Menu
Home Explore People Places Arts History Plants & Animals Science Life & Culture Technology
On this page
Water of crystallization
Hydrote en X³ to £ iron a monitor

In chemistry, water(s) of crystallization or water(s) of hydration are water molecules that are present inside crystals. Water is often incorporated in the formation of crystals from aqueous solutions. In some contexts, water of crystallization is the total mass of water in a substance at a given temperature and is mostly present in a definite (stoichiometric) ratio. Classically, "water of crystallization" refers to water that is found in the crystalline framework of a metal complex or a salt, which is not directly bonded to the metal cation.

Upon crystallization from water, or water-containing solvents, many compounds incorporate water molecules in their crystalline frameworks. Water of crystallization can generally be removed by heating a sample but the crystalline properties are often lost.

Compared to inorganic salts, proteins crystallize with large amounts of water in the crystal lattice. A water content of 50% is not uncommon for proteins.

Related Image Collections Add Image
Profiles
1 Image
We don't have any YouTube videos related to Water of crystallization yet.
We don't have any PDF documents related to Water of crystallization yet.
We don't have any Books related to Water of crystallization yet.
We don't have any archived web articles related to Water of crystallization yet.

Applications

Knowledge of hydration is essential for calculating the masses for many compounds. The reactivity of many salt-like solids is sensitive to the presence of water. The hydration and dehydration of salts is central to the use of phase-change materials for energy storage.2

Position in the crystal structure

A salt with associated water of crystallization is known as a hydrate. The structure of hydrates can be quite elaborate, because of the existence of hydrogen bonds that define polymeric structures.3 4 Historically, the structures of many hydrates were unknown, and the dot in the formula of a hydrate was employed to specify the composition without indicating how the water is bound. Per IUPAC's recommendations, the middle dot is not surrounded by spaces when indicating a chemical adduct.5 Examples:

  • CuSO4·5H2O – copper(II) sulfate pentahydrate
  • CoCl2·6H2O – cobalt(II) chloride hexahydrate
  • SnCl2·2H2O – tin(II) (or stannous) chloride dihydrate

For many salts, the exact bonding of the water is unimportant because the water molecules are made labile upon dissolution. For example, an aqueous solution prepared from CuSO4·5H2O and anhydrous CuSO4 behave identically. Therefore, knowledge of the degree of hydration is important only for determining the equivalent weight: one mole of CuSO4·5H2O weighs more than one mole of CuSO4. In some cases, the degree of hydration can be critical to the resulting chemical properties. For example, anhydrous RhCl3 is not soluble in water and is relatively useless in organometallic chemistry whereas RhCl3·3H2O is versatile. Similarly, hydrated AlCl3 is a poor Lewis acid and thus inactive as a catalyst for Friedel-Crafts reactions. Samples of AlCl3 must therefore be protected from atmospheric moisture to preclude the formation of hydrates.

Crystals of hydrated copper(II) sulfate consist of [Cu(H2O)4]2+ centers linked to SO2−4 ions. Copper is surrounded by six oxygen atoms, provided by two different sulfate groups and four molecules of water. A fifth water resides elsewhere in the framework but does not bind directly to copper.6 The cobalt chloride mentioned above occurs as [Co(H2O)6]2+ and Cl−. In tin chloride, each Sn(II) center is pyramidal (mean O/Cl−Sn−O/Cl angle is 83°) being bound to two chloride ions and one water. The second water in the formula unit is hydrogen-bonded to the chloride and to the coordinated water molecule. Water of crystallization is stabilized by electrostatic attractions, consequently hydrates are common for salts that contain +2 and +3 cations as well as −2 anions. In some cases, the majority of the weight of a compound arises from water. Glauber's salt, Na2SO4(H2O)10, is a white crystalline solid with greater than 50% water by weight.

Consider the case of nickel(II) chloride hexahydrate. This species has the formula NiCl2(H2O)6. Crystallographic analysis reveals that the solid consists of [trans-NiCl2(H2O)4] subunits that are hydrogen bonded to each other as well as two additional molecules of H2O. Thus one third of the water molecules in the crystal are not directly bonded to Ni2+, and these might be termed "water of crystallization".

