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Ichnofacies
Trace fossil

An ichnofacies is an assemblage of trace fossils that provides an indication of the conditions that their formative organisms inhabited.

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Concept

Trace fossil assemblages are far from random; the range of fossils recorded in association is constrained by the environment in which the trace-making organisms dwelt.1 Palaeontologist Adolf Seilacher pioneered the concept of ichnofacies, whereby the state of a sedimentary system at its time of deposition could be deduced by noting the trace fossils in association with one another.2

Significance

Ichnofacies can provide information about water depth, salinity, turbidity and energy. In general, traces found in shallower water are vertical, those in deeper water are more horizontal and patterned.3 This is partly because of the relative abundance of suspended food particles, such as plankton, in the shallower waters of the photic zone, and partly because vertical burrows are more secure in the turbulent conditions of shallow water. In deeper waters, there is a necessary transition to sediment feeding (extracting nutrients from the mud).4 Food availability, hence trace type, is also controlled by energy: high energy environments keep food particles suspended, whereas in lower energy areas, food settles out evenly, and burrows will tend to spread out to cover as much area as economically as possible.5

Ichnofacies have a major advantage over using body fossils to gauge the same factors: body fossils can be transported, but trace fossils are always in situ.6

Recognized invertebrate ichnofacies

Marine Invertebrate Ichnofacies78910
NameCommon IchnogeneraSubstrateInferred Paleoenvironment
Scoyenia11Skolithos, Cruziana, Diplichnites, Rusophycus12Variable - typically sandstones; red beds may be nearbyDiagnostic of terrestrial13/freshwater14 facies.
Psilonichnus15Psilonichnus, Coenobichnus, Cellicalichnus, Macanopsis16Highly variable grain size, sand, soft substrate17Coastal barrier islands, strand plains, delta plains, estuaries, lagoons, and bays.1819
Trypanites20Entobia, Trypanites, Gastrochaenolites, Caulostrepsis, Maeandropolydora, Conchotrema21Hardground, endurated substrates22Coastal cliffs, reefs, beachrock23
Teredolites2425Teredolites, Thalassinoides26Resistant woody and coaly substrates27Driftwood, peat28
Glossifungites29Diplocraterion, Skolithos, Spongeliomorpha, Rhizocoralium, Arenicolites, Thalassinoides, Fuersichnus3031Firmground, dewatered muds32Shallow, marginal marine, deltaic or estuarine erosion surfaces.33
Skolithos34Skolithos, Ophiomorpha, Arenicolites, Diplocraterion3536Unconsolidated littoral sands37Beaches and sandy tidal flats, shallow water, foreshore to upper-shoreface, above wavebase3839
Cruziana40Arthrophycus, Phycodes, Rhizocorallium, Teichichnus, Arenicolites, Rosselia, Bergaueria, Thalassinoides, Lockeia, Protovirgularia, Curvolithus, Dimorphichnus, Cruziana, Rusophycus4142Sand and silt heterolithic successions and organic detritus43Mid to distal continental shelves. Below normal wave base, but not necessarily below storm wave base4445
Zoophycos46Zoophycos, Phycosiphon, Chondrites4748Marine softground, impure sands and silts49Deeper water, bottom of shelf; turbidite facies50
Nereites51Nereites, Megagrapton, Protopaleodictyon, Spirophycus, Helminthoraphe, Glockerichnus, Spiroraphe, Cosmoraphe, Urohelminthoida, Desmograpton, Paleodictyon, Scolicia5253Fine-grained muds and clays interbedded with turbidite silts5455Deep water, pelagic, base-of-slope turbidity systems5657

Recognized vertebrate ichnofacies

Vertebrate Ichnofacies5859
NameCommon IchnogeneraSubstrateInferred Paleoenvironment
Chelichnus60 (Laoporus)61Chelichnus, Brasilichnium6263Unconsolidated, larger-grained sandsAeolian sand dunes64
Grallator65Grallator, Jindongornipes, Koreanoformis, Avipeda, Brachychirotherium, Rhynchosauroides, Eubrontes6667Lacustrine shorelines68
Brontopodus69Charirichnium, Ceratopsipes, Amblydactylus, Brontopodus70Clastic or carbonate71Coastal plain, marine shoreline72
Batrachichnus73Batrachichnus, Limnopus, Amphisauropus, Dromopus, Dimetropus, Gilmoreichnus, ChirotheriumTidal flat-fluvial plain74
Characichnos75Characichnos, Undichna, Lunichnium, Puertollanopus, Serpentichnus, Batrachichnus, Hatcherichnus76Semi-consolidated firmgroundsSubaqueous lacustrine, estuarine, and deltaic environments77

