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Tasu'a
The ninth day of Muharram

Tasu'a is the ninth day of Muharram, the first month of the Islamic calendar. Tasu'a is followed by Ashura, tenth of Muharram, which marks the death of Husayn ibn Ali, a grandson of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and the third Shia imam. Husayn refused on moral grounds to pledge his allegiance to the Umayyad caliph Yazid I (r. 680–683) and was subsequently killed, alongside most of his male relatives and his small retinue, by the Umayyad army in the Battle of Karbala on Ashura 61 AH (680 CE). Among the Shia minority, mourning for Husayn is viewed as an act of protest against oppression, a struggle for God, and a means of securing the intercession of Husayn in the afterlife. Ashura is observed through mourning gatherings, processions, and dramatic reenactments. In such ceremonies, Shia mourners strike their chests to share in the pain of Husayn. Extreme self-flagellation, often involving self-inflicted bloodshed, remains controversial among the Shia, condemned by many Shia clerics, and outlawed in some Shia communities.

The battle in Karbala was to take place on Tasu'a but was delayed for a day. Husayn used this window to urge his followers to leave him and save their lives, which nearly all of them refused. The Umayyad army also offered safe passage to some close relatives of Husayn, notably his half-brother Abbas ibn Ali, which they also refused. By most accounts, Husayn and his men spent their last night—the night of Tasu'a—in prayer.

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Significance in Shia Islam

See also: Battle of Karbala, Ashura, and Mourning of Muharram § Significance

Tasu'a is the ninth day of Muharram, the first month of the Islamic calendar, a month in which fighting has been forbidden since before the advent of Islam.12 Tasu'a is followed by Ashura, tenth of Muharram, which marks the death of Husayn ibn Ali, grandson of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and the third Shia imam.3 Husayn was killed, alongside most of his male relatives and his small retinue, on 10 Muharram 61 AH (10 October 680 CE) in the Battle of Karbala against the army of the Umayyad caliph Yazid ibn Mu'awiya (r. 680–683), having been surrounded for some days and deprived of the drinking water of the nearby Euphrates river. After the battle, the women and children in Husayn's camp were taken prisoner and marched to the Umayyad capital Damascus in Syria. The battle followed failed negotiations and Husayn's refusal to pledge his allegiance to Yazid, who is often portrayed by Muslim historians as impious and immoral.456 The fight took place in the desert land of Karbala, en route to the nearby Kufa, whose residents had invited Husayn to lead them against Yazid.7

In Shia Islam, Karbala symbolizes the eternal struggle between good and evil,89 the pinnacle of self-sacrifice,10 and the ultimate sabotage of Muhammad's prophetic mission.11 Historically, the event served to crystallize the Shia community into a distinct sect and remains an integral part of their religious identity to date.1213 The first ten days of Muharram, including Tasu'a and Ashura, are days of mourning for Shia Muslims.1415 On the one hand, Shia mourners share in the pain of Husayn and hope to benefit from his intercession on the Day of Judgement.1617 On the other, the Shia minority views mourning for Husayn as an act of protest against oppression, a struggle for God (jihad), and as such an act of worship.1819

Events of Tasu'a

Following failed negotiations, the Umayyad army attacked the camp of Husayn in the afternoon of Tasu'a. As the Umayyad army approached, however, Husayn dispatched his half-brother Abbas ibn Ali and some companions, who convinced the enemy commander Umar ibn Sa'd (d. 686) to delay the confrontation until the following day.2021 Husayn then besieged his followers in a speech to leave and not risk their lives, after which Abbas was the first to renew his support.22 Nearly all those present stayed with Husayn until the end.232425 By most accounts, Husayn and his men spent that night praying and reading the Quran, the central religious text of Islam.2627 On this night, Husayn's sister Zaynab is said to have reminded her half-brother Abbas of their father's wish for the latter to be the reserves of Karbala, and to be to Husayn as Ali was to Muhammad. This Abbas confirmed and swore to do.28 There is a report by the Shia historian Ibn Tawus (d. 1266) that Abbas was killed on Tasu'a in a failed sally to bring water for the thirsty camp.2930 Most sources, however, place his death on Ashura.31

The Umayyad officer Shamir ibn Dhi al-Jawshan had earlier acquired safe passage for Abbas ibn Ali and his three (full) brothers from Ibn Ziyad (d. 686), the Umayyad governor of Kufa. Shamir did so perhaps because he was also a member of the Banu Kilab tribe, to which Abbas' mother belonged. Ibn Ziyad's letter of protection was then sent to Abbas and his brothers, who refused it. Shamir extended the same offer on Tasu'a, but Abbas and his brothers remained defiant.32