Analysis

The water content of most compounds can be determined with a knowledge of its formula. An unknown sample can be determined through thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) where the sample is heated strongly, and the accurate weight of a sample is plotted against the temperature. The amount of water driven off is then divided by the molar mass of water to obtain the number of molecules of water bound to the salt.

Other solvents of crystallization

Water is particularly common solvent to be found in crystals because it is small and polar. But all solvents can be found in some host crystals. Water is noteworthy because it is reactive, whereas other solvents such as benzene are considered to be chemically innocuous. Occasionally more than one solvent is found in a crystal, and often the stoichiometry is variable, reflected in the crystallographic concept of "partial occupancy". It is common and conventional for a chemist to "dry" a sample with a combination of vacuum and heat "to constant weight".

For other solvents of crystallization, analysis is conveniently accomplished by dissolving the sample in a deuterated solvent and analyzing the sample for solvent signals by NMR spectroscopy. Single crystal X-ray crystallography is often able to detect the presence of these solvents of crystallization as well. Other methods may be currently available.

Table of crystallization water in some inorganic halides

In the table below are indicated the number of molecules of water per metal in various salts.78

Hydrated metal halidesand their formulasCoordination sphereof the metalEquivalents of water of crystallization that are not bound to MRemarks
Calcium chlorideCaCl2(H2O)6[Ca(μ-H2O)6(H2O)3]2+noneexample of water as a bridging ligand9
Titanium(III) chlorideTiCl3(H2O)6trans-[TiCl2(H2O)4]+10twoisomorphous with VCl3(H2O)6
Titanium(III) chlorideTiCl3(H2O)6[Ti(H2O)6]3+11noneisomeric with [TiCl2(H2O)4]Cl.2H2O12
Zirconium(IV) fluorideZrF4(H2O)3(μ−F)2[ZrF3(H2O)3]2nonerare case where Hf and Zr differ13
Hafnium tetrafluorideHfF4(H2O)3(μ−F)2[HfF2(H2O)2]n(H2O)nonerare case where Hf and Zr differ14
Vanadium(III) chlorideVCl3(H2O)6trans-[VCl2(H2O)4]+15two
Vanadium(III) bromideVBr3(H2O)6trans-[VBr2(H2O)4]+16two
Vanadium(III) iodideVI3(H2O)6[V(H2O)6]3+nonerelative to Cl− and Br−, I− competes poorly with water as a ligand for V(III)
Nb6Cl14(H2O)8[Nb6Cl14(H2O)2]four
Chromium(III) chlorideCrCl3(H2O)6trans-[CrCl2(H2O)4]+twodark green isomer, aka "Bjerrums's salt"
Chromium(III) chlorideCrCl3(H2O)6[CrCl(H2O)5]2+oneblue-green isomer
Chromium(II) chlorideCrCl2(H2O)4trans-[CrCl2(H2O)4]nonesquare planar/tetragonal distortion
Chromium(III) chlorideCrCl3(H2O)6[Cr(H2O)6]3+noneviolet isomer. isostructural with aluminium compound17
Manganese(II) chlorideMnCl2(H2O)6trans-[MnCl2(H2O)4]two
Manganese(II) chlorideMnCl2(H2O)4cis-[MnCl2(H2O)4]nonecis molecular, the unstable trans isomer has also been detected18
Manganese(II) bromideMnBr2(H2O)4cis-[MnBr2(H2O)4]nonecis, molecular
Manganese(II) iodideMnI2(H2O)4trans-[MnI2(H2O)4]nonemolecular, isostructural with FeCl2(H2O)4.19