See also

References

  1. Seilacher, A. (1967). "Bathymetry of trace fossils". Marine Geology. 5 (5–6): 413–428. doi:10.1016/0025-3227(67)90051-5. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  2. Seilacher, A. (1967). "Bathymetry of trace fossils". Marine Geology. 5 (5–6): 413–428. doi:10.1016/0025-3227(67)90051-5. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  3. Seilacher, A. (1967). "Bathymetry of trace fossils". Marine Geology. 5 (5–6): 413–428. doi:10.1016/0025-3227(67)90051-5. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  4. Seilacher, A. (1967). "Bathymetry of trace fossils". Marine Geology. 5 (5–6): 413–428. doi:10.1016/0025-3227(67)90051-5. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  5. Seilacher, A. (1967). "Bathymetry of trace fossils". Marine Geology. 5 (5–6): 413–428. doi:10.1016/0025-3227(67)90051-5. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  6. Seilacher, A. (1967). "Bathymetry of trace fossils". Marine Geology. 5 (5–6): 413–428. doi:10.1016/0025-3227(67)90051-5. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  7. Seilacher, A. (1967). "Bathymetry of trace fossils". Marine Geology. 5 (5–6): 413–428. doi:10.1016/0025-3227(67)90051-5. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  8. "Ichnofacies". UCL. http://www.es.ucl.ac.uk/tf/ichno.htm ↩

  9. Benton, M.J.; Harper, D.A.T. (1997). Basic Palaeontology. Longman Harlow, Essex, England. ISBN 9780582228573. 9780582228573 ↩

  10. Buatois, Luis; Mangano, M. Gabriela (2011). Ichnology: Organism-Substrate Interactions in Space and Time. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 67–69. ISBN 978-0-521-85555-6. 978-0-521-85555-6 ↩

  11. Seilacher, A. (1967). "Bathymetry of trace fossils". Marine Geology. 5 (5–6): 413–428. doi:10.1016/0025-3227(67)90051-5. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  12. Woolfe, K.J. (1990). "Trace fossils as paleoenvironmental indicators in the Taylor Group (Devonian) of Antarctica". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 80 (3–4): 301–310. doi:10.1016/0031-0182(90)90139-X. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  13. Seilacher, A. (1967). "Bathymetry of trace fossils". Marine Geology. 5 (5–6): 413–428. doi:10.1016/0025-3227(67)90051-5. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  14. Woolfe, K.J. (1990). "Trace fossils as paleoenvironmental indicators in the Taylor Group (Devonian) of Antarctica". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 80 (3–4): 301–310. doi:10.1016/0031-0182(90)90139-X. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  15. Frey, Robert W.; Pemberton, S. George (1987). "The Psilonichnus ichnocoenose, and its relationship to adjacent marine and nonmarine ichnocoenoses along the Georgia coast". Bulletin of Canadian Petroleum Geology (35). ↩

  16. Buatois, Luis; Mangano, M. Gabriela (2011). Ichnology: Organism-Substrate Interactions in Space and Time. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 67–69. ISBN 978-0-521-85555-6. 978-0-521-85555-6 ↩

  17. Frey, Robert W.; Pemberton, S. George (1987). "The Psilonichnus ichnocoenose, and its relationship to adjacent marine and nonmarine ichnocoenoses along the Georgia coast". Bulletin of Canadian Petroleum Geology (35). ↩

  18. Buatois, Luis; Mangano, M. Gabriela (2011). Ichnology: Organism-Substrate Interactions in Space and Time. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 67–69. ISBN 978-0-521-85555-6. 978-0-521-85555-6 ↩

  19. Frey, Robert W.; Pemberton, S. George (1987). "The Psilonichnus ichnocoenose, and its relationship to adjacent marine and nonmarine ichnocoenoses along the Georgia coast". Bulletin of Canadian Petroleum Geology (35). ↩

