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Open back rounded vowel
Vowel sound
IPA: Vowels
FrontCentralBack
Closeiyɨʉɯu
Near-closeɪʏʊ
Close-mideøɘɵɤo
Mide̞ø̞əɤ̞o̞
Open-midɛœɜɞʌɔ
Near-openæɐ
Openaɶäɑɒ

Legend: unrounded • rounded

The open back rounded vowel, or low back rounded vowel, is a type of vowel sound, used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨ɒ⟩. It is called Latin turned alpha being a rotated version of Latin alpha. It seems a "turned script a", being a rotated version of "script (cursive) a", which is the variant of a that lacks the extra stroke on top of a "printed a". Latin turned alpha a ⟨ɒ⟩ has its linear stroke on the left, whereas Latin alpha a ⟨ɑ⟩ (for its unrounded counterpart) has its linear stroke on the right.

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Features

  • Its vowel height is open, also known as low, which means the tongue is positioned far from the roof of the mouth – that is, low in the mouth.
  • Its vowel backness is back, which means the tongue is positioned back in the mouth without creating a constriction that would be classified as a consonant.
  • It is rounded, which means that the lips are rounded rather than spread or relaxed.

Occurrence

LanguageWordIPAMeaningNotes
AfrikaansStandard[2]daar[dɒːr]'there'Fully back. Used by some speakers, particularly young female speakers of northern accents. Other speakers use an unrounded vowel [ɑː ~ ɑ̟ː].[2] See Afrikaans phonology
Assameseকৰ / kor[kɒ̹ɹ]'to do'An "over-rounded" [ɒ̹], with rounding as strong as that for [u].2 May also be transcribed [ɔ].
BulgarianSome Rhodopean dialectsмъж/măž[ˈmɒʃʲ]'man'Found as the unification of the Proto-Slavic *ǫ, *ę, *ъ and *ь. Standard Bulgarian has /ɤ̞/ for *ǫ and *ъ and /ɛ/ for *ę and *ь.
CatalanMajorcan34dones[ˈd̪ɔ̞nəs]'women'Main realization of /ɔ/ (also represented as /ɒ/). May be unrounded [ɑ] in Majorcan and some Southern Valencian dialects. See Catalan phonology
Menorcan56
Valencian78[ˈd̪ɔ̞nes]
Some Valencian speakers9taula[ˈt̪ɑ̟wɫɔ̞̈]'table'Can be realized as unrounded ([ʌ̞̈]).
DutchLeiden10bad[bɒ̝t]'bath'Near-open fully back; may be unrounded [ɑ̝] instead.11 It corresponds to [ɑ] in standard Dutch.
Rotterdam12
Some dialects13bot[bɒt]'bone'Some non-Randstad dialects,14 for example those of Den Bosch and Groningen. It is open-mid [ɔ] in standard Dutch.
EnglishSouth African15not[nɒ̜̈t]'not'Near-back and weakly rounded.16 Some younger speakers of the General variety may actually have a higher and fully unrounded vowel [ʌ̈].17 See South African English phonology
Conservative Received Pronunciation18[nɒt]Somewhat raised. Contemporary RP speakers pronounce a closer vowel [ɔ]. It is proposed that the /ɒ/ vowel of Conservative RP, which is normally described as a rounded vowel, is pronounced by some speakers without rounded lips for whom the characteristic quality is rather one of sulcality.19 See English phonology
Northern English20May be somewhat raised and fronted.21