Mourning rituals

Main article: Mourning of Muharram § Muharram rituals in Shia Islam

In addition to pilgrimage to the shrine of Husayn, located in Karbala, Iraq,33 Shia Muslims annually commemorate the events of Karbala throughout the months of Muharram and Safar.34 Most rituals take place during the first ten days of Muharram, culminating on Ashura with processions in major Shia cities.3536 The main component of ritual ceremonies (majalis, sg. majlis) is the narration of the stories of Karbala (rawza-khwani, qiraya),373839 and the recitation of rhythmic elegies and dirges (nawha, niyaha, marsia-khwani),4041 all intended to raise the sympathy of audience and move them to tears.4243 A majlis often takes place in a dedicated building or structure, known variously as Husayniya, takiya, imambarah, or azakhana.4445 Another component of mourning gatherings is the self-flagellation of participants to the rhythm of Karbala elegies.46 Rooted in ancient Arab practices,4748 mild forms of self-flagellation, striking one's face and chest in grief (latm, sina-zani, matam),495051 are common today in Shia communities.52 But there are also extreme forms of self-flagellation (tatbir, tiq-zani, qama-zani), in which the participants strike themselves, usually on the forehead or back, with knives, swords, or chains to which razor blades are attached.53 Banned in Iran and the Shia communities of Lebanon since the mid-90s,54 instrumental self-flagellation has been condemned by many Shia clerics,55 and it remains an often controversial practice among the Shia.56

Another mourning ritual is the dramatic reenactment of Karbala narratives (ta'ziya, shabih-khwani), practiced today in Iran, in the western Gulf shore, and in Lebanon.57 On Tasu'a, often such plays are dedicated to Abbas ibn Ali, Husayn's half-brother and his standard-bearer in the Battle of Karbala.58 During Muharram, especially on Ashura,59 processions of mourners (dasta, mawkib) march the streets,60 chanting dirges and elegies,61 sometimes accompanied by self-flagellation.6263 For instance, in Najaf, Iraq, mourners march in the evening of Tasu'a toward the shrine of Ali ibn Abi Talib, the first Shia imam, while carrying decorative torches.64 Depending on the region, processions also carry symbolic objects, such as alam (lit. 'flag'),65 nakhl (lit. 'date palm'),66 ta'ziya,67 and tadjah.68 Alam represents the ensign of Husayn in Karbala,69 while the last three objects symbolize his bier or tomb.7071

See also

Footnotes

References

  1. Fakhr-Rohani 2014, p. 228. - Fakhr-Rohani, M.R. (2014). "Ashura". In Morrow, J.A. (ed.). Islamic Images and Ideas: Essays on Sacred Symbolism. McFarland & Company. pp. 228–250. ISBN 978-0-7864-5848-6. https://archive.org/details/islamicimageside0000unse/page/228/mode/2up ↩

  2. Plessner 2012. - Plessner, M. (2012). "al-Muḥarram". In Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P. (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam (Second ed.). doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_5426. ISBN 978-90-04-16121-4. https://doi.org/10.1163%2F1573-3912_islam_SIM_5426 ↩

  3. Aghaie 2013. - Aghaie, K.S. (2013). "'Āshūrā' (Shī'ism)". In Fleet, K.; Krämer, G.; Matringe, D.; Nawas, J.; Stewart, D.J. (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam (Third ed.). doi:10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_COM_23855. ISBN 978-90-04-25268-4. https://doi.org/10.1163%2F1573-3912_ei3_COM_23855 ↩

  4. Momen 1985, p. 28. - Momen, M. (1985). An Introduction to Shi'i Islam. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-03531-5. ↩

  5. Pinault 2000, p. 70. - Pinault, D. (2000). "Zaynab bin 'Ali and the Place of the Women of the Households of the First Imāms in Shī'īte Devotional Literature". In Hambly, G. (ed.). Women in the Medieval Islamic World: Power, Patronage, and Piety. Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-333-80035-5. ↩

  6. Aghaie 2007, p. 117. - Aghaie, K.S. (2007). "The Passion of 'Ashura in Shiite Islam". In Cornell, V.J. (ed.). Voices of Islam. Vol. 2. Praeger. pp. 111–124. ISBN 978-0-275-98734-3. https://archive.org/details/voicesofislam0000unse_r7b1/page/110/mode/2up ↩

  7. Madelung 2004. - Madelung, W. (2004). "Ḥosayn b. 'Ali i. Life and Significance in Shi'ism". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Vol. XII/5. pp. 493–498. https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/hosayn-b-ali-i ↩

  8. Aghaie 2004, p. 9. - Aghaie, K.S. (2004). The Martyrs of Karbala: Shi'i Symbols and Rituals in Modern Iran. University of Washington Press. ISBN 0-295-98455-4. https://archive.org/details/martyrsofkarbala0000agha/mode/2up ↩

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  10. Chelkowski 1985, p. 19. - Chelkowski, P. (1985). "Shia Muslim Processional Performances". The Drama Review: TDR. 29/3 (3): 18–30. doi:10.2307/1145650. JSTOR 1145650. https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1145650 ↩