Manganese(II) chlorideMnCl2(H2O)2trans-[MnCl4(H2O)2]nonepolymeric with bridging chloride
Manganese(II) bromideMnBr2(H2O)2trans-[MnBr4(H2O)2]nonepolymeric with bridging bromide
Rhenium(III) chlorideRe3Cl9(H2O)4triangulo-[Re3Cl9(H2O)3]noneheavy early metals form M-M bonds20
Iron(II) chlorideFeCl2(H2O)6trans-[FeCl2(H2O)4]two
Iron(II) chlorideFeCl2(H2O)4trans-[FeCl2(H2O)4]nonemolecular
Iron(II) bromideFeBr2(H2O)4trans-[FeBr2(H2O)4]nonemolecular,21 hydrates of FeI2 are not known
Iron(II) chlorideFeCl2(H2O)2trans-[FeCl4(H2O)2]nonepolymeric with bridging chloride
Iron(III) chlorideFeCl3(H2O)6trans-[FeCl2(H2O)4]+twoone of four hydrates of ferric chloride,22 isostructural with Cr analogue
Iron(III) chlorideFeCl3(H2O)2.5cis-[FeCl2(H2O)4]+twothe dihydrate has a similar structure, both contain FeCl−4 anions.23
Cobalt(II) chlorideCoCl2(H2O)6trans-[CoCl2(H2O)4]two
Cobalt(II) bromideCoBr2(H2O)6trans-[CoBr2(H2O)4]two
Cobalt(II) iodideCoI2(H2O)6[Co(H2O)6]2+none24iodide competes poorly with water
Cobalt(II) bromideCoBr2(H2O)4trans-[CoBr2(H2O)4]nonemolecular25
Cobalt(II) chlorideCoCl2(H2O)4cis-[CoCl2(H2O)4]nonenote: cis molecular
Cobalt(II) chlorideCoCl2(H2O)2trans-[CoCl4(H2O)2]nonepolymeric with bridging chloride
Cobalt(II) bromideCoBr2(H2O)2trans-[CoBr4(H2O)2]nonepolymeric with bridging bromide
Nickel(II) chlorideNiCl2(H2O)6trans-[NiCl2(H2O)4]two
Nickel(II) chlorideNiCl2(H2O)4cis-[NiCl2(H2O)4]nonenote: cis molecular26
Nickel(II) bromideNiBr2(H2O)6trans-[NiBr2(H2O)4]two
Nickel(II) iodideNiI2(H2O)6[Ni(H2O)6]2+none27iodide competes poorly with water
Nickel(II) chlorideNiCl2(H2O)2trans-[NiCl4(H2O)2]nonepolymeric with bridging chloride
Platinum(IV) chloride[Pt(H2O)2Cl4](H2O)328trans-[PtCl4(H2O)2]3octahedral Pt centers; rare example of non-first row chloride-aquo complex
Platinum(IV) chloride[Pt(H2O)3Cl3]Cl(H2O)0.529fac-[PtCl3(H2O)3]+0.5octahedral Pt centers; rare example of non-first row chloride-aquo complex
Copper(II) chlorideCuCl2(H2O)2[CuCl4(H2O)2]2nonetetragonally distorted two long Cu-Cl distances
Copper(II) bromideCuBr2(H2O)4[CuBr4(H2O)2]ntwotetragonally distorted two long Cu-Br distances30
Zinc(II) chlorideZnCl2(H2O)1.33312 ZnCl2 + ZnCl2(H2O)4nonecoordination polymer with both tetrahedral and octahedral Zn centers
Zinc(II) chlorideZnCl2(H2O)2.532Cl3Zn(μ-Cl)Zn(H2O)5nonetetrahedral and octahedral Zn centers
Zinc(II) chlorideZnCl2(H2O)333[ZnCl4]2− & [Zn(H2O)6]2+nonetetrahedral and octahedral Zn centers
Zinc(II) chlorideZnCl2(H2O)4.534[ZnCl4]2− & [Zn(H2O)6]2+threetetrahedral and octahedral Zn centers
Cadmium chlorideCdCl2·H2O35nonewater of crystallization is rare for heavy metal halides
Cadmium chlorideCdCl2·2.5H2O36CdCl5(H2O) & CdCl4(H2O)2none
Cadmium chlorideCdCl2·4H2O37noneoctahedral
Cadmium bromideCdBr2(H2O)438[CdBr4(H2O)2twooctahedral Cd centers
Aluminum trichlorideAlCl3(H2O)6[Al(H2O)6]3+noneisostructural with the Cr(III) compound

Examples are rare for second and third row metals. No entries exist for Mo, W, Tc, Ru, Os, Rh, Ir, Pd, Hg, Au. AuCl3(H2O) has been invoked but its crystal structure has not been reported.

