Menu
Home Explore People Places Arts History Plants & Animals Science Life & Culture Technology
On this page
Social anarchism
Branch of anarchism emphasizing communal individuality and mutual aid

Social anarchism, also known as left-wing anarchism or socialist anarchism, is an anarchist tradition that sees individual liberty and social solidarity as mutually compatible and desirable.

It advocates for a social revolution to eliminate hierarchical power structures, such as capitalism and the state. In their place, social anarchists encourage social collaboration through mutual aid and envision non-hierarchical forms of social organization, such as voluntary associations.

Identified with the socialist tradition of Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, Mikhail Bakunin and Peter Kropotkin, social anarchism is often contrasted with individualist anarchism.

We don't have any images related to Social anarchism yet.
We don't have any YouTube videos related to Social anarchism yet.
We don't have any PDF documents related to Social anarchism yet.
We don't have any Books related to Social anarchism yet.
We don't have any archived web articles related to Social anarchism yet.

Political principles

Social anarchism is opposed to all forms of hierarchical power structures, and oppression, including (but not limited to) the State and capitalism.1 Social anarchism sees liberty as interconnected with social solidarity,2 and considers the maximization of one to be necessary for the maximization of the other.3 As such, social anarchism seeks to guarantee equal rights to freedom and material security for all persons.4

Social anarchism envisions the overthrow of capitalism and the state in a social revolution,5 which would establish a federal society of voluntary associations and local communities,6 based on a network of mutual aid.7

The key principles that form the core of social anarchism include anti-capitalism, anti-statism and prefigurative politics.8

Anti-capitalism

As an anti-capitalist ideology, social anarchism is opposed to the dominant expressions of capitalism, including the expansion of transnational corporations through globalization.9 It comprises one of the main forms of socialism, alongside utopian socialism, democratic socialism and authoritarian socialism.10 Social anarchism rejects private property, particularly private ownership of the means of production, as the principal source of social inequality.11 As such, social anarchists typically oppose propertarianism, as they consider it to exacerbate social and economic inequality, suppress individual agency and require the maintenance of hierarchical institutions.12

Social anarchists argue that the abolition of private property would lead to the development of new social mores, encouraging mutual respect for individual freedom and the satisfaction of individual needs.13 Social anarchism therefore advocates the breaking up of monopolies and the institution of common ownership over the means of production.14 Instead of capitalist markets, with their profit motives and wage systems, social anarchism desires to organise production through a collective system of worker cooperatives, agricultural communes and labour syndicates.15

While social anarchism has rejected the statism of Orthodox Marxism, it has also drawn from Marxist critiques of capitalism, particularly Marx's theory of alienation.16 Social anarchists have also been reluctant to adopt the Marxist centring of the proletariat as revolutionary agents, instead identifying the revolutionary potential of the socially excluded segments of society.17

Anti-statism

As an anti-statist ideology, social anarchism opposes the concentration of power in the form of a State.18 To social anarchists, the state is a type of coercive hierarchy designed to enforce private property and to limit individual self-development.19 Social anarchists reject both centralised and limited forms of government, instead upholding social collaboration as a means to achieve a spontaneous order, without any social contract supplanting social relations.20 Social anarchists believe that the abolition of the state will lead to greater "freedom, flourishing and fairness".21

In the place of a state structure, social anarchists desire anarchy, which can be defined as a society without government.22 Social anarchists oppose the use of a state structure to achieve their goals of a stateless and classless society,23 as they consider statism to be an inherently corrupting influence.24 They thus have criticised the Marxist conception of the "dictatorship of the proletariat", which they consider to be elitist,25 and have rejected the possibility of a "withering away of the state".26

However, some social anarchists such as Noam Chomsky sometimes hold state hierarchy to be preferable to economic hierarchy, and thus lend their support to welfare state programs like universal health care that can improve people's material conditions.27

Prefigurative politics

Alongside its opposition to political and economic hierarchies, social anarchism upholds prefigurative politics, considering it necessary for the means to achieve anarchy be consistent with that end goal.28 Social anarchism prefigures itself through participatory and consensus decision-making, which are capable of generating the diversification of political values, tactics and identities.29

Social anarchism therefore promotes self-organization and the cultivation of a participatory culture, encouraging individuals to "do things for themselves".30 Social anarchism upholds direct action as a means for people to themselves resist oppression,31 without subordinating their own agency to democratic representatives or revolutionary vanguards.32 Social anarchists thus reject the political party model of organization,33 instead preferring forms of flat organization without any fixed leadership.34

Schools of thought

Characterised by its loose definition and ideological diversity,35 social anarchism has lent itself to syncretism, both drawing from and influencing other ideological critiques of oppression,36 and giving way to a number of different anarchist schools of thought.37

