that there was not a sudden and total interruption in writing but a phase of adaptation to a new writing. 978-3-447-10365-7 ↩

10. Hunger, Hermann, and Teije de Jong, "Almanac W22340a from Uruk: The latest datable cuneiform tablet.", Zeitschrift für Assyriologie und vorderasiatische Archäologie 104.2, pp. 182–194, 2014 ↩

11. Hommel, Fritz (1897). The Ancient Hebrew Tradition as Illustrated by the Monuments. Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. p. 29. It is necessary here to remark, that the application of the term "Assyriology," as it is now generally used, to the study of the cuneiform inscriptions, is not quite correct; indeed it is actually misleading. Meade, Carroll Wade (1974). Road to Babylon: Development of U.S. Assyriology. Brill. pp. 1–2. ISBN 978-90-04-03858-5. The term Assyriology is derived from these people, but it is very misleading. Daneshmand, Parsa (July 31, 2020). "Chapter 14 Assyriology in Iran?". Perspectives on the History of Ancient Near Eastern Studies. Penn State University Press. p. 266. doi:10.1515/9781646020898-015. ISBN 9781646020898. S2CID 236813488. The term "Assyriology" is itself problematic because it covers a broad range of topics.Charpin, Dominique (November 6, 2018). "Comment peut-on être assyriologue ? : Leçon inaugurale prononcée le jeudi 2 octobre 2014". Comment peut-on être assyriologue ?. Leçons inaugurales. Collège de France. ISBN 9782722604230. Dès lors, le terme assyriologue est devenu ambigu : dans son acception large, il désigne toute personne qui étudie des textes notés dans l'écriture cunéiforme. {{cite book}}: |website= ignored (help) 978-90-04-03858-597816460208989782722604230 ↩

12. Kramer, Samuel Noah (1963). The Sumerians: Their History, Culture, and Character. His numerous treatises, text editions, and polemics helped to consolidate the new science, now generally becoming known as Assyriology— based on the fact that the earliest excavations were conducted in northern Iraq, the home of the Assyrian people... /wiki/Samuel_Noah_Kramer ↩

13. "Cuneiform Tablets: Who's Got What?", Biblical Archaeology Review, 31 (2), 2005, archived from the original on July 15, 2014 http://members.bib-arch.org/publication.asp?PubID=BSBA&Volume=31&Issue=2&ArticleID=10 ↩

14. Streck, Michael P. (2010). "Großes Fach Altorientalistik. Der Umfang des keilschriftlichen Textkorpus". Mitteilungen der Deutschen Orientgesellschaft 142 (PDF). pp. 57–58. https://www.orient-gesellschaft.de/repositorium/MDOG/MDOG_142.pdf ↩

15. "Beginning in the pottery-phase of the Neolithic, clay tokens are widely attested as a system of counting and identifying specific amounts of specified livestock or commodities. The tokens, enclosed in clay envelopes after being impressed on their rounded surface, were gradually replaced by impressions on flat or plano-convex tablets, and these in turn by more or less conventionalized pictures of the tokens incised on the clay with a reed stylus. The transition to writing was complete W. Hallo; W. Simpson (1971). The Ancient Near East. New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich. p. 25. ↩

16. [1] Bennison-Chapman, Lucy E. "Reconsidering 'Tokens': The Neolithic Origins of Accounting or Multifunctional, Utilitarian Tools?." Cambridge Archaeological Journal 29.2 (2019): 233–259. https://scholarlypublications.universiteitleiden.nl/access/item%3A2979651/view ↩

17. "Beginning in the pottery-phase of the Neolithic, clay tokens are widely attested as a system of counting and identifying specific amounts of specified livestock or commodities. The tokens, enclosed in clay envelopes after being impressed on their rounded surface, were gradually replaced by impressions on flat or plano-convex tablets, and these in turn by more or less conventionalized pictures of the tokens incised on the clay with a reed stylus. The transition to writing was complete W. Hallo; W. Simpson (1971). The Ancient Near East. New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich. p. 25. ↩