Hydrates of metal sulfates

Transition metal sulfates form a variety of hydrates, each of which crystallizes in only one form. The sulfate group often binds to the metal, especially for those salts with fewer than six aquo ligands. The heptahydrates, which are often the most common salts, crystallize as monoclinic and the less common orthorhombic forms. In the heptahydrates, one water is in the lattice and the other six are coordinated to the ferrous center.39 Many of the metal sulfates occur in nature, being the result of weathering of mineral sulfides.4041 Many monohydrates are known.42

Formula of hydrated metal ion sulfateCoordinationsphere of the metal ionEquivalents of water of crystallization that are not bound to Mmineral nameRemarks
MgSO4(H2O)[Mn(μ-H2O)(μ4,-κ1-SO4)4]43nonekieseritesee Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Zn analogues
MgSO4(H2O)4[Mg(H2O)4(κ′,κ1-SO4)]2nonesulfate is bridging ligand, 8-membered Mg2O4S2 rings44
MgSO4(H2O)6[Mg(H2O)6]nonehexahydratecommon motif45
MgSO4(H2O)7[Mg(H2O)6]oneepsomitecommon motif46
TiOSO4(H2O)[Ti(μ-O)2(H2O)(κ1-SO4)3]nonefurther hydration gives gels
VSO4(H2O)6[V(H2O)6]noneAdopts the hexahydrite motif47
VSO4(H2O)7[V(H2O)6]onehexaaquo48
VOSO4(H2O)5[VO(H2O)4(κ1-SO4)4]one
Cr(SO4)(H2O)3[Cr(H2O)3(κ1-SO4)]noneresembles Cu(SO4)(H2O)349
Cr(SO4)(H2O)5[Cr(H2O)4(κ1-SO4)2]oneresembles Cu(SO4)(H2O)550
Cr2(SO4)3(H2O)18[Cr(H2O)6]sixOne of several chromium(III) sulfates
MnSO4(H2O)[Mn(μ-H2O)(μ4,-κ1-SO4)4]51noneszmikitesee Fe, Co, Ni, Zn analogues
MnSO4(H2O)4[Mn(μ-SO4)2(H2O)4]52noneIlesitepentahydrate is called jôkokuite; the hexahydrate, the most rare, is called chvaleticeitewith 8-membered ring Mn2(SO4)2 core
MnSO4(H2O)5?jôkokuite
MnSO4(H2O)6?Chvaleticeite
MnSO4(H2O)7[Mn(H2O)6]onemallardite53see Mg analogue
FeSO4(H2O)[Fe(μ-H2O)(μ4-κ1-SO4)4]54nonesee Mn, Co, Ni, Zn analogues
FeSO4(H2O)7[Fe(H2O)6]onemelanterite55see Mg analogue
FeSO4(H2O)4[Fe(H2O)4(κ′,κ1-SO4)]2nonesulfate is bridging ligand, 8-membered Fe2O4S2 rings56
FeII(FeIII)2(SO4)4(H2O)14[FeII(H2O)6]2+[FeIII(H2O)4(κ1-SO4)2]−2nonesulfates are terminal ligands on Fe(III)57
CoSO4(H2O)[Co(μ-H2O)(μ4-κ1-SO4)4]58nonesee Mn, Fe, Ni, Zn analogues
CoSO4(H2O)6[Co(H2O)6]nonemoorhouseitesee Mg analogue
CoSO4(H2O)7[Co(H2O)6]onebieberite59see Fe, Mg analogues
NiSO4(H2O)[Ni(μ-H2O)(μ4-κ1-SO4)4]60nonesee Mn, Fe, Co, Zn analogues
NiSO4(H2O)6[Ni(H2O)6]noneretgersiteOne of several nickel sulfate hydrates61
NiSO4(H2O)7[Ni(H2O)6]morenosite62
(NH4)2[Pt2(SO4)4(H2O)2][Pt2(SO4)4(H2O)2]2-nonePt-Pt bonded Chinese lantern structure63
CuSO4(H2O)5[Cu(H2O)4(κ1-SO4)2]onechalcantitesulfate is bridging ligand64
CuSO4(H2O)7[Cu(H2O)6]oneboothite65
ZnSO4(H2O)[Zn(μ-H2O)(μ4-κ1-SO4)4]66nonesee Mn, Fe, Co, Ni analogues
ZnSO4(H2O)4[Zn(H2O)4(κ′,κ1-SO4)]2nonesulfate is bridging ligand, 8-membered Zn2O4S2 rings6768
ZnSO4(H2O)6[Zn(H2O)6]nonesee Mg analogue69
ZnSO4(H2O)7[Zn(H2O)6]onegoslarite70see Mg analogue
CdSO4(H2O)[Cd(μ-H2O)2(κ1-SO4)4]nonebridging water ligand71

