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Torture
Intentional infliction of physical or mental suffering upon a person or an animal

Torture involves deliberately inflicting severe pain or suffering for reasons such as punishment, extracting confessions, or intimidation. While some definitions limit torture to state actors, non-state groups also engage in it. Victims are often marginalized, including political prisoners. Methods vary from physical beatings to psychological techniques maintaining deniability. Torturers typically act from fear or resource limitations, targeting the victim’s will and personality. Despite global opposition and international law prohibiting torture under all circumstances, it persists worldwide. The human rights movement and reforms, like ending incommunicado detention, have reduced its prevalence but not eradicated it.

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Definitions

Main article: Definitions of torture

Torture1 is defined as the deliberate infliction of severe pain or suffering on someone under the control of the perpetrator.23 The treatment must be inflicted for a specific purpose, such as punishment and forcing the victim to confess or provide information.45 The definition put forth by the United Nations Convention against Torture only considers torture carried out by the state.678 Most legal systems include agents acting on behalf of the state, and some definitions add non-state armed groups, organized crime, or private individuals working in state-monitored facilities (such as hospitals). The most expansive definitions encompass anyone as a potential perpetrator.9 Although torture is usually classified as more severe than cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment (CIDT), the threshold at which treatment can be classified as torture is the most controversial aspect of its definition; the interpretation of torture has broadened over time.101112 Another approach, preferred by scholars such as Manfred Nowak and Malcolm Evans, distinguishes torture from CIDT by considering only the torturer's purpose, and not the severity.1314 Other definitions, such as that in the Inter-American Convention to Prevent and Punish Torture, focus on the torturer's aim "to obliterate the personality of the victim".1516

History

Pre-abolition

Torture was legally and morally acceptable in most ancient, medieval, and early modern societies.17 There is archaeological evidence of torture in Early Neolithic Europe, about 7,000 years ago.18 Torture is commonly mentioned in historical sources on Assyria and Achaemenid Persia.1920 Societies used torture both as part of the judicial process and as punishment, although some historians make a distinction between torture and painful punishments.2122 Historically, torture was seen as a reliable way to elicit the truth, a suitable punishment, and deterrence against future offenses.23 When torture was legally regulated, there were restrictions on the allowable methods;24 common methods in Europe included the rack and strappado.25 In most societies, citizens could be judicially tortured only under exceptional circumstances and for a serious crime such as treason, often only when some evidence already existed. In contrast, non-citizens such as foreigners and slaves were commonly tortured.26

Torture was rare in early medieval Europe but became more common between 1200 and 1400.272829 Because medieval judges used an exceptionally high standard of proof, they would sometimes authorize torture when circumstantial evidence tied a person to a capital crime if there were fewer than the two eyewitnesses required to convict someone in the absence of a confession.3031 Torture was still a labor-intensive process reserved for the most severe crimes;32 most torture victims were men accused of murder, treason, or theft.33 Medieval ecclesiastical courts and the Inquisition used torture under the same procedural rules as secular courts.34 The Ottoman Empire and Qajar Iran used torture in cases where circumstantial evidence tied someone to a crime, although Islamic law has traditionally considered evidence obtained under torture to be inadmissible.35

Abolition and continued use

Torture remained legal in Europe during the seventeenth century, but its practice declined.3637 Torture was already of marginal importance to European criminal justice systems by its formal abolition in the 18th and early 19th centuries.3839 Theories for why torture was abolished include the rise of Enlightenment ideas about the value of the human person,4041 the lowering of the standard of proof in criminal cases, popular views that no longer saw pain as morally redemptive,4243 and the expansion of imprisonment as an alternative to executions or painful punishments.4445 It is not known if torture also declined in non-Western states or European colonies during the nineteenth century.46 In China, judicial torture, which had been practiced for more than two millennia,47 was banned in 1905 along with flogging and lingchi (dismemberment) as a means of execution,48 although torture in China continued throughout the twentieth and twenty-first centuries.4950

Torture was widely used by colonial powers to subdue resistance and reached a peak during the anti-colonial wars in the twentieth century.5152 An estimated 300,000 people were tortured during the Algerian War of Independence (1954–1962),53 and the United Kingdom and Portugal also used torture in attempts to retain their respective empires.54 Independent states in Africa, the Middle East, and Asia often used torture in the twentieth century, but it is unknown whether their use of torture increased or decreased compared to nineteenth-century levels.55 During the first half of the twentieth century, torture became more prevalent in Europe with the advent of secret police,56 World War I and World War II, and the rise of communist and fascist states.57