18. "Beginning in the pottery-phase of the Neolithic, clay tokens are widely attested as a system of counting and identifying specific amounts of specified livestock or commodities. The tokens, enclosed in clay envelopes after being impressed on their rounded surface, were gradually replaced by impressions on flat or plano-convex tablets, and these in turn by more or less conventionalized pictures of the tokens incised on the clay with a reed stylus. The transition to writing was complete W. Hallo; W. Simpson (1971). The Ancient Near East. New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich. p. 25. ↩

19. Daniels, Peter T. (1996). The World's Writing Systems. Oxford University Press. p. 45. ISBN 978-0-19-507993-7. 978-0-19-507993-7 ↩

20. Boudreau, Vincent (2004). The First Writing: Script Invention as History and Process. Cambridge University Press. p. 71. ISBN 978-0-521-83861-0. 978-0-521-83861-0 ↩

21. Adkins 2003, p. 47. ↩

22. Hunger, Hermann, and Teije de Jong, "Almanac W22340a from Uruk: The latest datable cuneiform tablet.", Zeitschrift für Assyriologie und vorderasiatische Archäologie 104.2, pp. 182–194, 2014 ↩

23. Overmann, Karenleigh A. The Material Origin of Numbers: Insights from the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East, Piscataway, New Jersey, US: Gorgias Press, 2019 ↩

24. Denise Schmandt-Besserat, "An Archaic Recording System and the Origin of Writing." Syro Mesopotamian Studies, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 1–32, 1977 ↩

25. Walker, C. (1987). Reading The Past Cuneiform. British Museum. pp. 7-6. https://archive.org/details/Walker.C.ReadingThePastCuneiform ↩

26. Denise Schmandt-Besserat, An Archaic Recording System in the Uruk-Jemdet Nasr Period, American Journal of Archaeology, vol. 83, no. 1, pp. 19–48, (Jan. 1979) ↩

27. Walker, C. (1987). Reading The Past Cuneiform. British Museum. p. 9. https://archive.org/details/Walker.C.ReadingThePastCuneiform ↩

28. Walker, C. (1987). Reading The Past Cuneiform. British Museum. p. 7. https://archive.org/details/Walker.C.ReadingThePastCuneiform ↩

29. [2] Robert K. Englund, "Proto-Cuneiform Account-Books and Journals", in Michael Hudson and Cornelia Wunsch, eds., Creating Economic Order: Record-keeping, Standardization and the Development of Accounting in the Ancient Near East (CDL Press: Bethesda, Maryland, USA) pp. 23–46, 2004 https://cdli.ucla.edu/staff/englund/publications/englund2004a.pdf ↩

30. Green, M. and H. J. Nissen (1987). Zeichenliste der Archaischen Texte aus Uruk. ATU 2. Berlin ↩

31. Englund, R. K. (1998). "Texts from the Late Uruk Period". In: Mesopotamien: Späturuk-Zeit und Frühdy- nastische Zeit (Orbis Biblicus et Orientalis 160/1). Ed. by P. Attinger and M. Wäfler. Fribourg, Switzerland / Göttingen, 15–217 ↩

32. [3] Born, L., & Kelley, K. (2021). A Quantitative Analysis of Proto-Cuneiform Sign Use in Archaic Tribute. Cuneiform Digital Library Bulletin, 006 https://cdli.ucla.edu/file/publications/cdlb2021_006.pdf ↩

33. Monaco, Salvatore F. "PROTO-CUNEIFORM AND SUMERIANS." Rivista Degli Studi Orientali, vol. 87, no. 1/4, 2014, pp. 277–82 ↩

34. Walker, C. (1987). Reading The Past Cuneiform. British Museum. p. 12. https://archive.org/details/Walker.C.ReadingThePastCuneiform ↩

35. Walker, C. (1987). Reading The Past Cuneiform. British Museum. pp. 11-12. https://archive.org/details/Walker.C.ReadingThePastCuneiform ↩

36. Walker, C. (1987). Reading The Past Cuneiform. British Museum. pp. 11-12. https://archive.org/details/Walker.C.ReadingThePastCuneiform ↩

37. Walker, C. (1987). Reading The Past Cuneiform. British Museum. p. 13. https://archive.org/details/Walker.C.ReadingThePastCuneiform ↩