While early forms of anarchism were largely individualistic, the influence of Left Hegelianism infused anarchism with socialistic tendencies, leading to the constitution of social anarchism.38 Over time, the question of the economic makeup of a future anarchist society drove the development of social anarchist thought.39 The first school of social anarchism was formulated by Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, whose theory of mutualism retained a form of private property,40 advocating for enterprises to be self-managed by worker cooperatives, which would compensate its workers in labour vouchers issued by "people's banks".41 This was later supplanted by Mikhail Bakunin's collectivist anarchism, which advocated for the collective ownership of all property, but retained a form of individual compensation.42 This finally led to the development of anarcho-communism by Peter Kropotkin, who considered that resources should be freely distributed "from each according to their ability, to each according to their needs", without money or wages.43 Social anarchists also adopted the strategy of syndicalism, which saw trade unions as the basis for a new socialist economy,44 with anarcho-syndicalism growing to its greatest influence during the Spanish Revolution of 1936.45

The main division within social anarchism is over the means for achieving anarchy, with philosophical anarchists advocating for peaceful persuasion,46 while insurrectionary anarchists advocated for "propaganda of the deed".47 The former have upheld an anarchist form of education, free from coercion and dogmatism, in order to establish a self-governing society.48 The latter have participated in rebellions in which they expropriated and collectivised property, and replaced the state with a network of autonomous and federally-linked communes.49 The aim was to build a socialist society, without using the state, from the bottom-up.50

Principles of social anarchism, such as decentralisation, anti-authoritarianism and mutual aid, later held a key influence on the new social movements of the late-20th century.51 It was particularly influential within the New Left and green politics,52 with the green anarchist tendency of social ecology drawing directly from social anarchism.53 Social anarchist strategies of direct action and spontaneity also formed the foundation of the black bloc tactic, which has become a staple of contemporary anarchism.54 The social anarchist principle of prefiguration has also been shared by sections of anti-state Marxism, particularly that of autonomism.55

In the contemporary era, anarcho-communism and anarcho-syndicalism are the dominant tendencies of social anarchism.56

Distinction from individualism

Social anarchism is commonly distinguished from individualist anarchism,57 the latter of which favours individual sovereignty and property,58 and can even oppose all forms of social organization altogether.59 While individualists worry that social anarchism could lead to tyranny of the majority and forced collaboration, social anarchists criticise individualism for encouraging competition and atomizing individuals from each other.60 Individualism was heavily criticised by classical social anarchists,61 such as Bakunin and Kropotkin, who held that the liberty of a few individuals was potentially harmful to the equality of all mankind.62

However, this distinction is also contested,63 as anarchism itself is often seen as a synthesis of liberal individualism and social egalitarianism.64 Some social anarchists, such as Emma Goldman and Herbert Read, were even directly inspired by the individualist philosophy of Max Stirner.65 Social anarchism generally attempts to reconcile individual freedoms with the freedom of others, in order to maximise the freedom of everyone and allow for individuality to flourish.66 Individualists and social anarchists have even been able to cooperate by upholding "communal individuality", emphasising both individual freedom and community strength.67 Some social anarchists have argued that the divisions between them and the individualists can be overcome, by emphasising their shared commitment to anti-capitalism and anti-authoritarianism.68 But others draw the line at forms of individualism that uphold hierarchical power relations.69

In his 1995 book, Social Anarchism or Lifestyle Anarchism, Murray Bookchin defined social anarchism in contrast to what he called "lifestyle anarchism".70 According to Bookchin, it was impossible for the two tendencies to coexist, claiming there to be an "unbridgeable chasm" that separated them from each other.71 Bookchin held social anarchism to be the only genuine form of anarchism, considering individualism to be inherently oppressive.72 But his separation of the two tendencies has been criticised and even rejected entirely by other anarchists.73 His analysis has been criticised as "reductive" and "undialectical", due to his failure to recognise the many connections and interrelations between the two tendencies.74

Although sometimes considered a form of individualist anarchism,75 anarcho-capitalism is typically rejected as a legitimate anarchist school of thought by social anarchists, who uphold anti-capitalism as a central principle.76 The two have engaged in a contested debate over the term "libertarian", which was initially a synonym for the "left-libertarian" social anarchism but was later also claimed by "right-libertarian" anarcho-capitalists, with each rejecting the "libertarian" credentials of the other.77 In contrast, social anarchists accept American individualist anarchists like Benjamin Tucker and Lysander Spooner as genuine, due in part to their opposition to capitalism.78 In turn, modern anti-capitalist individualists like Kevin Carson have drawn inspiration from social anarchism, while retaining their pro-market views.79 Libertarian scholar Roderick T. Long has thus suggested that left-wing market anarchists could use their position to mediate between social anarchists and anarcho-capitalists, arguing for an ecumenical view of anarchism and libertarianism.80