Torture was also used by both communist and anti-communist governments during the Cold War in Latin America, with an estimated 100,000 to 150,000 victims of torture by United States–backed regimes.5859 The only countries in which torture was rare during the twentieth century were the liberal democracies of the West, but torture was still used there, against ethnic minorities or criminal suspects from marginalized classes, and during overseas wars against foreign populations.60 After the September 11 attacks, the US government embarked on an overseas torture program as part of its war on terror.61 It is disputed whether torture increases, decreases, or remains constant.62

Black sites are used in the 21st-century as a means to torture detainees, including by the CIA.6364

Prevalence

Most countries practice torture, although few acknowledge it.6566 The international prohibition of torture has not completely stopped torture; instead, states have changed which techniques are used and denied, covered up, or outsourced torture programs.67 Measuring the rate at which torture occurs is difficult because it is typically committed in secrecy, and abuses are likelier to come to light in open societies where there is a commitment to protecting human rights.68 Many torture survivors, especially those from poor or marginalized populations, are unwilling to report.6970 Monitoring has focused on police stations and prisons, although torture can also occur in other facilities such as immigration detention and youth detention centers.7172 Torture that occurs outside of custody—including extrajudicial punishment, intimidation, and crowd control—has traditionally not been counted, even though some studies have suggested it is more common than torture in places of detention.737475 There is even less information on the prevalence of torture before the twentieth century.76 Although it is often assumed that men suffer torture at a higher rate than women, there is a lack of evidence.77 Some quantitative research has estimated that torture rates are either stagnant or increasing over time, but this may be a measurement effect.78

Although liberal democracies are less likely to abuse their citizens, they may practice torture against marginalized citizens and non-citizens to whom they are not democratically accountable.7980 Voters may support violence against out-groups seen as threatening; majoritarian institutions are ineffective at preventing torture against minorities or foreigners.81 Torture is more likely when a society feels threatened because of wars or crises,8283 but studies have not found a consistent relationship between the use of torture and terrorist attacks.84

Torture is directed against certain segments of the population, who are denied the protection against torture given to others.858687 Torture of political prisoners and torture during armed conflicts receive more attention compared to torture of the poor or criminal suspects.8889 Most victims of torture are suspected of crimes; a disproportionate number of victims are from poor or marginalized communities.9091 Groups especially vulnerable to torture include unemployed young men, the urban poor, LGBT people, refugees and migrants, ethnic and racial minorities, indigenous people, and people with disabilities.92 Relative poverty and the resulting inequality in particular leave poor people vulnerable to torture.93 Criminalization of the poor, through laws targeting homelessness, sex work, or working in the informal economy, can lead to violent and arbitrary policing.94 Routine violence against poor and marginalized people is often not seen as torture, and its perpetrators justify the violence as a legitimate policing tactic;95 victims lack the resources or standing to seek redress.96

Perpetrators

Since most research has focused on torture victims, less is known about the perpetrators of torture.97 Many torturers see their actions as serving a higher political or ideological goal that justifies torture as a legitimate means of protecting the state.9899100 Fear is often the motivation for torture, and it is typically not a rational response as it is usually ineffective or even counterproductive at achieving the desired aim.101 Torture victims are often viewed by the perpetrators as severe threats and enemies of the state.102 Studies of perpetrators do not support the common assumption that they are psychologically pathological.103104 Most perpetrators do not volunteer to be torturers;105 many have an innate reluctance to employ violence, and rely on coping mechanisms, such as alcohol or drugs.106 Psychiatrist Pau Pérez-Sales finds that torturers act from a variety of motives such as ideological commitment, personal gain, group belonging, avoiding punishment, or avoiding guilt from previous acts of torture.107

Although it is often assumed that torture is ordered from above at the highest levels of government,108 sociologist Jonathan Luke Austin argues that government authorization is a necessary but not sufficient condition for torture to occur, given that a specific order to torture rarely can be identified.109 In many cases, a combination of dispositional and situational effects lead a person to become a torturer.110111 In most cases of systematic torture, the torturers were desensitized to violence by being exposed to physical or psychological abuse during training112113114 which can be a deliberate tactic to create torturers.115 Even when not explicitly ordered by the government to torture,116 perpetrators may feel peer pressure due to competitive masculinity.117 Elite and specialized police units are especially prone to torturing, perhaps because of their tight-knit nature and insulation from oversight.118 Although some torturers are formally trained, most are thought to learn about torture techniques informally.119120