38. Geoffrey Sampson (January 1, 1990). Writing Systems: A Linguistic Introduction. Stanford University Press. p. 78. ISBN 978-0-8047-1756-4. Retrieved October 31, 2011. 978-0-8047-1756-4 ↩

39. Geoffrey W. Bromiley (June 1995). The international standard Bible encyclopedia. Wm. B. Eerdmans. p. 1150. ISBN 978-0-8028-3784-4. Retrieved October 31, 2011. 978-0-8028-3784-4 ↩

40. Iorwerth Eiddon Stephen Edwards, et al., The Cambridge Ancient History (3rd ed. 1970) pp. 43–44. ↩

41. Barraclough, Geoffrey; Stone, Norman (1989). The Times Atlas of World History. Hammond Incorporated. p. 53. ISBN 978-0-7230-0304-5. 978-0-7230-0304-5 ↩

42. Robert E. Krebs; Carolyn A. Krebs (2003). Groundbreaking scientific experiments, inventions, and discoveries of the ancient world. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 91. ISBN 978-0-313-31342-4. Retrieved October 31, 2011. 978-0-313-31342-4 ↩

43. Daniels, Peter T.; Bright, William (1996). The World's Writing Systems. Oxford University Press. p. 38. ISBN 978-0-19-507993-7. 978-0-19-507993-7 ↩

44. Daniels, Peter T.; Bright, William (1996). The World's Writing Systems. Oxford University Press. p. 38. ISBN 978-0-19-507993-7. 978-0-19-507993-7 ↩

45. Daniels, Peter T.; Bright, William (1996). The World's Writing Systems. Oxford University Press. p. 38. ISBN 978-0-19-507993-7. 978-0-19-507993-7 ↩

46. Daniels, Peter T.; Bright, William (1996). The World's Writing Systems. Oxford University Press. p. 38. ISBN 978-0-19-507993-7. 978-0-19-507993-7 ↩

47. Daniels, Peter T.; Bright, William (1996). The World's Writing Systems. Oxford University Press. p. 38. ISBN 978-0-19-507993-7. 978-0-19-507993-7 ↩

48. Daniels, Peter T.; Bright, William (1996). The World's Writing Systems. Oxford University Press. p. 38. ISBN 978-0-19-507993-7. 978-0-19-507993-7 ↩

49. Daniels, Peter T.; Bright, William (1996). The World's Writing Systems. Oxford University Press. p. 38. ISBN 978-0-19-507993-7. 978-0-19-507993-7 ↩

50. Daniels, Peter T.; Bright, William (1996). The World's Writing Systems. Oxford University Press. p. 38. ISBN 978-0-19-507993-7. 978-0-19-507993-7 ↩

51. Foxvog, Daniel A. Introduction to Sumerian grammar (PDF). p. 12. Archived (PDF) from the original on January 3, 2017 https://cdli.ucla.edu/pubs/cdlp/cdlp0002_20160104.pdf ↩

52. Foxvog, Daniel A. Introduction to Sumerian grammar (PDF). p. 12. Archived (PDF) from the original on January 3, 2017 https://cdli.ucla.edu/pubs/cdlp/cdlp0002_20160104.pdf ↩

53. Foxvog, Daniel A. Introduction to Sumerian grammar (PDF). pp. 10–11. Archived (PDF) from the original on January 3, 2017 (about phonemes g̃ and ř and their representation using cuneiform signs). https://cdli.ucla.edu/pubs/cdlp/cdlp0002_20160104.pdf ↩

54. Foxvog, Daniel A. Introduction to Sumerian grammar (PDF). p. 13. Archived (PDF) from the original on January 3, 2017 (about phonemes g̃ and ř and their representation using cuneiform signs). https://cdli.ucla.edu/pubs/cdlp/cdlp0002_20160104.pdf ↩

55. Walker, C. (1987). Reading the Past: Cuneiform. British Museum. p. 14. https://archive.org/details/Walker.C.ReadingThePastCuneiform ↩

56. Daniels, Peter T.; Bright, William (1996). The World's Writing Systems. Oxford University Press. p. 38. ISBN 978-0-19-507993-7. 978-0-19-507993-7 ↩

57. Daniels, Peter T.; Bright, William (1996). The World's Writing Systems. Oxford University Press. p. 38. ISBN 978-0-19-507993-7. 978-0-19-507993-7 ↩