Equality

Social anarchism values social equality, in that it is opposed to the inequalities produced by hierarchies. It is not opposed to all inequality, instead seeing inequalities based on need, that require fundamentally different treatment, to be acceptable and sometimes desirable. Social anarchism sees inequalities of rank or hierarchy, or gross material inequalities, as damaging to society and individuals.81 Social anarchists believe that a society organised non-hierarchically would eliminate much of the inequality that presently exists.82 The goal of social anarchism cannot be understood to be equality alone.83

See also

  • Social anarchists (category)

Bibliography

Further reading

  • Quotations related to Social anarchism at Wikiquote
  • Media related to Social anarchism at Wikimedia Commons

References

  1. Morland 2004, p. 26. - Morland, David (2004). "Anti-capitalism and poststructuralist anarchism". In Bowen, James; Purkis, Jon (eds.). Changing Anarchism: Anarchist Theory and Practice in a Global Age. Manchester University Press. pp. 23–38. ISBN 0-7190-6694-8. https://archive.org/details/changinganarchis00bowe ↩

  2. Adams 2001, p. 120; Franks 2018a, p. 557; Jun 2018, pp. 51–56; Marshall 2008, pp. 653–654; Ostergaard 1991, p. 21; Ostergaard 2006, p. 13; Suissa 2001, pp. 629–630. - Adams, Ian (2001) [1993]. "Anarchism". Political Ideology Today (2nd ed.). Manchester University Press. pp. 120–126. ISBN 0-7190-6020-6. https://archive.org/details/politicalideolog0000adam/ ↩

  3. Jun 2018, pp. 51–56; Ostergaard 1991, p. 21; Ostergaard 2006, p. 13. - Jun, Nathan (2018). "Freedom". In Franks, Benjamin; Jun, Nathan; Williams, Leonard (eds.). Anarchism: A Conceptual Approach. Routledge. pp. 44–59. ISBN 978-1-138-92565-6. LCCN 2017044519. https://lccn.loc.gov/2017044519 ↩

  4. Marshall 2008, pp. 653–654. - Marshall, Peter H. (2008) [1992]. Demanding the Impossible: A History of Anarchism. London: Harper Perennial. ISBN 978-0-00-686245-1. OCLC 218212571. https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/218212571 ↩

  5. Firth 2018, p. 495; Suissa 2001, pp. 637–638; Ostergaard 2006, p. 13. - Firth, Rhiannon (2018). "Utopianism and Intentional Communities" (PDF). In Adams, Matthew S.; Levy, Carl (eds.). The Palgrave Handbook of Anarchism. London: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 491–510. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-75620-2_28. ISBN 978-3319756196. S2CID 149636440. http://repository.essex.ac.uk/22595/1/ACCEPTED%20CORRECTED%20Rhiannon%20Firth%20Utopian%20Communities%20-%20ED.pdf ↩

  6. Adams 2001, p. 120; Firth 2018, p. 495; Suissa 2001, pp. 637–638; Ostergaard 2006, p. 13. - Adams, Ian (2001) [1993]. "Anarchism". Political Ideology Today (2nd ed.). Manchester University Press. pp. 120–126. ISBN 0-7190-6020-6. https://archive.org/details/politicalideolog0000adam/ ↩

  7. Marshall 2008, pp. 655–656; Ostergaard 2006, p. 13; Suissa 2001, pp. 629–630; Thagard 2000, pp. 148–149. - Marshall, Peter H. (2008) [1992]. Demanding the Impossible: A History of Anarchism. London: Harper Perennial. ISBN 978-0-00-686245-1. OCLC 218212571. https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/218212571 ↩

  8. Franks 2013, p. 390. - Franks, Benjamin (August 2013). "Anarchism". In Freeden, Michael; Stears, Marc (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Political Ideologies. Oxford University Press. pp. 385–404. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199585977.013.0001. https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780199585977.013.0001 ↩

  9. Morland 2004, pp. 24–25. - Morland, David (2004). "Anti-capitalism and poststructuralist anarchism". In Bowen, James; Purkis, Jon (eds.). Changing Anarchism: Anarchist Theory and Practice in a Global Age. Manchester University Press. pp. 23–38. ISBN 0-7190-6694-8. https://archive.org/details/changinganarchis00bowe ↩

  10. Busky 2000, p. 2. - Busky, Donald F. (2000). "Defining Democratic Socialism". Democratic Socialism: A Global Survey. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 1–14. ISBN 978-0275968861. https://books.google.com/books?id=3joQKjDtn4wC ↩

  11. Franks 2013, pp. 389–390; Jun 2018, p. 52; Long 2020, p. 28; Ostergaard 1991, p. 21. - Franks, Benjamin (August 2013). "Anarchism". In Freeden, Michael; Stears, Marc (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Political Ideologies. Oxford University Press. pp. 385–404. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199585977.013.0001. https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780199585977.013.0001 ↩