Torture can be a side effect of a broken criminal justice system in which underfunding, lack of judicial independence, or corruption undermines effective investigations and fair trials.121122 In this context, people who cannot afford bribes are likely to become victims of torture.123124 Understaffed or poorly trained police are more likely to resort to torture when interrogating suspects.125126 In some countries, such as Kyrgyzstan, suspects are more likely to be tortured at the end of the month because of performance quotas.127

The contribution of bureaucracy to torture is under-researched and poorly understood.128 Torturers rely on both active supporters and those who ignore it.129 Military, intelligence, psychology, medical, and legal professionals can all be complicit in torture.130 Incentives can favor the use of torture on an institutional or individual level, and some perpetrators are motivated by the prospect of career advancement.131132 Bureaucracy can diffuse responsibility for torture and help perpetrators excuse their actions.133134 Maintaining secrecy is often essential to maintaining a torture program, which can be accomplished in ways ranging from direct censorship, denial, or mislabeling torture as something else, to offshoring abuses to outside a state's territory.135136 Along with official denials, torture is enabled by moral disengagement from the victims and impunity for the perpetrators.137 Public demand for decisive action against crime or even support for torture against criminals can facilitate its use.138

Once a torture program is begun, it is difficult or impossible to prevent it from escalating to more severe techniques and expanding to larger groups of victims, beyond what is originally intended or desired by decision-makers.139140141 Sociologist Christopher J. Einolf argues that "torture can create a vicious cycle in which a fear of internal enemies leads to torture, torture creates false confessions, and false confessions reinforce torturers' fears, leading to a spiral of paranoia and ever-increasing torture"—similar to a witch hunt.142 Escalation of torture is especially difficult to contain in counterinsurgency operations.143 Torture and specific techniques spread between different countries, especially by soldiers returning home from overseas wars, although this process is poorly understood.144145

Purpose

Punishment

Torture for punishment dates back to antiquity and is still employed in the twenty-first century.146 A common practice in countries with dysfunctional justice systems or overcrowded prisons is for police to apprehend suspects, torture them, and release them without a charge.147148 Such torture could be performed in a police station,149 the victim's home, or a public place.150 In South Africa, the police have been observed handing suspects over to vigilantes to be tortured.151 This type of extrajudicial violence is often carried out in public to deter others. It discriminatorily targets minorities and marginalized groups and may be supported by the public, especially if people do not trust the official justice system.152

The classification of judicial corporal punishment as torture is internationally controversial, although it is explicitly prohibited under the Geneva Conventions.153 Some authors, such as John D. Bessler, argue that capital punishment is inherently a form of torture carried out for punishment.154155 Executions may be carried out in brutal ways, such as stoning, death by burning, or dismemberment.156 The psychological harm of capital punishment is sometimes considered a form of psychological torture.157 Others do not consider corporal punishment with a fixed penalty to be torture, as it does not seek to break the victim's will.158

Deterrence

See also: Deterrence (penology)

Torture may also be used indiscriminately to terrorize people other than the direct victim or to deter opposition to the government.159160 In the United States, torture was used to deter slaves from escaping or rebelling.161 Some defenders of judicial torture prior to its abolition argued that it deterred crime; reformers contended that because torture was carried out in secret, it could not be an effective deterrent.162 In the twentieth century, well-known examples include the Khmer Rouge163 and anti-communist regimes in Latin America, who tortured and murdered their victims as part of forced disappearance.164 Authoritarian regimes often resort to indiscriminate repression because they cannot accurately identify potential opponents.165 Many insurgencies lack the necessary infrastructure for a torture program and instead intimidate by killing.166 Research has found that state torture can extend the lifespan of terrorist organizations, increase incentives for insurgents to use violence, and radicalize the opposition.167168 Another form of torture for deterrence is violence against migrants, as has been reported during pushbacks on the European Union's external borders.169