  20. Frey, R. W.; Seilacher, Adolf (1980). "Uniformity in marine invertebrate ichnology". Lethaia. 13 (3): 183–207. doi:10.1111/j.1502-3931.1980.tb00632.x. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  21. Buatois, Luis; Mangano, M. Gabriela (2011). Ichnology: Organism-Substrate Interactions in Space and Time. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 67–69. ISBN 978-0-521-85555-6. 978-0-521-85555-6 ↩

  22. Frey, R. W.; Seilacher, Adolf (1980). "Uniformity in marine invertebrate ichnology". Lethaia. 13 (3): 183–207. doi:10.1111/j.1502-3931.1980.tb00632.x. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  23. Frey, Robert W.; Pemberton, S. George. Facies Models. pp. 189–207. ↩

  24. Bromely, Richard G.; Pemberton, S. George (1984). "A Cretaceous woodground: the Teredolites ichnofacies". Journal of Paleontology. 58. R.A. Rahmani: 488–498. ↩

  25. Gingras, M.K.; MacEachern, J.A. (2004). "Modern perspectives on the Teredolites ichnofacies: observations from Willapa Bay, Washington" (PDF). PALAIOS. 19. Pickerill, R.K.: 79–88. doi:10.1669/0883-1351(2004)019<0079:mpotti>2.0.co;2. S2CID 96426958. http://doc.rero.ch/record/13979/files/PAL_E990.pdf ↩

  26. Buatois, Luis; Mangano, M. Gabriela (2011). Ichnology: Organism-Substrate Interactions in Space and Time. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 67–69. ISBN 978-0-521-85555-6. 978-0-521-85555-6 ↩

  27. Pemberton, S. George; Spila, M. (2001). "Ichnology and sedimentology of shallow to marginal marine systems". Geological Association of Canada Short Course Notes (228). Pulham, A.J., Saunders, T., MacEachern, J.A., Robbins, D., and Sinclair, I.K.: 29–62. ↩

  28. Pemberton, S. George; Spila, M. (2001). "Ichnology and sedimentology of shallow to marginal marine systems". Geological Association of Canada Short Course Notes (228). Pulham, A.J., Saunders, T., MacEachern, J.A., Robbins, D., and Sinclair, I.K.: 29–62. ↩

  29. Seilacher, A. (1967). "Bathymetry of trace fossils". Marine Geology. 5 (5–6): 413–428. doi:10.1016/0025-3227(67)90051-5. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  30. Seilacher, A. (1967). "Bathymetry of trace fossils". Marine Geology. 5 (5–6): 413–428. doi:10.1016/0025-3227(67)90051-5. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  31. Buatois, Luis; Mangano, M. Gabriela (2011). Ichnology: Organism-Substrate Interactions in Space and Time. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 67–69. ISBN 978-0-521-85555-6. 978-0-521-85555-6 ↩

  32. Seilacher, A. (1967). "Bathymetry of trace fossils". Marine Geology. 5 (5–6): 413–428. doi:10.1016/0025-3227(67)90051-5. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  33. Seilacher, A. (1967). "Bathymetry of trace fossils". Marine Geology. 5 (5–6): 413–428. doi:10.1016/0025-3227(67)90051-5. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  34. Seilacher, A. (1967). "Bathymetry of trace fossils". Marine Geology. 5 (5–6): 413–428. doi:10.1016/0025-3227(67)90051-5. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  35. Seilacher, A. (1967). "Bathymetry of trace fossils". Marine Geology. 5 (5–6): 413–428. doi:10.1016/0025-3227(67)90051-5. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  36. Buatois, Luis; Mangano, M. Gabriela (2011). Ichnology: Organism-Substrate Interactions in Space and Time. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 67–69. ISBN 978-0-521-85555-6. 978-0-521-85555-6 ↩

  37. Seilacher, A. (1967). "Bathymetry of trace fossils". Marine Geology. 5 (5–6): 413–428. doi:10.1016/0025-3227(67)90051-5. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  38. Seilacher, A. (1967). "Bathymetry of trace fossils". Marine Geology. 5 (5–6): 413–428. doi:10.1016/0025-3227(67)90051-5. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  39. Buatois, Luis; Mangano, M. Gabriela (2011). Ichnology: Organism-Substrate Interactions in Space and Time. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 67–69. ISBN 978-0-521-85555-6. 978-0-521-85555-6 ↩