58. Walker, C. (1987). Reading The Past Cuneiform. British Museum. p. 16. https://archive.org/details/Walker.C.ReadingThePastCuneiform ↩

59. Walker, C. (1987). Reading The Past Cuneiform. British Museum. p. 16. https://archive.org/details/Walker.C.ReadingThePastCuneiform ↩

60. Walker, C. (1987). Reading The Past Cuneiform. British Museum. p. 16. https://archive.org/details/Walker.C.ReadingThePastCuneiform ↩

61. Walker, C. (1987). Reading The Past Cuneiform. British Museum. p. 16. https://archive.org/details/Walker.C.ReadingThePastCuneiform ↩

62. Walker, C. (1987). Reading The Past Cuneiform. British Museum. p. 16. https://archive.org/details/Walker.C.ReadingThePastCuneiform ↩

63. Khačikjan, Margaret. The Elamite language (1998). p. 1. https://archive.org/details/TheElamiteLanguage1998/page/n9/mode/2up?q=naramsin ↩

64. Peter Daniels and William Bright (1996) ↩

65. Khačikjan, Margaret. The Elamite language (1998). p. 1. https://archive.org/details/TheElamiteLanguage1998/page/n9/mode/2up?q=naramsin ↩

66. Reiner, Erica (2005) ↩

67. Khačikjan, Margaret. The Elamite language (1998). pp. 2–3. https://archive.org/details/TheElamiteLanguage1998/page/n9/mode/2up?q=naramsin ↩

68. Козлова, Н.В.; Касьян, А.С.; Коряков, Ю.Б. (2010). "Клинопись". Языки мира: Древние реликтовые языки Передней Азии: 197–222. ↩

69. Козлова, Н.В.; Касьян, А.С.; Коряков, Ю.Б. (2010). "Клинопись". Языки мира: Древние реликтовые языки Передней Азии: 197–222. ↩

70. Frye, Richard N. "History of Mesopotamia – Mesopotamia from c. 320 bce to c. 620 ce". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved December 11, 2020. The use of cuneiform in government documents ceased sometime during the Achaemenian period, but it continued in religious texts until the 1st century of the Common era. https://www.britannica.com/place/Mesopotamia-historical-region-Asia/Mesopotamia-from-c-320-bce-to-c-620-ce ↩

71. Geller, Marckham (1997). "The Last Wedge". Zeitschrift für Assyriologie und vorderasiatische Archäologie. 87 (1): 43–95. doi:10.1515/zava.1997.87.1.43. S2CID 161968187. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

72. Michałowski, Piotr (2003). "The Libraries of Babel: Text, Authority, and Tradition in Ancient Mesopotamia". In Dorleijn, Gillis J.; Vanstiphout, Herman L. J. (eds.). Cultural Repertoires: Structure, Function, and Dynamics. Leuven, Paris, Dudley: Peeters Publishers. p. 108. ISBN 978-90-429-1299-1. Retrieved August 20, 2019. 978-90-429-1299-1 ↩

73. Anderson, Terence J.; Twining, William (2015). "Law and archaeology: Modified Wigmorean Analysis". In Chapman, Robert; Wylie, Alison (eds.). Material Evidence: Learning from Archaeological Practice. Abingdon, UK; New York, NY: Routledge. p. 290. ISBN 978-1-317-57622-8. Retrieved August 20, 2019. 978-1-317-57622-8 ↩

74. Windfuhr, G. L.: "Notes on the old Persian signs", page 1. Indo-Iranian Journal, 1970. ↩

75. Schmitt, R. (2008), "Old Persian", in Roger D. Woodard (ed.), The Ancient Languages of Asia and the Americas (illustrated ed.), Cambridge University Press, p. 77, ISBN 978-0-521-68494-1 978-0-521-68494-1 ↩

76. "Cuneiform Tablets: Who's Got What?", Biblical Archaeology Review, 31 (2), 2005, archived from the original on July 15, 2014 http://members.bib-arch.org/publication.asp?PubID=BSBA&Volume=31&Issue=2&ArticleID=10 ↩