Confession

Further information: Forced confession

Torture has been used throughout history to extract confessions from detainees. In 1764, Italian reformer Cesare Beccaria denounced torture as "a sure way to acquit robust scoundrels and to condemn weak but innocent people".170171 Similar doubts about torture's effectiveness had been voiced for centuries previously, including by Aristotle.172173 Despite the abolition of judicial torture, it sees continued use to elicit confessions, especially in judicial systems placing a high value on confessions in criminal matters.174175 The use of torture to force suspects to confess is facilitated by laws allowing extensive pre-trial detention.176 Research has found that coercive interrogation is slightly more effective than cognitive interviewing for extracting a confession from a suspect, but presents a higher risk of false confession.177 Many torture victims will say whatever the torturer wants to hear to end the torture.178179 Others who are guilty refuse to confess,180 especially if they believe it would only bring more torture or punishment.181 Medieval justice systems attempted to counteract the risk of false confession under torture by requiring confessors to provide falsifiable details about the crime, and only allowing torture if there was already some evidence against the accused.182183 In some countries, political opponents are tortured to force them to confess publicly as a form of state propaganda.184

Interrogation

Main article: Interrogational torture

The use of torture to obtain information during interrogation accounts for a small percentage of worldwide torture cases; its use for obtaining confessions or intimidation is more common.185 Although interrogational torture has been used in conventional wars, it is even more common in asymmetric war or civil wars.186 The ticking time bomb scenario is extremely rare, if not impossible,187188 but is cited to justify torture for interrogation. Fictional portrayals of torture as an effective interrogational method have fueled misconceptions that justify the use of torture.189 Experiments comparing torture with other interrogation methods cannot be performed for ethical and practical reasons,190191192 but most scholars of torture are skeptical about its efficacy in obtaining accurate information, although torture sometimes has obtained actionable intelligence.193194 Interrogational torture can often shade into confessional torture or simply into entertainment,195 and some torturers do not distinguish between interrogation and confession.196

Methods

Main article: List of methods of torture

A wide variety of techniques have been used for torture.197 Nevertheless, there are limited ways of inflicting pain while minimizing the risk of death.198199 Survivors report that the exact method used is not significant.200 Most forms of torture include both physical and psychological elements201202 and multiple methods are typically used on one person.203204 Different methods of torture are popular in different countries.205206 Low-tech methods are more commonly used than high-tech ones, and attempts to develop scientifically validated torture technology have failed.207 The prohibition of torture motivated a shift to methods that do not leave marks to aid in deniability and to deprive victims of legal redress.208209 As they faced more pressure and scrutiny, democracies led the innovation in clean torture practices in the early twentieth century; such techniques diffused worldwide by the 1960s.210211 Patterns of torture differ based on a torturer's time limits—for example, resulting from legal limits on pre-trial detention.212

Beatings or blunt trauma are the most common form of physical torture213214 reported by about two-thirds of survivors.215 They may be either unsystematic216 or focused on a specific part of the body, as in falanga (the soles of the feet), repeated strikes against both ears, or shaking the detainee so that their head moves back and forth.217 Often, people are suspended in painful positions such as strappado or upside-down hanging in combination with beatings.218 People may also be subjected to stabbings or puncture wounds, have their nails removed, or body parts amputated.219 Burns are also common, especially cigarette burns, but other instruments are also employed, including hot metal, hot fluids, the sun, or acid.220 Forced ingestion of water, food, or other substances, or injections are also used as torture.221 Electric shocks are often used to torture, especially to avoid other methods that are more likely to leave scars.222 Asphyxiation, of which waterboarding is a form, inflicts torture on the victim by cutting off their air supply.223

Psychological torture includes methods that involve no physical element as well as forcing a person to do something and physical attacks that ultimately target the mind.224 Death threats, mock execution, or being forced to witness the torture of another person are often reported to be subjectively worse than being physically tortured and are associated with severe sequelae.225 Other torture techniques include sleep deprivation, overcrowding or solitary confinement, withholding of food or water, sensory deprivation (such as hooding), exposure to extremes of light or noise (e.g., musical torture),226 humiliation (which can be based on sexuality or the victim's religious or national identity),227 and the use of animals such as dogs to frighten or injure a prisoner.228229 Positional torture works by forcing the person to adopt a stance, putting their weight on a few muscles, causing pain without leaving marks, for example standing or squatting for extended periods.230 Rape and sexual assault are universal torture methods and frequently instill a permanent sense of shame in the victim and in some cultures, humiliate their family and society.231232 Cultural and individual differences affect how the victim perceives different torture methods.233