  12. Franks 2018a, pp. 557–558. - Franks, Benjamin (2018a). "Anarchism and Ethics". In Adams, Matthew S.; Levy, Carl (eds.). The Palgrave Handbook of Anarchism. London: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 549–570. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-75620-2_31. ISBN 978-3319756196. S2CID 149845918. https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-319-75620-2_31 ↩

  13. Marshall 2008, p. 651. - Marshall, Peter H. (2008) [1992]. Demanding the Impossible: A History of Anarchism. London: Harper Perennial. ISBN 978-0-00-686245-1. OCLC 218212571. https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/218212571 ↩

  14. Jun 2018, p. 52. - Jun, Nathan (2018). "Freedom". In Franks, Benjamin; Jun, Nathan; Williams, Leonard (eds.). Anarchism: A Conceptual Approach. Routledge. pp. 44–59. ISBN 978-1-138-92565-6. LCCN 2017044519. https://lccn.loc.gov/2017044519 ↩

  15. Marshall 2008, p. 653. - Marshall, Peter H. (2008) [1992]. Demanding the Impossible: A History of Anarchism. London: Harper Perennial. ISBN 978-0-00-686245-1. OCLC 218212571. https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/218212571 ↩

  16. Morland 2004, p. 25. - Morland, David (2004). "Anti-capitalism and poststructuralist anarchism". In Bowen, James; Purkis, Jon (eds.). Changing Anarchism: Anarchist Theory and Practice in a Global Age. Manchester University Press. pp. 23–38. ISBN 0-7190-6694-8. https://archive.org/details/changinganarchis00bowe ↩

  17. Morland 2004, pp. 25–26. - Morland, David (2004). "Anti-capitalism and poststructuralist anarchism". In Bowen, James; Purkis, Jon (eds.). Changing Anarchism: Anarchist Theory and Practice in a Global Age. Manchester University Press. pp. 23–38. ISBN 0-7190-6694-8. https://archive.org/details/changinganarchis00bowe ↩

  18. Morland 2004, pp. 23–24; Thagard 2000, pp. 148–149. - Morland, David (2004). "Anti-capitalism and poststructuralist anarchism". In Bowen, James; Purkis, Jon (eds.). Changing Anarchism: Anarchist Theory and Practice in a Global Age. Manchester University Press. pp. 23–38. ISBN 0-7190-6694-8. https://archive.org/details/changinganarchis00bowe ↩

  19. Franks 2013, p. 391. - Franks, Benjamin (August 2013). "Anarchism". In Freeden, Michael; Stears, Marc (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Political Ideologies. Oxford University Press. pp. 385–404. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199585977.013.0001. https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780199585977.013.0001 ↩

  20. Suissa 2001, p. 639. - Suissa, Judith (2001). "Anarchism, Utopias and Philosophy of Education". Journal of Philosophy of Education. 35 (4): 627–646. doi:10.1111/1467-9752.00249. https://doi.org/10.1111%2F1467-9752.00249 ↩

  21. Thagard 2000, pp. 150–152. - Thagard, Paul (2000). "Ethics and Politics". Coherence in Thought and Action. MIT Press. pp. 149–154. ISBN 0-262-20131-3. LCCN 00-035503. https://books.google.com/books?id=Px0vctI8eGQC&pg=PA153 ↩

  22. Morland 2004, pp. 23–24. - Morland, David (2004). "Anti-capitalism and poststructuralist anarchism". In Bowen, James; Purkis, Jon (eds.). Changing Anarchism: Anarchist Theory and Practice in a Global Age. Manchester University Press. pp. 23–38. ISBN 0-7190-6694-8. https://archive.org/details/changinganarchis00bowe ↩

  23. Morland 2004, pp. 23–24; Suissa 2001, pp. 630–631. - Morland, David (2004). "Anti-capitalism and poststructuralist anarchism". In Bowen, James; Purkis, Jon (eds.). Changing Anarchism: Anarchist Theory and Practice in a Global Age. Manchester University Press. pp. 23–38. ISBN 0-7190-6694-8. https://archive.org/details/changinganarchis00bowe ↩

  24. Morland 2004, p. 25; Suissa 2001, pp. 630–631. - Morland, David (2004). "Anti-capitalism and poststructuralist anarchism". In Bowen, James; Purkis, Jon (eds.). Changing Anarchism: Anarchist Theory and Practice in a Global Age. Manchester University Press. pp. 23–38. ISBN 0-7190-6694-8. https://archive.org/details/changinganarchis00bowe ↩

  25. Morland 2004, pp. 23–25; Suissa 2001, pp. 630–631. - Morland, David (2004). "Anti-capitalism and poststructuralist anarchism". In Bowen, James; Purkis, Jon (eds.). Changing Anarchism: Anarchist Theory and Practice in a Global Age. Manchester University Press. pp. 23–38. ISBN 0-7190-6694-8. https://archive.org/details/changinganarchis00bowe ↩