Canadian22Lot and thought have the same vowel in Canadian English; see cot–caught merger.
thought[θɒt]ⓘ'thought'
General AmericanVowel /ɔ(:)/ is lowered (phonetic realization of /ɔ(:)/ is much lower in GA than in RP). However, "Short o" before r before a vowel (a short o sound followed by r and then another vowel, as in orange, forest, moral, and warrant) is realized as [oɹ~ɔɹ].
Inland Northern American23See Northern cities vowel shift
Indian24[t̪ʰɒʈ]/ɒ/ and /ɔː/ differ entirely by length in Indian English.
Welsh2526[θɒːt]Open-mid in Cardiff; may merge with /oː/ in northern dialects.
GermanMany speakers27Gourmand[ɡ̊ʊʁˈmɒ̃ː]'gourmand'Nasalized; common phonetic realization of /ɑ̃ː/.28 See Standard German phonology
Many Swiss dialects29maane[ˈmɒːnə]'remind'The example word is from the Zurich dialect, in which [ɒː] is in free variation with the unrounded [ɑː].30
HungarianStandard31magyar[ˈmɒ̜̽ɟɒ̜̽r]'Hungarian'Somewhat fronted and raised, with only slight rounding; sometimes transcribed in IPA with ⟨ɔ⟩. Unrounded [ɑ] in some dialects.32 See Hungarian phonology
Ibibio33dọ[dɒ̝́]'marry'Near-open;34 typically transcribed in IPA with ⟨ɔ⟩.
IrishUlster35ólann[ɒ̝ːɫ̪ən̪ˠ]'(he) drinks'Near-open;36 may be transcribed in IPA with ⟨ɔː⟩.
Istro-Romanian37cåp[kɒp]'head'See Istro-Romanian pronunciation (in Romanian).
Jeju38ᄒᆞ나 haona[hɒna]'one'See Jeju phonology
Lehali39dön̄[ⁿdɒ̝ŋ]'yam'Raised vowel, being the back rounded counterpart of /æ/ in a symmetrical vowel inventory.40
Lemerig41‘ān̄sār[ʔɒ̝ŋsɒ̝r]'person'Raised vowel, being the back rounded counterpart of /æ/ in a symmetrical vowel inventory.42
LimburgishMaastrichtian43plaots[plɒ̝ːts]'place'Near-open fully back; typically transcribed in IPA with ⟨ɔː⟩.44 Corresponds to [ɔː] in other dialects.
MalayKedahtua[tu.ɒ]'old'Northern Kedah subdialect/dialect. Allophone of /a/ in word-final position in open-ended words and close-ended words that end with a glottal stop /ʔ/ or a glottal fricative /h/.
MansiCentral/Northernам[ɒm]'me'The pronunciation of 'a' sometimes varies between /ɒ/ and /o/.
Neapolitan45Vasteseuâʃtə[uˈwɒʃtə]'Vasto'
NorwegianUrban East4647topp[tʰɒ̝pː]'top'Near-open,4849 also described as close-mid back [o].50 Typically transcribed in IPA with ⟨ɔ⟩. See Norwegian phonology
Dialects along the Swedish border51hat[hɒ̜ːt]'hate'Weakly rounded and fully back.52 See Norwegian phonology
Persianف‍‍ارسی fârsi[fɒːɾˈsiː]'Persian'
Brazilian PortugueseCariocaova[ˈɒːva]'fish roe'Allophone of /ɔ/. See Portuguese phonology
SlovakSome speakers53a[ɒ]'and'Under Hungarian influence, some speakers realize the short /a/ as rounded.54 See Slovak phonology
SwedishCentral Standard5556jаg[jɒ̝ːɡ]'I'Near-open fully back weakly rounded vowel.57 Typically transcribed in IPA with ⟨ɑː⟩. See Swedish phonology
Gothenburg58[jɒːɡ]More rounded than in Central Standard Swedish.59
UzbekStandard60choy[t͡ʃɒj]'tea'
Yoruba61itọju[itɒ̝ju]'care'Near-open; most often transcribed in IPA with ⟨ɔ⟩.