Effects

Torture is one of the most devastating experiences that a person can undergo.234 Torture aims to break the victim's will235 and destroy the victim's agency and personality.236 Torture survivor Jean Améry argued that it was "the most horrible event a human being can retain within himself" and that "whoever was tortured, stays tortured".237238 Many torture victims, including Améry, later die by suicide.239 Survivors often experience social and financial problems.240 Circumstances such as housing insecurity, family separation, and the uncertainty of applying for asylum in a safe country strongly impact survivors' well-being.241

Death is not an uncommon outcome of torture.242 Understanding of the link between specific torture methods and health consequences is lacking.243 These consequences can include peripheral neuropathy, damage to teeth, rhabdomyolysis from extensive muscle damage,244 traumatic brain injury,245 sexually transmitted infection, and pregnancy from rape.246 Chronic pain and pain-related disability are commonly reported, but there is scant research into this effect or possible treatments.247 Common psychological problems affecting survivors include traumatic stress, anxiety, depression, and sleep disturbance.248249 An average of 40 percent have long-term post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), a higher rate than for any other traumatic experience.250 Not all survivors or rehabilitation experts support using medical categories to define their experience,251 and many survivors remain psychologically resilient.252

Criminal prosecutions for torture are rare253 and most victims who submit formal complaints are not believed.254 Despite the efforts for evidence-based evaluation of the scars from torture such as the Istanbul Protocol, most physical examinations are inconclusive.255 The effects of torture are one of several factors that usually result in inconsistent testimony from survivors, hampering their effort to be believed and secure either refugee status in a foreign country or criminal prosecution of the perpetrators.256

Although there is less research on the effects of torture on perpetrators,257 they can experience moral injury or trauma symptoms similar to the victims, especially when they feel guilty about their actions.258259 Torture has corrupting effects on the institutions and societies that perpetrate it. Torturers forget important investigative skills because torture can be an easier way than time-consuming police work to achieve high conviction rates, encouraging the continued and increased use of torture.260261262 Public disapproval of torture can harm the international reputation of countries that use it, strengthen and radicalize violent opposition to those states,263264265 and encourage adversaries to themselves use torture.266

Public opinion

Studies have found that most people around the world oppose the use of torture in general.267268 Some hold definite views on torture; for others, torture's acceptability depends on the victim.269 Support for torture in specific cases is correlated with the belief that torture is effective and used in ticking time bomb cases.270 Women are more likely to oppose torture than men.271 Nonreligious people are less likely to support the use of torture than religious people, although for the latter group, increased religiosity increases opposition to torture.272 The personality traits of right-wing authoritarianism, social dominance orientation, and retributivism are correlated with higher support for torture; embrace of democratic values such as liberty and equality reduces support for torture.273 Public opinion is most favorable to torture, on average, in countries with low per capita income and high levels of state repression.274 Public opinion is an important constraint on the use of torture by states.275

Prohibition

Further information: Torture in international law

The condemnation of torture as barbaric and uncivilized originated in the debates around its abolition.276 By the late nineteenth century, countries began to be condemned internationally for the use of torture.277 The ban on torture became part of the civilizing mission justifying colonial rule on the pretext of ending torture,278279 despite the use of torture by colonial rulers themselves.280 The condemnation was strengthened during the twentieth century in reaction to the use of torture by Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union.281 Shocked by Nazi atrocities during World War II, the United Nations drew up the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which prohibited torture.282283 Torture is criticized based on all major ethical frameworks, including deontology, consequentialism, and virtue ethics.284285 Some contemporary philosophers argue that torture is never morally acceptable; others propose exceptions to the general rule in real-life equivalents of the ticking time-bomb scenario.286287

Torture stimulated the creation of the human rights movement.288 In 1969, the Greek case was the first time that an international body—the European Commission on Human Rights—found that a state practiced torture289 and it, along with Ireland v. United Kingdom, formed much of the basis for the definition of torture in international law.290 In the early 1970s, Amnesty International launched a global campaign against torture, exposing its widespread use despite international prohibition and eventually leading to the United Nations Convention against Torture (CAT) in 1984.291 Successful civil society mobilizations against torture can prevent its use by governments that possess both motive and opportunity to use torture.292 Naming and shaming campaigns against torture have shown mixed results; they can be ineffective and even make things worse.293