77. Watkins, Lee; Snyder, Dean (2003), The Digital Hammurabi Project (PDF), The Johns Hopkins University, archived (PDF) from the original on July 14, 2014, Since the decipherment of Babylonian cuneiform some 150 years ago museums have accumulated perhaps 300,000 tablets written in most of the major languages of the Ancient Near East – Sumerian, Akkadian (Babylonian and Assyrian), Eblaite, Hittite, Persian, Hurrian, Elamite, and Ugaritic. These texts include genres as variegated as mythology and mathematics, law codes and beer recipes. In most cases these documents are the earliest exemplars of their genres, and cuneiformists have made unique and valuable contributions to the study of such moderns disciplines as history, law, religion, linguistics, mathematics, and science. In spite of continued great interest in mankind's earliest documents it has been estimated that only about 1/10 of the extant cuneiform texts have been read even once in modern times. There are various reasons for this: the complex Sumero/Akkadian script system is inherently difficult to learn; there is, as yet, no standard computer encoding for cuneiform; there are only a few hundred qualified cuneiformists in the world; the pedagogical tools are, in many cases, non-optimal; and access to the widely distributed tablets is expensive, time-consuming, and, due to the vagaries of politics, becoming increasingly difficult. http://pages.jh.edu/~dighamm/version2/research/2003_03_Museums%20and%20the%20Web%20Conference%202003.pdf ↩

78. "Cuneiform Tablets: Who's Got What?", Biblical Archaeology Review, 31 (2), 2005, archived from the original on July 15, 2014 http://members.bib-arch.org/publication.asp?PubID=BSBA&Volume=31&Issue=2&ArticleID=10 ↩

79. Watkins, Lee; Snyder, Dean (2003), The Digital Hammurabi Project (PDF), The Johns Hopkins University, archived (PDF) from the original on July 14, 2014, Since the decipherment of Babylonian cuneiform some 150 years ago museums have accumulated perhaps 300,000 tablets written in most of the major languages of the Ancient Near East – Sumerian, Akkadian (Babylonian and Assyrian), Eblaite, Hittite, Persian, Hurrian, Elamite, and Ugaritic. These texts include genres as variegated as mythology and mathematics, law codes and beer recipes. In most cases these documents are the earliest exemplars of their genres, and cuneiformists have made unique and valuable contributions to the study of such moderns disciplines as history, law, religion, linguistics, mathematics, and science. In spite of continued great interest in mankind's earliest documents it has been estimated that only about 1/10 of the extant cuneiform texts have been read even once in modern times. There are various reasons for this: the complex Sumero/Akkadian script system is inherently difficult to learn; there is, as yet, no standard computer encoding for cuneiform; there are only a few hundred qualified cuneiformists in the world; the pedagogical tools are, in many cases, non-optimal; and access to the widely distributed tablets is expensive, time-consuming, and, due to the vagaries of politics, becoming increasingly difficult. http://pages.jh.edu/~dighamm/version2/research/2003_03_Museums%20and%20the%20Web%20Conference%202003.pdf ↩

80. [4]Sayce, Rev. A. H., "The Archaeology of the Cuneiform Inscriptions", Second Edition-revised, Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, London, Brighton, New York, 1908 (Reprint – ISBN 978-1-108-08239-6) https://archive.org/stream/archaeologyofcun00sayc#page/n7/mode/2up ↩

81. Gutherz, Gai; Gordin, Shai; Sáenz, Luis; Levy, Omer; Berant, Jonathan (May 2, 2023). Kearns, Michael (ed.). "Translating Akkadian to English with neural machine translation". PNAS Nexus. 2 (5): pgad096. doi:10.1093/pnasnexus/pgad096. ISSN 2752-6542. PMC 10153418. PMID 37143863. https://academic.oup.com/pnasnexus/article/doi/10.1093/pnasnexus/pgad096/7147349 ↩

82. Kudrinski, Maksim. "Hittite heterographic writings and their interpretation" Indogermanische Forschungen, vol. 121, no. 1, pp. 159–176, 2016 ↩

83. Veldhuis, Niek (September 22, 2011), Radner, Karen; Robson, Eleanor (eds.), "Levels of Literacy", The Oxford Handbook of Cuneiform Culture, Oxford University Press, pp. 68–89, doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199557301.013.0004, ISBN 978-0-19-955730-1, retrieved March 4, 2025 978-0-19-955730-1 ↩