  26. Suissa 2001, pp. 630–631. - Suissa, Judith (2001). "Anarchism, Utopias and Philosophy of Education". Journal of Philosophy of Education. 35 (4): 627–646. doi:10.1111/1467-9752.00249. https://doi.org/10.1111%2F1467-9752.00249 ↩

  27. Franks 2013, p. 391. - Franks, Benjamin (August 2013). "Anarchism". In Freeden, Michael; Stears, Marc (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Political Ideologies. Oxford University Press. pp. 385–404. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199585977.013.0001. https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780199585977.013.0001 ↩

  28. Franks 2018a, p. 551. - Franks, Benjamin (2018a). "Anarchism and Ethics". In Adams, Matthew S.; Levy, Carl (eds.). The Palgrave Handbook of Anarchism. London: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 549–570. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-75620-2_31. ISBN 978-3319756196. S2CID 149845918. https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-319-75620-2_31 ↩

  29. Franks 2018b, pp. 34–35. - Franks, Benjamin (2018b). "Prefiguration". In Franks, Benjamin; Jun, Nathan; Williams, Leonard (eds.). Anarchism: A Conceptual Approach. Routledge. pp. 28–43. ISBN 978-1-138-92565-6. LCCN 2017044519. https://lccn.loc.gov/2017044519 ↩

  30. Morland 2004, p. 26. - Morland, David (2004). "Anti-capitalism and poststructuralist anarchism". In Bowen, James; Purkis, Jon (eds.). Changing Anarchism: Anarchist Theory and Practice in a Global Age. Manchester University Press. pp. 23–38. ISBN 0-7190-6694-8. https://archive.org/details/changinganarchis00bowe ↩

  31. Franks 2013, p. 390; Morland 2004, p. 26. - Franks, Benjamin (August 2013). "Anarchism". In Freeden, Michael; Stears, Marc (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Political Ideologies. Oxford University Press. pp. 385–404. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199585977.013.0001. https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780199585977.013.0001 ↩

  32. Franks 2013, p. 390; Morland 2004, pp. 25–26. - Franks, Benjamin (August 2013). "Anarchism". In Freeden, Michael; Stears, Marc (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Political Ideologies. Oxford University Press. pp. 385–404. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199585977.013.0001. https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780199585977.013.0001 ↩

  33. Morland 2004, p. 25. - Morland, David (2004). "Anti-capitalism and poststructuralist anarchism". In Bowen, James; Purkis, Jon (eds.). Changing Anarchism: Anarchist Theory and Practice in a Global Age. Manchester University Press. pp. 23–38. ISBN 0-7190-6694-8. https://archive.org/details/changinganarchis00bowe ↩

  34. Franks 2013, pp. 390–391. - Franks, Benjamin (August 2013). "Anarchism". In Freeden, Michael; Stears, Marc (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Political Ideologies. Oxford University Press. pp. 385–404. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199585977.013.0001. https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780199585977.013.0001 ↩

  35. Morland 2004, p. 23. - Morland, David (2004). "Anti-capitalism and poststructuralist anarchism". In Bowen, James; Purkis, Jon (eds.). Changing Anarchism: Anarchist Theory and Practice in a Global Age. Manchester University Press. pp. 23–38. ISBN 0-7190-6694-8. https://archive.org/details/changinganarchis00bowe ↩

  36. Franks 2013, p. 400. - Franks, Benjamin (August 2013). "Anarchism". In Freeden, Michael; Stears, Marc (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Political Ideologies. Oxford University Press. pp. 385–404. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199585977.013.0001. https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780199585977.013.0001 ↩

  37. Franks 2013, p. 400; Morland 2004, p. 23. - Franks, Benjamin (August 2013). "Anarchism". In Freeden, Michael; Stears, Marc (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Political Ideologies. Oxford University Press. pp. 385–404. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199585977.013.0001. https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780199585977.013.0001 ↩

  38. McLaughlin 2007, p. 116. - McLaughlin, Paul (2007). Anarchism and Authority: A Philosophical Introduction to Classical Anarchism. Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7546-6196-2. LCCN 2007007973. https://books.google.com/books?id=kkj5i3CeGbQC ↩

  39. Busky 2000, p. 5; Marshall 2008, p. 6; Ostergaard 2006, p. 13. - Busky, Donald F. (2000). "Defining Democratic Socialism". Democratic Socialism: A Global Survey. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 1–14. ISBN 978-0275968861. https://books.google.com/books?id=3joQKjDtn4wC ↩

  40. Adams 2001, pp. 120–121; Busky 2000, p. 5; Marshall 2008, p. 7. - Adams, Ian (2001) [1993]. "Anarchism". Political Ideology Today (2nd ed.). Manchester University Press. pp. 120–126. ISBN 0-7190-6020-6. https://archive.org/details/politicalideolog0000adam/ ↩