The prohibition of torture is a peremptory norm (jus cogens) in international law, meaning that it is forbidden for all states under all circumstances.294295 Most jurists justify the absolute legal prohibition on torture based on its violation of human dignity.296 The CAT and its Optional Protocol focus on the prevention of torture, which was already prohibited in international human rights law under other treaties such as the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.297298 The CAT specifies that torture must be a criminal offense under a country's laws,299 evidence obtained under torture may not be admitted in court, and deporting a person to another country where they are likely to face torture is forbidden.300 Even when it is illegal under national law, judges in many countries continue to admit evidence obtained under torture or ill treatment.301302 It is disputed whether ratification of the CAT decreases, does not affect, or even increases the rate of torture in a country.303

In international humanitarian law, which regulates the conduct of war, torture was first outlawed by the 1863 Lieber Code.304 Torture was prosecuted during the Nuremberg trials as a crime against humanity;305 it is recognized by both the 1949 Geneva Conventions and the 1998 Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court as a war crime.306307 According to the Rome Statute, torture can also be a crime against humanity if committed as part of a systematic attack on a civilian population.308 In 1987, Israel became the only country in the world to purportedly legalize torture.309310311312

Prevention

Further information: Committee for the Prevention of Torture and World Organisation Against Torture

Torture prevention is complicated both by lack of understanding about why torture occurs and by lack of application of what is known.313 Torture proliferates in situations of incommunicado detention.314315 Because the risk of torture is highest directly after an arrest, procedural safeguards such as immediate access to a lawyer and notifying relatives of an arrest are the most effective ways of prevention.316 Visits by independent monitoring bodies to detention sites can also help reduce torture.317 Legal changes that are not implemented in practice have little effect on the incidence of torture.318 Legal changes can be particularly ineffective in places where the law has limited legitimacy or is routinely ignored.319

Sociologically torture operates as a subculture, frustrating prevention efforts because torturers can find a way around rules.320 Safeguards against torture in detention can be evaded by beating suspects during round-ups or on the way to the police station.321322 General training of police to improve their ability to investigate crime has been more effective at reducing torture than specific training focused on human rights.323324 Institutional police reforms have been effective when abuse is systematic.325326 Political scientist Darius Rejali criticizes torture prevention research for not figuring out "what to do when people are bad; institutions broken, understaffed, and corrupt; and habitual serial violence is routine".327

Sources

Books

Book chapters

  • Austin, Jonathan Luke (2022). "Why Perpetrators Matter". Contesting Torture: Interdisciplinary Perspectives. Taylor & Francis. pp. 19–37. ISBN 978-1-000-72592-6.
  • Beam, Sara (2020). "Violence and Justice in Europe: Punishment, Torture and Execution". The Cambridge World History of Violence: Volume 3: AD 1500–AD 1800. Cambridge University Press. pp. 389–407. ISBN 978-1-107-11911-6.
  • Evans, Rebecca (2020). "The Ethics of Torture: Definitions, History, and Institutions". Oxford Research Encyclopedia of International Studies. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780190846626.013.326. ISBN 978-0-19-084662-6.
  • Frahm, Eckart (2006). "Images of Assyria in 19th and 20th Century Scholarship". Orientalism, Assyriology and the Bible. Sheffield Phoenix Press. pp. 74–94. ISBN 978-1-905048-37-3.
  • Kelly, Tobias; Jensen, Steffen; Andersen, Morten Koch (2020). "Fragility, states and torture". Research Handbook on Torture: Legal and Medical Perspectives on Prohibition and Prevention. Edward Elgar Publishing. pp. 63–79. ISBN 978-1-78811-396-0.
  • Nowak, Manfred (2014). "Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment". The Oxford Handbook of International Law in Armed Conflict. Oxford University Press. pp. 387–409. ISBN 978-0-19-163269-3.
  • Pérez-Sales, Pau (2020). "Psychological torture". Research Handbook on Torture: Legal and Medical Perspectives on Prohibition and Prevention. Edward Elgar Publishing. pp. 432–454. ISBN 978-1-78811-396-0.
  • Quiroga, José; Modvig, Jens (2020). "Torture methods and their health impact". Research Handbook on Torture: Legal and Medical Perspectives on Prohibition and Prevention. Edward Elgar Publishing. pp. 410–431. ISBN 978-1-78811-396-0.
  • Rejali, Darius (2020). "The Field of Torture Today: Ten Years On from Torture and Democracy". Interrogation and Torture: Integrating Efficacy with Law and Morality. Oxford University Press. pp. 71–106. ISBN 978-0-19-009752-3.
  • Saul, Ben; Flanagan, Mary (2020). "Torture and counter-terrorism". Research Handbook on International Law and Terrorism. Edward Elgar Publishing. pp. 354–370. ISBN 978-1-78897-222-2.
  • Shue, Henry (2015). "Torture". The Routledge Handbook of Global Ethics. Routledge. pp. 113–126. ISBN 978-1-315-74452-0.
  • Thomson, Mark; Bernath, Barbara (2020). "Preventing Torture: What Works?". Interrogation and Torture: Integrating Efficacy with Law and Morality. Oxford University Press. pp. 471–492. ISBN 978-0-19-009752-3.
  • Wolfendale, Jessica (2019). "The Making of a Torturer". The Routledge International Handbook of Perpetrator Studies. Routledge. pp. 84–94. ISBN 978-1-315-10288-7.