84. Borger 2004, pp. 245–539. - Borger, Rykle (2004). Dietrich, Manfried [in German]; Loretz, Oswald [in German] (eds.). Mesopotamisches Zeichenlexikon [Mesopotamian Signs' List]. Alter Orient und Altes Testament (in German). Vol. 305. Münster: Ugarit Verlag. ISBN 978-3-927120-82-2. https://archive.org/details/MesopotamischesZeichenlexikon ↩

85. Borger 2004, pp. 245–539. - Borger, Rykle (2004). Dietrich, Manfried [in German]; Loretz, Oswald [in German] (eds.). Mesopotamisches Zeichenlexikon [Mesopotamian Signs' List]. Alter Orient und Altes Testament (in German). Vol. 305. Münster: Ugarit Verlag. ISBN 978-3-927120-82-2. https://archive.org/details/MesopotamischesZeichenlexikon ↩

86. Borger 2004, pp. 245–539. - Borger, Rykle (2004). Dietrich, Manfried [in German]; Loretz, Oswald [in German] (eds.). Mesopotamisches Zeichenlexikon [Mesopotamian Signs' List]. Alter Orient und Altes Testament (in German). Vol. 305. Münster: Ugarit Verlag. ISBN 978-3-927120-82-2. https://archive.org/details/MesopotamischesZeichenlexikon ↩

87. Borger 2004, pp. 245–539. - Borger, Rykle (2004). Dietrich, Manfried [in German]; Loretz, Oswald [in German] (eds.). Mesopotamisches Zeichenlexikon [Mesopotamian Signs' List]. Alter Orient und Altes Testament (in German). Vol. 305. Münster: Ugarit Verlag. ISBN 978-3-927120-82-2. https://archive.org/details/MesopotamischesZeichenlexikon ↩

88. Bello, Ignacio; Britton, Jack R.; Kaul, Anton (2009), Topics in Contemporary Mathematics (9th ed.), Cengage Learning, p. 182, ISBN 9780538737791. 9780538737791 ↩

89. Zimmermann, Lynn-Salammbô, "Knocking on Wood: Writing Boards in the Kassite Administration", Journal of Ancient Near Eastern History, vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 177-237, 2023 ↩

90. Cammarosano, Michele, Katja Weirauch, Feline Maruhn, Gert Jendritzki, and Patrick L. Kohl, "They Wrote on Wax. Wax Boards in the Ancient Near East", Mesopotamia, vol. 54, pp. 121‒180, 2019 ↩

91. Zimmermann, Lynn-Salammbô. "Wooden Wax-Covered Writing Boards as Vorlage for kudurru Inscriptions in the Middle Babylonian Period" Journal of Ancient Near Eastern History, 2022 ↩

92. "The World's Oldest Writing". Archaeology. 69 (3). May 2016. Archived from the original on April 27, 2016. Retrieved September 18, 2016 – via Virtual Library of Virginia. https://web.archive.org/web/20160427103955/http://www.archaeology.org/issues/213-1605/features/4326-cuneiform-the-world-s-oldest-writing ↩

93. Wilcke, Claus (2000). Wer las und schrieb in Babylonien und Assyrien. München: Verlag der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. ISBN 978-3-7696-1612-5. 978-3-7696-1612-5 ↩

94. Charpin, Dominique. 2004. "Lire et écrire en Mésopotamie: Une affaire dé spécialistes?" Comptes rendus de l'Académie des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres: 481–501. ↩

95. Veldhuis, Niek (2011). Radner, Karen; Robson, Eleanor (eds.). "Levels of Literacy". The Oxford Handbook of Cuneiform Culture. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199557301.001.0001. hdl:10261/126580. ISBN 978-0-19-955730-1. 978-0-19-955730-1 ↩

96. [5]"Cuneiform and Hieroglyphs", in The Unicode® Standard Version 16.0 – Core Specification, September 10, 2024 https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U12000.pdf ↩