Hydrates of metal nitrates

Transition metal nitrates form a variety of hydrates. The nitrate anion often binds to the metal, especially for those salts with fewer than six aquo ligands. Nitrates are uncommon in nature, so few minerals are represented here. Hydrated ferrous nitrate has not been characterized crystallographically.

Formula of hydrated metal ion nitrateCoordinationsphere of the metal ionEquivalents of water of crystallization that are not bound to MRemarks
Cr(NO3)3(H2O)9[Cr(H2O)6]3+threeoctahedral configuration72 isostructural with Fe(NO3)3(H2O)9
Mn(NO3)2(H2O)4cis-[Mn(H2O)4(κ1-ONO2)2]noneoctahedral configuration
Mn(NO3)2(H2O)[Mn(H2O)(μ-ONO2)5]noneoctahedral configuration
Mn(NO3)2(H2O)6[Mn(H2O)6]noneoctahedral configuration73
Fe(NO3)3(H2O)9[Fe(H2O)6]3+threeoctahedral configuration74 isostructural with Cr(NO3)3(H2O)9
Fe(NO3)3)(H2O)4[Fe(H2O)3(κ2-O2NO)2]+onepentagonal bipyramid75
Fe(NO3)3(H2O)5[Fe(H2O)5(κ1-ONO2)]2+noneoctahedral configuration76
Fe(NO3)3(H2O)6[Fe(H2O)6]3+noneoctahedral configuration77
Co(NO3)2(H2O)2[Co(H2O)2(κ1-ONO2)2]noneoctahedral configuration
Co(NO3)2(H2O)4[Co(H2O)4(κ1-ONO2)2noneoctahedral configuration
Co(NO3)2(H2O)6[Co(H2O)6]2+noneoctahedral configuration.78
α-Ni(NO3)2(H2O)4cis-[Ni(H2O)4(κ1-ONO2)2]noneoctahedral configuration.79
β-Ni(NO3)2(H2O)4trans-[Ni(H2O)4(κ1-ONO2)2]noneoctahedral configuration.80
Pd(NO3)2(H2O)2trans-[Pd(H2O)2(κ1-ONO2)2]nonesquare planar coordination geometry81
Cu(NO3)2(H2O)[Cu(H2O)(κ2-ONO2)2]noneoctahedral configuration.
Cu(NO3)2(H2O)1.5uncertainuncertainuncertain82
Cu(NO3)2(H2O)2.5[Cu(H2O)2(κ1-ONO2)2]onesquare planar83
Cu(NO3)2(H2O)3uncertainuncertainuncertain84
Cu(NO3)2(H2O)6[Cu(H2O)6]2+noneoctahedral configuration85
Zn(NO3)2(H2O)4cis-[Zn(H2O)4(κ1-ONO2)2]noneoctahedral configuration.
Hg2(NO3)2(H2O)2[H2O–Hg–Hg–OH2]2+linear86

Photos

See also

References

  1. Greenwood, Norman N.; Earnshaw, Alan (1997). Chemistry of the Elements (2nd ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN 978-0-08-037941-8. 978-0-08-037941-8 ↩

  2. Sharma, Atul; Tyagi, V.V.; Chen, C.R.; Buddhi, D. (2009). "Review on thermal energy storage with phase change materials and applications". Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 13 (2): 318–345. Bibcode:2009RSERv..13..318S. doi:10.1016/j.rser.2007.10.005. /wiki/Bibcode_(identifier) ↩

  3. Wang, Yonghui; Feng, Liyun; Li, Yangguang; Hu, Changwen; Wang, Enbo; Hu, Ninghai; Jia, Hengqing (2002). "Novel Hydrogen-Bonded Three-Dimensional Networks Encapsulating One-Dimensional Covalent Chains: [M(4,4′-bipy)(H2O)4](4-abs)2·nH2O (4,4′-bipy = 4,4′-Bipyridine; 4-abs = 4-Aminobenzenesulfonate) (M = Co, n = 1; M = Mn, n = 2)". Inorganic Chemistry. 41 (24): 6351–6357. doi:10.1021/ic025915o. PMID 12444778. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/ic025915o ↩