See also

Notes

  • Bamgboṣe, Ayọ (1966), A Grammar of Yoruba, [West African Languages Survey / Institute of African Studies], Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
  • Bauer, Laurie; Warren, Paul; Bardsley, Dianne; Kennedy, Marianna; Major, George (2007), "New Zealand English", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 37 (1): 97–102, doi:10.1017/S0025100306002830
  • Collins, Beverley; Mees, Inger M. (2003) [First published 1981], The Phonetics of English and Dutch (5th ed.), Leiden: Brill Publishers, ISBN 978-9004103405
  • Connolly, John H. (1990), "Port Talbot English", in Coupland, Nikolas; Thomas, Alan Richard (eds.), English in Wales: Diversity, Conflict, and Change, Multilingual Matters Ltd., pp. 121–129, ISBN 978-1-85359-032-0
  • Cox, Felicity; Fletcher, Janet (2017) [First published 2012], Australian English Pronunciation and Transcription (2nd ed.), Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-1-316-63926-9
  • Dudenredaktion; Kleiner, Stefan; Knöbl, Ralf (2015) [First published 1962], Das Aussprachewörterbuch (in German) (7th ed.), Berlin: Dudenverlag, ISBN 978-3-411-04067-4
  • Engstrand, Olle (1999), "Swedish", Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A Guide to the usage of the International Phonetic Alphabet., Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 140–142, ISBN 978-0-521-63751-0
  • Fleischer, Jürg; Schmid, Stephan (2006), "Zurich German", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 36 (2): 243–253, doi:10.1017/S0025100306002441
  • François, Alexandre (2011), "Social ecology and language history in the northern Vanuatu linkage: A tale of divergence and convergence" (PDF), Journal of Historical Linguistics, 1 (2): 175–246, doi:10.1075/jhl.1.2.03fra, hdl:1885/29283, S2CID 42217419
  • Gussenhoven, Carlos; Aarts, Flor (1999), "The dialect of Maastricht" (PDF), Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 29 (2): 155–166, doi:10.1017/S0025100300006526, S2CID 145782045
  • Hay, Jennifer; Maclagan, Margaret; Gordon, Elizabeth (2008), New Zealand English, Dialects of English, Edinburgh University Press, ISBN 978-0-7486-2529-1
  • Horvath, Barbara M. (2004), "Australian English: phonology", in Schneider, Edgar W.; Burridge, Kate; Kortmann, Bernd; Mesthrie, Rajend; Upton, Clive (eds.), A handbook of varieties of English, vol. 1: Phonology, Mouton de Gruyter, pp. 625–644, ISBN 978-3-11-017532-5
  • Kráľ, Ábel (1988), Pravidlá slovenskej výslovnosti, Bratislava: Slovenské pedagogické nakladateľstvo
  • Krech, Eva Maria; Stock, Eberhard; Hirschfeld, Ursula; Anders, Lutz-Christian (2009), "7.3.10 Norwegisch", Deutsches Aussprachewörterbuch, Berlin, New York: Walter de Gruyter, ISBN 978-3-11-018202-6
  • Kristoffersen, Gjert (2000), The Phonology of Norwegian, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-823765-5
  • Kvifte, Bjørn; Gude-Husken, Verena (2005) [First published 1997], Praktische Grammatik der norwegischen Sprache (3rd ed.), Gottfried Egert Verlag, ISBN 978-3-926972-54-5
  • Ladefoged, Peter; Maddieson, Ian (1996). The Sounds of the World's Languages. Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-19815-6.
  • Lass, Roger (2002), "South African English", in Mesthrie, Rajend (ed.), Language in South Africa, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 9780521791052
  • Lodge, Ken (2009), A Critical Introduction to Phonetics, Continuum International Publishing Group, ISBN 978-0-8264-8873-2
  • Mahanta, Shakuntala (2012), "Assamese", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 42 (2): 217–224, doi:10.1017/S0025100312000096
  • Ní Chasaide, Ailbhe (1999), "Irish", Handbook of the International Phonetic Association, Cambridge University Press, pp. 111–16, ISBN 978-0-521-63751-0
  • Pop, Sever (1938), Micul Atlas Linguistic Român, Muzeul Limbii Române Cluj
  • Popperwell, Ronald G. (2010) [First published 1963], Pronunciation of Norwegian, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-15742-1
  • Rafel, Joaquim (1999), Aplicació al català dels principis de transcripció de l'Associació Fonètica Internacional (PDF) (3rd ed.), Barcelona: Institut d'Estudis Catalans, ISBN 978-84-7283-446-0
  • Recasens, Daniel (1996), Fonètica descriptiva del català: assaig de caracterització de la pronúncia del vocalisme i el consonantisme català al segle XX (2nd ed.), Barcelona: Institut d'Estudis Catalans, ISBN 978-84-7283-312-8
  • Riad, Tomas (2014), The Phonology of Swedish, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-954357-1
  • Roach, Peter (2004), "British English: Received Pronunciation", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 34 (2): 239–245, doi:10.1017/S0025100304001768
  • Saborit, Josep (2009), Millorem la pronúncia (in Catalan), Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua
  • Sailaja, Pingali (2009), Indian English, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press Ltd, pp. 17–38, ISBN 978-0-7486-2594-9
  • Scobbie, James M.; Gordeeva, Olga B.; Matthews, Benjamin (2006), Acquisition of Scottish English Phonology: an overview, Edinburgh: QMU Speech Science Research Centre Working Papers
  • Szende, Tamás (1994), "Hungarian", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 24 (2): 91–94, doi:10.1017/S0025100300005090, S2CID 242632087
  • Tench, Paul (1990), "The Pronunciation of English in Abercrave", in Coupland, Nikolas; Thomas, Alan Richard (eds.), English in Wales: Diversity, Conflict, and Change, Multilingual Matters Ltd., pp. 130–141, ISBN 978-1-85359-032-0
  • Urua, Eno-Abasi E. (2004), "Ibibio", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 34 (1): 105–109, doi:10.1017/S0025100304001550
  • Vago, Robert M. (1980), The Sound Pattern of Hungarian, Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press
  • Vanvik, Arne (1979), Norsk fonetikk, Oslo: Universitetet i Oslo, ISBN 978-82-990584-0-7
  • Wells, John C. (1982). Accents of English. Vol. 2: The British Isles (pp. i–xx, 279–466). Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511611759. ISBN 0-52128540-2 .
  • Wissing, Daan (2016). "Afrikaans phonology – segment inventory". Taalportaal. Archived from the original on 15 April 2017. Retrieved 16 April 2017.
  • Boberg, Charles (2004), "English in Canada: phonology", in Schneider, Edgar W.; Burridge, Kate; Kortmann, Bernd; Mesthrie, Rajend; Upton, Clive (eds.), A handbook of varieties of English, vol. 1: Phonology, Mouton de Gruyter, p. 359, ISBN 978-3-11-017532-5