  11. Crow 2016. - Crow, D.K. (2016). "The Death of al-Ḥusayn b. 'Ali and Early Shī'ī Views of the Imamate". In Kohlberg, E. (ed.). Shi'ism. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-351-90028-7. ↩

  12. Kennedy 2016, p. 77. - Kennedy, H. (2016). The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates: The Islamic Near East from the Sixth to the Eleventh Century (Third ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-78761-2. https://archive.org/details/the-prophet-and-the-age-of-the-caliphates-the-islamic-near-east-from-the-sixth-t/mode/2up ↩

  13. Hyder 2006, p. 9. - Hyder, S.A. (2006). Reliving Karbala: Martyrdom in South Asian Memory. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-537302-8. https://archive.org/details/RelivingKarbalaSyedAkbarHyder/mode/2up ↩

  14. Osman 2014, p. 133. - Osman, R. (2014). Female Personalities in the Qur'an and Sunna: Examining the Major Sources of Imami Shi'i Islam. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-315-77014-7. ↩

  15. Momen 1985, p. 240. - Momen, M. (1985). An Introduction to Shi'i Islam. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-03531-5. ↩

  16. Blank 2001, p. 84. - Blank, J. (2001). Mullahs on the Mainframe: Islam and Modernity Among the Daudi Bohras. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-05676-0. ↩

  17. Munson 1988, p. 24. - Munson, H. (1988). Islam and Revolution in the Middle East. Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-04604-9. https://archive.org/details/islamrevolutioni00muns/mode/2up ↩

  18. Ayoub 1978, pp. 142–143. - Ayoub, M.M. (1978). Redemptive Suffering in Islam: A Study of the Devotional Aspects of Ashura in Twelver Shi'ism. De Gruyter. ISBN 978-90-279-7943-8. ↩

  19. Nakash 1993, p. 165. - Nakash, Y. (1993). "An Attempt to Trace the Origin of the Rituals of 'Āshūrā'". Die Welt des Islams: 161–181. JSTOR 1570949. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1570949 ↩

  20. Bahramian & Bulookbashi 2015. - Bahramian, A.; Bulookbashi, A.A. (2015). "Al-'Abbās b. 'Alī". In Madelung, W.; Daftary, F. (eds.). Encyclopaedia Islamica. Translated by Negahban, F. doi:10.1163/1875-9831_isla_COM_0009. https://doi.org/10.1163%2F1875-9831_isla_COM_0009 ↩

  21. Madelung 2004. - Madelung, W. (2004). "Ḥosayn b. 'Ali i. Life and Significance in Shi'ism". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Vol. XII/5. pp. 493–498. https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/hosayn-b-ali-i ↩

  22. Bahramian & Bulookbashi 2015. - Bahramian, A.; Bulookbashi, A.A. (2015). "Al-'Abbās b. 'Alī". In Madelung, W.; Daftary, F. (eds.). Encyclopaedia Islamica. Translated by Negahban, F. doi:10.1163/1875-9831_isla_COM_0009. https://doi.org/10.1163%2F1875-9831_isla_COM_0009 ↩

  23. Madelung 2004. - Madelung, W. (2004). "Ḥosayn b. 'Ali i. Life and Significance in Shi'ism". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Vol. XII/5. pp. 493–498. https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/hosayn-b-ali-i ↩

  24. Momen 1985, p. 30. - Momen, M. (1985). An Introduction to Shi'i Islam. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-03531-5. ↩

  25. Tabatabai 1975, p. 176. - Tabatabai, S.M.H. (1975). Shi'ite Islam. Translated by Nasr, S.H. State University of New York Press. ISBN 0-87395-390-8. https://archive.org/details/ShiaInIslamCopy/mode/2up ↩

  26. Munson 1988, pp. 23. - Munson, H. (1988). Islam and Revolution in the Middle East. Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-04604-9. https://archive.org/details/islamrevolutioni00muns/mode/2up ↩

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  29. Calmard 1982. - Calmard, J. (1982). "'Abbās b. 'Alī b. Abū Ṭāleb". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Vol. I/1. pp. 77–79. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/abbas-b-ali-b-abu-taleb ↩

  30. Sindawi 2002, p. 91. - Sindawi, K. (2002). "The Image of Ḥusayn ibn 'Alī in Maqātil Literature" (PDF). Quaderni di Studi Arabi. 20/21: 79–104. JSTOR 25802958. https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/25802958.pdf ↩

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  36. Momen 1985, p. 240. - Momen, M. (1985). An Introduction to Shi'i Islam. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-03531-5. ↩

  37. D'Souza 1998. - D'Souza, D. (1998). "The Figure of Zaynab in Shi'i Devotional Life". In Singh, D.E. (ed.). Spiritual Traditions: Essential Visions for Living. United Theological College. pp. 201–225. ISBN 978-81-7214-461-6. https://www.academia.edu/32233803 ↩

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