  41. Busky 2000, p. 5; Marshall 2008, p. 7. - Busky, Donald F. (2000). "Defining Democratic Socialism". Democratic Socialism: A Global Survey. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 1–14. ISBN 978-0275968861. https://books.google.com/books?id=3joQKjDtn4wC ↩

  42. Adams 2001, pp. 121–123; Busky 2000, p. 5; Marshall 2008, pp. 7–8. - Adams, Ian (2001) [1993]. "Anarchism". Political Ideology Today (2nd ed.). Manchester University Press. pp. 120–126. ISBN 0-7190-6020-6. https://archive.org/details/politicalideolog0000adam/ ↩

  43. Adams 2001, pp. 123–124; Busky 2000, p. 5; Marshall 2008, p. 8. - Adams, Ian (2001) [1993]. "Anarchism". Political Ideology Today (2nd ed.). Manchester University Press. pp. 120–126. ISBN 0-7190-6020-6. https://archive.org/details/politicalideolog0000adam/ ↩

  44. Adams 2001, pp. 125–126; Busky 2000, p. 5; Marshall 2008, pp. 8–9; Ostergaard 2006, p. 13. - Adams, Ian (2001) [1993]. "Anarchism". Political Ideology Today (2nd ed.). Manchester University Press. pp. 120–126. ISBN 0-7190-6020-6. https://archive.org/details/politicalideolog0000adam/ ↩

  45. Adams 2001, p. 126; Marshall 2008, pp. 9–10; Ostergaard 2006, p. 13. - Adams, Ian (2001) [1993]. "Anarchism". Political Ideology Today (2nd ed.). Manchester University Press. pp. 120–126. ISBN 0-7190-6020-6. https://archive.org/details/politicalideolog0000adam/ ↩

  46. Busky 2000, p. 6. - Busky, Donald F. (2000). "Defining Democratic Socialism". Democratic Socialism: A Global Survey. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 1–14. ISBN 978-0275968861. https://books.google.com/books?id=3joQKjDtn4wC ↩

  47. Adams 2001, pp. 124–125; Busky 2000, p. 6. - Adams, Ian (2001) [1993]. "Anarchism". Political Ideology Today (2nd ed.). Manchester University Press. pp. 120–126. ISBN 0-7190-6020-6. https://archive.org/details/politicalideolog0000adam/ ↩

  48. Suissa 2001, p. 638. - Suissa, Judith (2001). "Anarchism, Utopias and Philosophy of Education". Journal of Philosophy of Education. 35 (4): 627–646. doi:10.1111/1467-9752.00249. https://doi.org/10.1111%2F1467-9752.00249 ↩

  49. Ostergaard 2006, p. 13. - Ostergaard, Geoffrey (2006) [1993]. "Anarchism". In Outhwaite, William (ed.). The Blackwell Dictionary of Modern Social Thought (2 ed.). Blackwell Publishing. pp. 12–14. doi:10.1002/9780470999028.ch1. ISBN 9780470999028. https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9780470999028.ch1 ↩

  50. Ostergaard 2006, p. 13. - Ostergaard, Geoffrey (2006) [1993]. "Anarchism". In Outhwaite, William (ed.). The Blackwell Dictionary of Modern Social Thought (2 ed.). Blackwell Publishing. pp. 12–14. doi:10.1002/9780470999028.ch1. ISBN 9780470999028. https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9780470999028.ch1 ↩

  51. Morland 2004, pp. 30–31. - Morland, David (2004). "Anti-capitalism and poststructuralist anarchism". In Bowen, James; Purkis, Jon (eds.). Changing Anarchism: Anarchist Theory and Practice in a Global Age. Manchester University Press. pp. 23–38. ISBN 0-7190-6694-8. https://archive.org/details/changinganarchis00bowe ↩

  52. Busky 2000, pp. 5–6. - Busky, Donald F. (2000). "Defining Democratic Socialism". Democratic Socialism: A Global Survey. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 1–14. ISBN 978-0275968861. https://books.google.com/books?id=3joQKjDtn4wC ↩

  53. Franks 2013, pp. 397–398; Marshall 2008, pp. 692–693; Morland 2004, p. 23; Morris 2017, pp. 376–377. - Franks, Benjamin (August 2013). "Anarchism". In Freeden, Michael; Stears, Marc (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Political Ideologies. Oxford University Press. pp. 385–404. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199585977.013.0001. https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780199585977.013.0001 ↩

  54. Morland 2004, pp. 32–33. - Morland, David (2004). "Anti-capitalism and poststructuralist anarchism". In Bowen, James; Purkis, Jon (eds.). Changing Anarchism: Anarchist Theory and Practice in a Global Age. Manchester University Press. pp. 23–38. ISBN 0-7190-6694-8. https://archive.org/details/changinganarchis00bowe ↩