References

  1. While the International Phonetic Association prefers the terms "close" and "open" for vowel height, many linguists use "high" and "low". /wiki/International_Phonetic_Association ↩

  2. Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996), pp. 293–294. - Ladefoged, Peter; Maddieson, Ian (1996). The Sounds of the World's Languages. Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-19815-6. ↩

  3. Recasens (1996), pp. 81, 130–131. - Recasens, Daniel (1996), Fonètica descriptiva del català: assaig de caracterització de la pronúncia del vocalisme i el consonantisme català al segle XX (2nd ed.), Barcelona: Institut d'Estudis Catalans, ISBN 978-84-7283-312-8 ↩

  4. Rafel (1999), p. 14. - Rafel, Joaquim (1999), Aplicació al català dels principis de transcripció de l'Associació Fonètica Internacional (PDF) (3rd ed.), Barcelona: Institut d'Estudis Catalans, ISBN 978-84-7283-446-0 http://publicacions.iec.cat/repository/pdf/00000042%5C00000071.pdf ↩

  5. Recasens (1996), pp. 81, 130–131. - Recasens, Daniel (1996), Fonètica descriptiva del català: assaig de caracterització de la pronúncia del vocalisme i el consonantisme català al segle XX (2nd ed.), Barcelona: Institut d'Estudis Catalans, ISBN 978-84-7283-312-8 ↩

  6. Rafel (1999), p. 14. - Rafel, Joaquim (1999), Aplicació al català dels principis de transcripció de l'Associació Fonètica Internacional (PDF) (3rd ed.), Barcelona: Institut d'Estudis Catalans, ISBN 978-84-7283-446-0 http://publicacions.iec.cat/repository/pdf/00000042%5C00000071.pdf ↩

  7. Recasens (1996), pp. 81, 130–131. - Recasens, Daniel (1996), Fonètica descriptiva del català: assaig de caracterització de la pronúncia del vocalisme i el consonantisme català al segle XX (2nd ed.), Barcelona: Institut d'Estudis Catalans, ISBN 978-84-7283-312-8 ↩

  8. Rafel (1999), p. 14. - Rafel, Joaquim (1999), Aplicació al català dels principis de transcripció de l'Associació Fonètica Internacional (PDF) (3rd ed.), Barcelona: Institut d'Estudis Catalans, ISBN 978-84-7283-446-0 http://publicacions.iec.cat/repository/pdf/00000042%5C00000071.pdf ↩

  9. Saborit (2009), pp. 25–26. - Saborit, Josep (2009), Millorem la pronúncia (in Catalan), Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua ↩