97. [6]Robin Leroy, Anshuman Pandey, and Steve Tinney, "Archaic cuneiform numerals", L2/24-210R, 2024-10-23 https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2024/24210r-archaic-numerals.pdf ↩

98. Everson, Michael; Feuerherm, Karljürgen; Tinney, Steve (June 8, 2004). "Final proposal to encode the Cuneiform script in the SMP of the UCS". https://unicode.org/wg2/docs/n2786.pdf ↩

99. Gordin S, Gutherz G, Elazary A, Romach A, Jiménez E, Berant J, et al. (2020) "Reading Akkadian cuneiform using natural language processing". PLoS ONE 15(10): e0240511. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0240511 https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0240511 ↩

100. Bertman, Stephen (2005). Handbook to Life in Ancient Mesopotamia. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-518364-1. 978-0-19-518364-1 ↩

101. Bertman, Stephen (2005). Handbook to Life in Ancient Mesopotamia. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-518364-1. 978-0-19-518364-1 ↩

102. Bertman, Stephen (2005). Handbook to Life in Ancient Mesopotamia. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-518364-1. 978-0-19-518364-1 ↩

103. Bertman, Stephen (2005). Handbook to Life in Ancient Mesopotamia. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-518364-1. 978-0-19-518364-1 ↩

104. Pinches, T. G.; Finkel, I. L. (1984). "Neo-Babylonian and Achaemenid Economic Texts from the Sippar Collection of the British Museum". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 104 (4). American Oriental Society: 745–752. doi:10.2307/601904. ISSN 0003-0279. JSTOR 601904. Retrieved April 29, 2023. http://www.jstor.org/stable/601904 ↩

105. Bertman, Stephen (2005). Handbook to Life in Ancient Mesopotamia. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-518364-1. 978-0-19-518364-1 ↩

106. Bertman, Stephen (2005). Handbook to Life in Ancient Mesopotamia. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-518364-1. 978-0-19-518364-1 ↩

107. Ellermeier, Friedrich., and Margret. Studt. Sumerisches Glossar. Vol. 3, T. 6, Handbuch Assur / Friedrich Ellmermeier; Margret Studt. Hardegsen bei Göttingen: Selbstverl. Ellermeier, 2003. Print. Theologische und orientalistische Arbeiten aus Göttingen, 4. ↩

108. "The Hittite cuneiform tablets from Bogazköy". www.unesco.org. UNESCO. Archived from the original on September 19, 2016. Retrieved September 18, 2016. https://web.archive.org/web/20160919072426/http://www.unesco.org/new/en/communication-and-information/memory-of-the-world/register/full-list-of-registered-heritage/registered-heritage-page-8/the-hittite-cuneiform-tablets-from-bogazkoey/ ↩

109. Bertman, Stephen (2005). Handbook to Life in Ancient Mesopotamia. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-518364-1. 978-0-19-518364-1 ↩

110. Michel, Cecile, Old Assyrian Bibliography, 2001. ↩

111. Tablets from the site surfaced on the market as early as 1880, when three tablets made their way to European museums. By the early 1920s, the number of tablets sold from the site exceeded 4,000. While the site of Kültepe was suspected as the source of the tablets, and the site was visited several times, it was not until 1925 when Bedřich Hrozný corroborated this identification by excavating tablets from the fields next to the tell that were related to tablets already purchased. ↩

112. "Persepolis Fortification Archive". The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. Archived from the original on September 29, 2016. Retrieved September 18, 2016. https://oi.uchicago.edu/research/projects/persepolis-fortification-archive ↩

113. Bertman, Stephen (2005). Handbook to Life in Ancient Mesopotamia. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-518364-1. 978-0-19-518364-1 ↩

114. Lauinger, Jacob (January 1, 2007). Archival practices at Old Babylonian/Middle Bronze Age Alalakh (Level VII) (Thesis). University of Chicago. Archived from the original on July 14, 2014. http://gradworks.umi.com/32/73/3273033.html ↩

115. Bertman, Stephen (2005). Handbook to Life in Ancient Mesopotamia. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-518364-1. 978-0-19-518364-1 ↩

116. Moorey, P. R. S. (1992). A Century of Biblical Archaeology. Westminster Knox Press. ISBN 978-0-664-25392-9. 978-0-664-25392-9 ↩