  40. Seilacher, A. (1967). "Bathymetry of trace fossils". Marine Geology. 5 (5–6): 413–428. doi:10.1016/0025-3227(67)90051-5. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  41. Seilacher, A. (1967). "Bathymetry of trace fossils". Marine Geology. 5 (5–6): 413–428. doi:10.1016/0025-3227(67)90051-5. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  42. Buatois, Luis; Mangano, M. Gabriela (2011). Ichnology: Organism-Substrate Interactions in Space and Time. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 67–69. ISBN 978-0-521-85555-6. 978-0-521-85555-6 ↩

  43. Buatois, Luis; Mangano, M. Gabriela (2011). Ichnology: Organism-Substrate Interactions in Space and Time. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 67–69. ISBN 978-0-521-85555-6. 978-0-521-85555-6 ↩

  44. Seilacher, A. (1967). "Bathymetry of trace fossils". Marine Geology. 5 (5–6): 413–428. doi:10.1016/0025-3227(67)90051-5. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  45. Buatois, Luis; Mangano, M. Gabriela (2011). Ichnology: Organism-Substrate Interactions in Space and Time. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 67–69. ISBN 978-0-521-85555-6. 978-0-521-85555-6 ↩

  46. Seilacher, A. (1967). "Bathymetry of trace fossils". Marine Geology. 5 (5–6): 413–428. doi:10.1016/0025-3227(67)90051-5. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  47. Seilacher, A. (1967). "Bathymetry of trace fossils". Marine Geology. 5 (5–6): 413–428. doi:10.1016/0025-3227(67)90051-5. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  48. Buatois, Luis; Mangano, M. Gabriela (2011). Ichnology: Organism-Substrate Interactions in Space and Time. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 67–69. ISBN 978-0-521-85555-6. 978-0-521-85555-6 ↩

  49. Seilacher, A. (1967). "Bathymetry of trace fossils". Marine Geology. 5 (5–6): 413–428. doi:10.1016/0025-3227(67)90051-5. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  50. Seilacher, A. (1967). "Bathymetry of trace fossils". Marine Geology. 5 (5–6): 413–428. doi:10.1016/0025-3227(67)90051-5. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  51. Seilacher, A. (1967). "Bathymetry of trace fossils". Marine Geology. 5 (5–6): 413–428. doi:10.1016/0025-3227(67)90051-5. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  52. Seilacher, A. (1967). "Bathymetry of trace fossils". Marine Geology. 5 (5–6): 413–428. doi:10.1016/0025-3227(67)90051-5. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  53. Buatois, Luis; Mangano, M. Gabriela (2011). Ichnology: Organism-Substrate Interactions in Space and Time. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 67–69. ISBN 978-0-521-85555-6. 978-0-521-85555-6 ↩

  54. Seilacher, A. (1967). "Bathymetry of trace fossils". Marine Geology. 5 (5–6): 413–428. doi:10.1016/0025-3227(67)90051-5. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  55. Buatois, Luis; Mangano, M. Gabriela (2011). Ichnology: Organism-Substrate Interactions in Space and Time. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 67–69. ISBN 978-0-521-85555-6. 978-0-521-85555-6 ↩

  56. Seilacher, A. (1967). "Bathymetry of trace fossils". Marine Geology. 5 (5–6): 413–428. doi:10.1016/0025-3227(67)90051-5. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  57. Buatois, Luis; Mangano, M. Gabriela (2011). Ichnology: Organism-Substrate Interactions in Space and Time. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 67–69. ISBN 978-0-521-85555-6. 978-0-521-85555-6 ↩

  58. Lockley, M.G., Hunt, A.P., and Meyer, C.A., 1994. Vertebrate tracks and the ichnofacies concept: Implications for palaeoecology and palichnostratigraphy. In The Palaeobiology of Trace Fossils, ed. S.K. Donovan, Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons, p. 241-268. ↩

  59. Hunt, Adrian P.; Lucas, Spencer G. (2007). "Tetrapod ichnofacies: a new paradigm". Ichnos. 14 (1–2): 59–68. doi:10.1080/10420940601006826. S2CID 129687395. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  60. Hunt, Adrian P.; Lucas, Spencer G. (2007). "Tetrapod ichnofacies: a new paradigm". Ichnos. 14 (1–2): 59–68. doi:10.1080/10420940601006826. S2CID 129687395. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  61. Lockley, M.G., Hunt, A.P., and Meyer, C.A., 1994. Vertebrate tracks and the ichnofacies concept: Implications for palaeoecology and palichnostratigraphy. In The Palaeobiology of Trace Fossils, ed. S.K. Donovan, Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons, p. 241-268. ↩