  4. Maldonado, Carmen R.; Quirós, Miguel; Salas, J.M. (2010). "Formation of 2D water morphologies in the lattice of the salt with [Cu2(OH)2(H2O)2(phen)2]2+ as cation and 4,6-dimethyl-1,2,3-triazolo[4,5-d]pyrimidin-5,7-dionato as anion". Inorganic Chemistry Communications. 13 (3): 399–403. doi:10.1016/j.inoche.2009.12.033. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  5. Connelly, Neil G.; Damhus, Ture; Hartshorn, Richard M.; Hutton, Alan T. (2005). Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry, IUPAC Recommendations 2005 (the "Red Book") (PDF). p. 56. ISBN 0-85404-438-8. Retrieved 10 January 2023. 0-85404-438-8 ↩

  6. Moeller, Therald (Jan 1, 1980). Chemistry: With Inorganic qualitative Analysis. Academic Press Inc (London) Ltd. p. 909. ISBN 978-0-12-503350-3. Retrieved 15 June 2014. 978-0-12-503350-3 ↩

  7. K. Waizumi; H. Masuda; H. Ohtaki (1992). "X-Ray Structural Studies of FeBr2·4H2O, CoBr2·4H2O, NiCl2·4H2O, and CuBr2·4H2O. cis/trans Selectivity in Transition Metal(II) Dihalide Tetrahydrate". Inorganica Chimica Acta. 192 (2): 173–181. doi:10.1016/S0020-1693(00)80756-2. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  8. B. Morosin (1967). "An X-ray Diffraction Study on Nickel(II) Chloride Dihydrate". Acta Crystallographica. 23 (4): 630–634. Bibcode:1967AcCry..23..630M. doi:10.1107/S0365110X67003305. /wiki/Bibcode_(identifier) ↩

  9. Agron, P. A.; Busing, W. R. (1986). "Calcium and Strontium Dichloride Hexahydrates by Neutron Diffraction". Acta Crystallographica Section C. 42 (2): 14. Bibcode:1986AcCrC..42..141A. doi:10.1107/S0108270186097007. S2CID 97718377. /wiki/Bibcode_(identifier) ↩

  10. Donovan, William F.; Smith, Peter W. (1975). "Crystal and Molecular Structures of Aquahalogenovanadium(III) Complexes. Part I. X-Ray Crystal Structure of trans-Tetrakisaquadibromo-Vanadium(III) Bromide Dihydrate and the Isomorphous Chloro- Compound". Journal of the Chemical Society, Dalton Transactions (10): 894. doi:10.1039/DT9750000894. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  11. Donovan, William F.; Smith, Peter W. (1975). "Crystal and Molecular Structures of Aquahalogenovanadium(III) Complexes. Part I. X-Ray Crystal Structure of trans-Tetrakisaquadibromo-Vanadium(III) Bromide Dihydrate and the Isomorphous Chloro- Compound". Journal of the Chemical Society, Dalton Transactions (10): 894. doi:10.1039/DT9750000894. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  12. Greenwood, Norman N.; Earnshaw, Alan (1997). Chemistry of the Elements (2nd ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann. p. 965. ISBN 978-0-08-037941-8. 978-0-08-037941-8 ↩

  13. Greenwood, Norman N.; Earnshaw, Alan (1997). Chemistry of the Elements (2nd ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann. p. 965. ISBN 978-0-08-037941-8. 978-0-08-037941-8 ↩

  14. Greenwood, Norman N.; Earnshaw, Alan (1997). Chemistry of the Elements (2nd ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann. p. 965. ISBN 978-0-08-037941-8. 978-0-08-037941-8 ↩