Journal articles

References

  1. From Middle Latin tortura: 'pain inflicted by judicial or ecclesiastical authority as a means of persuasion', ultimately from a Latin root meaning 'to twist'.[1] /wiki/Middle_Latin

  2. Nowak 2014, pp. 396–397. - Nowak, Manfred (2014). "Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment". The Oxford Handbook of International Law in Armed Conflict. Oxford University Press. pp. 387–409. ISBN 978-0-19-163269-3.

  3. Carver & Handley 2016, p. 38. - Carver, Richard; Handley, Lisa (2016). Does Torture Prevention Work?. Liverpool University Press. ISBN 978-1-78138-868-6.

  4. Nowak 2014, pp. 394–395. - Nowak, Manfred (2014). "Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment". The Oxford Handbook of International Law in Armed Conflict. Oxford University Press. pp. 387–409. ISBN 978-0-19-163269-3.

  5. Pérez-Sales 2016, pp. 96–97. - Pérez-Sales, Pau (2016). Psychological Torture: Definition, Evaluation and Measurement. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-317-20647-7.

  6. Carver & Handley 2016, pp. 37–38. - Carver, Richard; Handley, Lisa (2016). Does Torture Prevention Work?. Liverpool University Press. ISBN 978-1-78138-868-6.

  7. Nowak 2014, p. 392. - Nowak, Manfred (2014). "Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment". The Oxford Handbook of International Law in Armed Conflict. Oxford University Press. pp. 387–409. ISBN 978-0-19-163269-3.

  8. Hajjar 2013, p. 40. - Hajjar, Lisa (2013). Torture: A Sociology of Violence and Human Rights. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-51806-2.

  9. Pérez-Sales 2016, pp. 279–280. - Pérez-Sales, Pau (2016). Psychological Torture: Definition, Evaluation and Measurement. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-317-20647-7.

  10. Hajjar 2013, p. 40. - Hajjar, Lisa (2013). Torture: A Sociology of Violence and Human Rights. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-51806-2.

  11. Carver & Handley 2016, pp. 37–38. - Carver, Richard; Handley, Lisa (2016). Does Torture Prevention Work?. Liverpool University Press. ISBN 978-1-78138-868-6.

  12. Saul & Flanagan 2020, pp. 364–365. - Saul, Ben; Flanagan, Mary (2020). "Torture and counter-terrorism". Research Handbook on International Law and Terrorism. Edward Elgar Publishing. pp. 354–370. ISBN 978-1-78897-222-2.

  13. Carver & Handley 2016, p. 37. - Carver, Richard; Handley, Lisa (2016). Does Torture Prevention Work?. Liverpool University Press. ISBN 978-1-78138-868-6.

  14. Nowak 2014, p. 391. - Nowak, Manfred (2014). "Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment". The Oxford Handbook of International Law in Armed Conflict. Oxford University Press. pp. 387–409. ISBN 978-0-19-163269-3.

  15. Pérez-Sales 2016, pp. 3, 281. - Pérez-Sales, Pau (2016). Psychological Torture: Definition, Evaluation and Measurement. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-317-20647-7.

  16. Wisnewski 2010, pp. 73–74. - Wisnewski, J. Jeremy (2010). Understanding Torture. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 978-0-7486-8672-8.

  17. Einolf 2007, p. 104. - Einolf, Christopher J. (2007). "The Fall and Rise of Torture: A Comparative and Historical Analysis". Sociological Theory. 25 (2): 101–121. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9558.2007.00300.x. https://works.bepress.com/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1008&context=christopher_einolf

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