  62. Lockley, M.G., Hunt, A.P., and Meyer, C.A., 1994. Vertebrate tracks and the ichnofacies concept: Implications for palaeoecology and palichnostratigraphy. In The Palaeobiology of Trace Fossils, ed. S.K. Donovan, Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons, p. 241-268. ↩

  63. Hunt, Adrian P.; Lucas, Spencer G. (2007). "Tetrapod ichnofacies: a new paradigm". Ichnos. 14 (1–2): 59–68. doi:10.1080/10420940601006826. S2CID 129687395. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  64. Hunt, Adrian P.; Lucas, Spencer G. (2007). "Tetrapod ichnofacies: a new paradigm". Ichnos. 14 (1–2): 59–68. doi:10.1080/10420940601006826. S2CID 129687395. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  65. Lockley, M.G., Hunt, A.P., and Meyer, C.A., 1994. Vertebrate tracks and the ichnofacies concept: Implications for palaeoecology and palichnostratigraphy. In The Palaeobiology of Trace Fossils, ed. S.K. Donovan, Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons, p. 241-268. ↩

  66. Lockley, M.G., Hunt, A.P., and Meyer, C.A., 1994. Vertebrate tracks and the ichnofacies concept: Implications for palaeoecology and palichnostratigraphy. In The Palaeobiology of Trace Fossils, ed. S.K. Donovan, Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons, p. 241-268. ↩

  67. Hunt, Adrian P.; Lucas, Spencer G. (2007). "Tetrapod ichnofacies: a new paradigm". Ichnos. 14 (1–2): 59–68. doi:10.1080/10420940601006826. S2CID 129687395. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  68. Hunt, Adrian P.; Lucas, Spencer G. (2007). "Tetrapod ichnofacies: a new paradigm". Ichnos. 14 (1–2): 59–68. doi:10.1080/10420940601006826. S2CID 129687395. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  69. Hunt, Adrian P.; Lucas, Spencer G. (2007). "Tetrapod ichnofacies: a new paradigm". Ichnos. 14 (1–2): 59–68. doi:10.1080/10420940601006826. S2CID 129687395. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  70. Hunt, Adrian P.; Lucas, Spencer G. (2007). "Tetrapod ichnofacies: a new paradigm". Ichnos. 14 (1–2): 59–68. doi:10.1080/10420940601006826. S2CID 129687395. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  71. Hunt, Adrian P.; Lucas, Spencer G. (2007). "Tetrapod ichnofacies: a new paradigm". Ichnos. 14 (1–2): 59–68. doi:10.1080/10420940601006826. S2CID 129687395. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  72. Hunt, Adrian P.; Lucas, Spencer G. (2007). "Tetrapod ichnofacies: a new paradigm". Ichnos. 14 (1–2): 59–68. doi:10.1080/10420940601006826. S2CID 129687395. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  73. Hunt, Adrian P.; Lucas, Spencer G. (2007). "Tetrapod ichnofacies: a new paradigm". Ichnos. 14 (1–2): 59–68. doi:10.1080/10420940601006826. S2CID 129687395. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  74. Hunt, Adrian P.; Lucas, Spencer G. (2007). "Tetrapod ichnofacies: a new paradigm". Ichnos. 14 (1–2): 59–68. doi:10.1080/10420940601006826. S2CID 129687395. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  75. Hunt, Adrian P.; Lucas, Spencer G. (2007). "Tetrapod ichnofacies: a new paradigm". Ichnos. 14 (1–2): 59–68. doi:10.1080/10420940601006826. S2CID 129687395. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  76. Hunt, Adrian P.; Lucas, Spencer G. (2007). "Tetrapod ichnofacies: a new paradigm". Ichnos. 14 (1–2): 59–68. doi:10.1080/10420940601006826. S2CID 129687395. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  77. Hunt, Adrian P.; Lucas, Spencer G. (2007). "Tetrapod ichnofacies: a new paradigm". Ichnos. 14 (1–2): 59–68. doi:10.1080/10420940601006826. S2CID 129687395. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