  15. Donovan, William F.; Smith, Peter W. (1975). "Crystal and Molecular Structures of Aquahalogenovanadium(III) Complexes. Part I. X-Ray Crystal Structure of trans-Tetrakisaquadibromo-Vanadium(III) Bromide Dihydrate and the Isomorphous Chloro- Compound". Journal of the Chemical Society, Dalton Transactions (10): 894. doi:10.1039/DT9750000894. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  16. Donovan, William F.; Smith, Peter W. (1975). "Crystal and Molecular Structures of Aquahalogenovanadium(III) Complexes. Part I. X-Ray Crystal Structure of trans-Tetrakisaquadibromo-Vanadium(III) Bromide Dihydrate and the Isomorphous Chloro- Compound". Journal of the Chemical Society, Dalton Transactions (10): 894. doi:10.1039/DT9750000894. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  17. Andress, K. R.; Carpenter, C. (1934). "Die Struktur von Chromchlorid- und Aluminiumchloridhexahydrat". Zeitschrift für Kristallographie, Kristallgeometrie, Kristallphysik, Kristallchemie. 87: 446–463. ↩

  18. Zalkin, Allan; Forrester, J. D.; Templeton, David H. (1964). "Crystal Structure of Manganese Dichloride Tetrahydrate". Inorganic Chemistry. 3 (4): 529–533. doi:10.1021/ic50014a017. http://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/7vf7p79j ↩

  19. Moore, J. E.; Abola, J. E.; Butera, R. A. (1985). "Structure of Manganese(II) Iodide Tetrahydrate, MnI2·4H2O". Acta Crystallographica Section C. 41 (9): 1284–1286. Bibcode:1985AcCrC..41.1284M. doi:10.1107/S0108270185007466. /wiki/Bibcode_(identifier) ↩

  20. Irmler, Manfred; Meyer, Gerd (1987). "Rhenium trichloride, ReCl3, and its 5/3-hydrate synthesis, crystal structure, and thermal expansion". Zeitschrift für Anorganische und Allgemeine Chemie. 552 (9): 81–89. doi:10.1002/zaac.19875520908. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  21. Waizumi, Kenji; Masuda, Hideki; Ohtaki, Hitoshi (1992). "X-ray Structural Studies of FeBr2·4H2O, CoBr2·4H2O, NiCl2·4H2O and CuBr2·4H2O. cis/trans Selectivity in Transition Metal(II) Dihalide Tetrahydrate". Inorganica Chimica Acta. 192 (2): 173–181. doi:10.1016/S0020-1693(00)80756-2. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  22. Simon A. Cotton (2018). "Iron(III) Chloride and Its Coordination Chemistry". Journal of Coordination Chemistry. 71 (21): 3415–3443. doi:10.1080/00958972.2018.1519188. S2CID 105925459. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  23. Simon A. Cotton (2018). "Iron(III) Chloride and Its Coordination Chemistry". Journal of Coordination Chemistry. 71 (21): 3415–3443. doi:10.1080/00958972.2018.1519188. S2CID 105925459. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  24. Louër, Michele; Grandjean, Daniel; Weigel, Dominique (1973). "Structure Cristalline et Expansion Thermique de l'Iodure de Nickel Hexahydrate" (Crystal structure and thermal expansion of nickel(II) iodide hexahydrate)". Journal of Solid State Chemistry. 7: 222–228. doi:10.1016/0022-4596(73)90157-6. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  25. Waizumi, Kenji; Masuda, Hideki; Ohtaki, Hitoshi (1992). "X-ray Structural Studies of FeBr2·4H2O, CoBr2·4H2O, NiCl2·4H2O and CuBr2·4H2O. cis/trans Selectivity in Transition Metal(II) Dihalide Tetrahydrate". Inorganica Chimica Acta. 192 (2): 173–181. doi:10.1016/S0020-1693(00)80756-2. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  26. Waizumi, Kenji; Masuda, Hideki; Ohtaki, Hitoshi (1992). "X-ray Structural Studies of FeBr2·4H2O, CoBr2·4H2O, NiCl2·4H2O and CuBr2·4H2O. cis/trans Selectivity in Transition Metal(II) Dihalide Tetrahydrate". Inorganica Chimica Acta. 192 (2): 173–181. doi:10.1016/S0020-1693(00)80756-2. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  27. Louër, Michele; Grandjean, Daniel; Weigel, Dominique (1973). "Structure Cristalline et Expansion Thermique de l'Iodure de Nickel Hexahydrate" (Crystal structure and thermal expansion of nickel(II) iodide hexahydrate)". Journal of Solid State Chemistry. 7: 222–228. doi:10.1016/0022-4596(73)90157-6. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  28. Rau, F.; Klement, U.; Range, K. -J. (1995). "Crystal Structure of trans-Diaquatetrachloroplatinum(IV) trihydrate, Pt(H2O)2Cl4(H2O)3". Zeitschrift für Kristallographie - Crystalline Materials. 210 (8): 606. Bibcode:1995ZK....210..606R. doi:10.1524/zkri.1995.210.8.606. /wiki/Bibcode_(identifier) ↩