  10. Collins & Mees (2003), p. 131. - Collins, Beverley; Mees, Inger M. (2003) [First published 1981], The Phonetics of English and Dutch (5th ed.), Leiden: Brill Publishers, ISBN 978-9004103405 ↩

  11. Collins & Mees (2003), p. 131. - Collins, Beverley; Mees, Inger M. (2003) [First published 1981], The Phonetics of English and Dutch (5th ed.), Leiden: Brill Publishers, ISBN 978-9004103405 ↩

  12. Collins & Mees (2003), p. 131. - Collins, Beverley; Mees, Inger M. (2003) [First published 1981], The Phonetics of English and Dutch (5th ed.), Leiden: Brill Publishers, ISBN 978-9004103405 ↩

  13. Collins & Mees (2003), p. 132. - Collins, Beverley; Mees, Inger M. (2003) [First published 1981], The Phonetics of English and Dutch (5th ed.), Leiden: Brill Publishers, ISBN 978-9004103405 ↩

  14. Collins & Mees (2003), p. 132. - Collins, Beverley; Mees, Inger M. (2003) [First published 1981], The Phonetics of English and Dutch (5th ed.), Leiden: Brill Publishers, ISBN 978-9004103405 ↩

  15. Lass (2002), p. 115. - Lass, Roger (2002), "South African English", in Mesthrie, Rajend (ed.), Language in South Africa, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 9780521791052 ↩

  16. Lass (2002), p. 115. - Lass, Roger (2002), "South African English", in Mesthrie, Rajend (ed.), Language in South Africa, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 9780521791052 ↩

  17. Lass (2002), p. 115. - Lass, Roger (2002), "South African English", in Mesthrie, Rajend (ed.), Language in South Africa, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 9780521791052 ↩

  18. Roach (2004), p. 242. - Roach, Peter (2004), "British English: Received Pronunciation", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 34 (2): 239–245, doi:10.1017/S0025100304001768 https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025100304001768 ↩

  19. Lass, Roger (1984). Phonology: an introduction to basic concepts. p. 124. ↩

  20. Lodge (2009), p. 163. - Lodge, Ken (2009), A Critical Introduction to Phonetics, Continuum International Publishing Group, ISBN 978-0-8264-8873-2 https://books.google.com/books?id=_nVT_qNvbusC ↩

  21. Lodge (2009), p. 163. - Lodge, Ken (2009), A Critical Introduction to Phonetics, Continuum International Publishing Group, ISBN 978-0-8264-8873-2 https://books.google.com/books?id=_nVT_qNvbusC ↩

  22. Boberg (2004), p. 359. - Boberg, Charles (2004), "English in Canada: phonology", in Schneider, Edgar W.; Burridge, Kate; Kortmann, Bernd; Mesthrie, Rajend; Upton, Clive (eds.), A handbook of varieties of English, vol. 1: Phonology, Mouton de Gruyter, p. 359, ISBN 978-3-11-017532-5 ↩

  23. W. Labov, S. Ash and C. Boberg (1997), A national map of the regional dialects of American English, Department of Linguistics, University of Pennsylvania, retrieved May 27, 2013 http://www.ling.upenn.edu/phono_atlas/NationalMap/NationalMap.html ↩

  24. Sailaja (2009), pp. 24–25. - Sailaja, Pingali (2009), Indian English, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press Ltd, pp. 17–38, ISBN 978-0-7486-2594-9 ↩

  25. Connolly (1990), p. 125. - Connolly, John H. (1990), "Port Talbot English", in Coupland, Nikolas; Thomas, Alan Richard (eds.), English in Wales: Diversity, Conflict, and Change, Multilingual Matters Ltd., pp. 121–129, ISBN 978-1-85359-032-0 https://books.google.com/books?id=tPwYt3gVbu4C ↩

  26. Tench (1990), p. 135. - Tench, Paul (1990), "The Pronunciation of English in Abercrave", in Coupland, Nikolas; Thomas, Alan Richard (eds.), English in Wales: Diversity, Conflict, and Change, Multilingual Matters Ltd., pp. 130–141, ISBN 978-1-85359-032-0 https://books.google.com/books?id=tPwYt3gVbu4C ↩