  55. Franks 2018b, p. 31. - Franks, Benjamin (2018b). "Prefiguration". In Franks, Benjamin; Jun, Nathan; Williams, Leonard (eds.). Anarchism: A Conceptual Approach. Routledge. pp. 28–43. ISBN 978-1-138-92565-6. LCCN 2017044519. https://lccn.loc.gov/2017044519 ↩

  56. Franks 2013, p. 394. - Franks, Benjamin (August 2013). "Anarchism". In Freeden, Michael; Stears, Marc (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Political Ideologies. Oxford University Press. pp. 385–404. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199585977.013.0001. https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780199585977.013.0001 ↩

  57. Busky 2000, p. 4; Franks 2013, pp. 386–388; Jun 2018, p. 51; Long 2020, p. 28; Marshall 2008, p. 6; McLaughlin 2007, pp. 17–21, 25–26, 116; Ostergaard 1991, p. 21; Ostergaard 2006, p. 13; Suissa 2001, pp. 629–630. - Busky, Donald F. (2000). "Defining Democratic Socialism". Democratic Socialism: A Global Survey. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 1–14. ISBN 978-0275968861. https://books.google.com/books?id=3joQKjDtn4wC ↩

  58. Jun 2018, pp. 51–52; Long 2020, pp. 28–29; Marshall 2008, p. 10; Ostergaard 1991, p. 21; Ostergaard 2006, p. 13. - Jun, Nathan (2018). "Freedom". In Franks, Benjamin; Jun, Nathan; Williams, Leonard (eds.). Anarchism: A Conceptual Approach. Routledge. pp. 44–59. ISBN 978-1-138-92565-6. LCCN 2017044519. https://lccn.loc.gov/2017044519 ↩

  59. Busky 2000, p. 4. - Busky, Donald F. (2000). "Defining Democratic Socialism". Democratic Socialism: A Global Survey. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 1–14. ISBN 978-0275968861. https://books.google.com/books?id=3joQKjDtn4wC ↩

  60. Marshall 2008, p. 6. - Marshall, Peter H. (2008) [1992]. Demanding the Impossible: A History of Anarchism. London: Harper Perennial. ISBN 978-0-00-686245-1. OCLC 218212571. https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/218212571 ↩

  61. Franks 2013, p. 388; Long 2020, p. 29; Suissa 2001, pp. 629–630. - Franks, Benjamin (August 2013). "Anarchism". In Freeden, Michael; Stears, Marc (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Political Ideologies. Oxford University Press. pp. 385–404. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199585977.013.0001. https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780199585977.013.0001 ↩

  62. Franks 2013, p. 388; Suissa 2001, pp. 629–630. - Franks, Benjamin (August 2013). "Anarchism". In Freeden, Michael; Stears, Marc (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Political Ideologies. Oxford University Press. pp. 385–404. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199585977.013.0001. https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780199585977.013.0001 ↩

  63. Franks 2013, pp. 386–388. - Franks, Benjamin (August 2013). "Anarchism". In Freeden, Michael; Stears, Marc (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Political Ideologies. Oxford University Press. pp. 385–404. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199585977.013.0001. https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780199585977.013.0001 ↩

  64. Franks 2013, pp. 386–388; Jun 2018, p. 52; Ostergaard 2006, p. 13. - Franks, Benjamin (August 2013). "Anarchism". In Freeden, Michael; Stears, Marc (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Political Ideologies. Oxford University Press. pp. 385–404. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199585977.013.0001. https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780199585977.013.0001 ↩

  65. Marshall 2008, p. 221; McLaughlin 2007, pp. 162, 166–167. - Marshall, Peter H. (2008) [1992]. Demanding the Impossible: A History of Anarchism. London: Harper Perennial. ISBN 978-0-00-686245-1. OCLC 218212571. https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/218212571 ↩

  66. Marshall 2008, p. 651. - Marshall, Peter H. (2008) [1992]. Demanding the Impossible: A History of Anarchism. London: Harper Perennial. ISBN 978-0-00-686245-1. OCLC 218212571. https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/218212571 ↩

  67. Marshall 2008, p. 6. - Marshall, Peter H. (2008) [1992]. Demanding the Impossible: A History of Anarchism. London: Harper Perennial. ISBN 978-0-00-686245-1. OCLC 218212571. https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/218212571 ↩

  68. Franks 2013, p. 393. - Franks, Benjamin (August 2013). "Anarchism". In Freeden, Michael; Stears, Marc (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Political Ideologies. Oxford University Press. pp. 385–404. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199585977.013.0001. https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780199585977.013.0001 ↩

  69. Franks 2013, pp. 393–394. - Franks, Benjamin (August 2013). "Anarchism". In Freeden, Michael; Stears, Marc (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Political Ideologies. Oxford University Press. pp. 385–404. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199585977.013.0001. https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780199585977.013.0001 ↩