  27. Dudenredaktion, Kleiner & Knöbl (2015), p. 38. - Dudenredaktion; Kleiner, Stefan; Knöbl, Ralf (2015) [First published 1962], Das Aussprachewörterbuch (in German) (7th ed.), Berlin: Dudenverlag, ISBN 978-3-411-04067-4 https://books.google.com/books?id=T6vWCgAAQBAJ ↩

  28. Dudenredaktion, Kleiner & Knöbl (2015), p. 38. - Dudenredaktion; Kleiner, Stefan; Knöbl, Ralf (2015) [First published 1962], Das Aussprachewörterbuch (in German) (7th ed.), Berlin: Dudenverlag, ISBN 978-3-411-04067-4 https://books.google.com/books?id=T6vWCgAAQBAJ ↩

  29. Krech et al. (2009), p. 263. - Krech, Eva Maria; Stock, Eberhard; Hirschfeld, Ursula; Anders, Lutz-Christian (2009), "7.3.10 Norwegisch", Deutsches Aussprachewörterbuch, Berlin, New York: Walter de Gruyter, ISBN 978-3-11-018202-6 ↩

  30. Fleischer & Schmid (2006), p. 248. - Fleischer, Jürg; Schmid, Stephan (2006), "Zurich German", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 36 (2): 243–253, doi:10.1017/S0025100306002441 https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025100306002441 ↩

  31. Szende (1994), p. 92. - Szende, Tamás (1994), "Hungarian", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 24 (2): 91–94, doi:10.1017/S0025100300005090, S2CID 242632087 https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025100300005090 ↩

  32. Vago (1980), p. 1. - Vago, Robert M. (1980), The Sound Pattern of Hungarian, Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press ↩

  33. Urua (2004), p. 106. - Urua, Eno-Abasi E. (2004), "Ibibio", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 34 (1): 105–109, doi:10.1017/S0025100304001550 https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025100304001550 ↩

  34. Urua (2004), p. 106. - Urua, Eno-Abasi E. (2004), "Ibibio", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 34 (1): 105–109, doi:10.1017/S0025100304001550 https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025100304001550 ↩

  35. Ní Chasaide (1999), p. 114. - Ní Chasaide, Ailbhe (1999), "Irish", Handbook of the International Phonetic Association, Cambridge University Press, pp. 111–16, ISBN 978-0-521-63751-0 ↩

  36. Ní Chasaide (1999), p. 114. - Ní Chasaide, Ailbhe (1999), "Irish", Handbook of the International Phonetic Association, Cambridge University Press, pp. 111–16, ISBN 978-0-521-63751-0 ↩

  37. Pop (1938), p. 29. - Pop, Sever (1938), Micul Atlas Linguistic Român, Muzeul Limbii Române Cluj ↩

  38. Yang, Changyong; Yang, Sejung; O'Grady, William (2020). Jejueo: the language of Korea's Jeju Island. Honolulu: University of Hawaiʻi Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-7443-8. 978-0-8248-7443-8 ↩

  39. François (2011), p. 194. - François, Alexandre (2011), "Social ecology and language history in the northern Vanuatu linkage: A tale of divergence and convergence" (PDF), Journal of Historical Linguistics, 1 (2): 175–246, doi:10.1075/jhl.1.2.03fra, hdl:1885/29283, S2CID 42217419 http://alex.francois.online.fr/data/AlexFrancois_2011_JHL1-2_Social-ecology_Vanuatu.pdf ↩

  40. François (2011), p. 194. - François, Alexandre (2011), "Social ecology and language history in the northern Vanuatu linkage: A tale of divergence and convergence" (PDF), Journal of Historical Linguistics, 1 (2): 175–246, doi:10.1075/jhl.1.2.03fra, hdl:1885/29283, S2CID 42217419 http://alex.francois.online.fr/data/AlexFrancois_2011_JHL1-2_Social-ecology_Vanuatu.pdf ↩

  41. François (2011), pp. 195, 208. - François, Alexandre (2011), "Social ecology and language history in the northern Vanuatu linkage: A tale of divergence and convergence" (PDF), Journal of Historical Linguistics, 1 (2): 175–246, doi:10.1075/jhl.1.2.03fra, hdl:1885/29283, S2CID 42217419 http://alex.francois.online.fr/data/AlexFrancois_2011_JHL1-2_Social-ecology_Vanuatu.pdf ↩

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