  70. Davis 2018, pp. 51–52; Firth 2018, pp. 500–501; McLaughlin 2007, p. 165; Morland 2004, p. 24. - Davis, Laurence (2018). "Individual and Community". In Adams, Matthew S.; Levy, Carl (eds.). The Palgrave Handbook of Anarchism. London: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 47–90. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-75620-2_3. ISBN 978-3319756196. S2CID 150149495. https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-319-75620-2_3 ↩

  71. Davis 2018, p. 53; Marshall 2008, p. 694. - Davis, Laurence (2018). "Individual and Community". In Adams, Matthew S.; Levy, Carl (eds.). The Palgrave Handbook of Anarchism. London: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 47–90. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-75620-2_3. ISBN 978-3319756196. S2CID 150149495. https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-319-75620-2_3 ↩

  72. Franks 2013, p. 388. - Franks, Benjamin (August 2013). "Anarchism". In Freeden, Michael; Stears, Marc (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Political Ideologies. Oxford University Press. pp. 385–404. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199585977.013.0001. https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780199585977.013.0001 ↩

  73. Marshall 2008, pp. 692–693. - Marshall, Peter H. (2008) [1992]. Demanding the Impossible: A History of Anarchism. London: Harper Perennial. ISBN 978-0-00-686245-1. OCLC 218212571. https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/218212571 ↩

  74. Davis 2018, pp. 53–54; Long 2020, p. 35. - Davis, Laurence (2018). "Individual and Community". In Adams, Matthew S.; Levy, Carl (eds.). The Palgrave Handbook of Anarchism. London: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 47–90. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-75620-2_3. ISBN 978-3319756196. S2CID 150149495. https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-319-75620-2_3 ↩

  75. Busky 2000, p. 4; Long 2020, pp. 30–31; Ostergaard 1991, p. 21; Ostergaard 2006, p. 13. - Busky, Donald F. (2000). "Defining Democratic Socialism". Democratic Socialism: A Global Survey. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 1–14. ISBN 978-0275968861. https://books.google.com/books?id=3joQKjDtn4wC ↩

  76. Davis 2018, p. 64; Franks 2013, p. 393; Franks 2018a, pp. 558–559; Long 2017, pp. 286–287; Long 2020, pp. 30–31; Marshall 2008, p. 650. - Davis, Laurence (2018). "Individual and Community". In Adams, Matthew S.; Levy, Carl (eds.). The Palgrave Handbook of Anarchism. London: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 47–90. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-75620-2_3. ISBN 978-3319756196. S2CID 150149495. https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-319-75620-2_3 ↩

  77. Long 2020, pp. 30–31. - Long, Roderick T. (2020). "The Anarchist Landscape". In Chartier, Gary; Van Schoelandt, Chad (eds.). The Routledge Handbook of Anarchy and Anarchist Thought. New York: Routledge. pp. 28–38. doi:10.4324/9781315185255-2. ISBN 9781315185255. S2CID 228898569. https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9781315185255-2 ↩

  78. Long 2017, pp. 287–290; Long 2020, pp. 31–33. - Long, Roderick T. (2017). "Anarchism and Libertarianism". In Jun, Nathan J. (ed.). Brill's Companion to Anarchism and Philosophy. Brill. pp. 285–317. doi:10.1163/9789004356894_012. ISBN 978-90-04-35689-4. https://doi.org/10.1163%2F9789004356894_012 ↩

  79. Long 2017, p. 292. - Long, Roderick T. (2017). "Anarchism and Libertarianism". In Jun, Nathan J. (ed.). Brill's Companion to Anarchism and Philosophy. Brill. pp. 285–317. doi:10.1163/9789004356894_012. ISBN 978-90-04-35689-4. https://doi.org/10.1163%2F9789004356894_012 ↩

  80. Long 2020, pp. 33–35. - Long, Roderick T. (2020). "The Anarchist Landscape". In Chartier, Gary; Van Schoelandt, Chad (eds.). The Routledge Handbook of Anarchy and Anarchist Thought. New York: Routledge. pp. 28–38. doi:10.4324/9781315185255-2. ISBN 9781315185255. S2CID 228898569. https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9781315185255-2 ↩

  81. Suissa, Judith (27 September 2006). Anarchism and Education (0 ed.). Routledge. pp. 64–66. doi:10.4324/9780203965627. ISBN 978-1-134-19464-3. 978-1-134-19464-3 ↩

  82. Suissa, Judith (27 September 2006). Anarchism and Education (0 ed.). Routledge. p. 66. doi:10.4324/9780203965627. ISBN 978-1-134-19464-3. 978-1-134-19464-3 ↩

  83. Suissa, Judith (27 September 2006). Anarchism and Education (0 ed.). Routledge. p. 67. doi:10.4324/9780203965627. ISBN 978-1-134-19464-3. 978-1-134-19464-3 ↩