  29. Rau, F.; Klement, U.; Range, K. -J. (1995). "Crystal Structure of fac-Triaquatrichloroplatinum(IV) Chloride Hemihydrate, (Pt(H2O)3Cl3)Cl(H2O)0.5". Zeitschrift für Kristallographie - Crystalline Materials. 210 (8): 605. Bibcode:1995ZK....210..605R. doi:10.1524/zkri.1995.210.8.605. /wiki/Bibcode_(identifier) ↩

  30. Waizumi, Kenji; Masuda, Hideki; Ohtaki, Hitoshi (1992). "X-ray Structural Studies of FeBr2·4H2O, CoBr2·4H2O, NiCl2·4H2O and CuBr2·4H2O. cis/trans Selectivity in Transition Metal(II) Dihalide Tetrahydrate". Inorganica Chimica Acta. 192 (2): 173–181. doi:10.1016/S0020-1693(00)80756-2. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  31. Follner, H.; Brehler, B. (1970). "Die Kristallstruktur des ZnCl2.11/3HO". Acta Crystallographica Section B. 26 (11): 1679–1682. Bibcode:1970AcCrB..26.1679F. doi:10.1107/S0567740870004715. /wiki/Bibcode_(identifier) ↩

  32. Hennings, Erik; Schmidt, Horst; Voigt, Wolfgang (2014). "Crystal Structures of ZnCl2·2.5H2O, ZnCl2·3H2O and ZnCl2·4.5H2O". Acta Crystallographica Section E. 70 (12): 515–518. Bibcode:2014AcCrE..70..515H. doi:10.1107/S1600536814024738. PMC 4257420. PMID 25552980. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4257420 ↩

  33. Follner, H.; Brehler, B. (1970). "Die Kristallstruktur des ZnCl2.11/3HO". Acta Crystallographica Section B. 26 (11): 1679–1682. Bibcode:1970AcCrB..26.1679F. doi:10.1107/S0567740870004715. /wiki/Bibcode_(identifier) ↩

  34. Follner, H.; Brehler, B. (1970). "Die Kristallstruktur des ZnCl2.11/3HO". Acta Crystallographica Section B. 26 (11): 1679–1682. Bibcode:1970AcCrB..26.1679F. doi:10.1107/S0567740870004715. /wiki/Bibcode_(identifier) ↩

  35. H. Leligny; J. C. Monier (1974). "Structure Cristalline de CdCl2.H2O" [Crystal structure of CdCl2.H2O]. Acta Crystallographica B (in French). 30 (2): 305–309. Bibcode:1974AcCrB..30..305L. doi:10.1107/S056774087400272X. /wiki/Bibcode_(identifier) ↩

  36. Leligny, H.; Mornier, J. C. (1975). "Structure de CdCl2.2,5H2O". Acta Crystallographica Section B Structural Crystallography and Crystal Chemistry. 31 (3): 728–732. Bibcode:1975AcCrB..31..728L. doi:10.1107/S056774087500369X. /wiki/Bibcode_(identifier) ↩

  37. H. Leligny; J. C. Monier (1979). "Structure de dichlorure de cadmium tétrahydraté" [Structure of Cadmium Dichloride Tetrahydrate]. Acta Crystallographica B (in French). 35 (3): 569–573. Bibcode:1979AcCrB..35..569L. doi:10.1107/S0567740879004179. /wiki/Bibcode_(identifier) ↩

  38. Leligny, H.; Monier, J. C. (1978). "Structure Cristalline de CdBr2.4H2O". Acta Crystallographica Section B. 34 (1): 5–8. Bibcode:1978AcCrB..34....5L. doi:10.1107/S0567740878002186. /wiki/Bibcode_(identifier) ↩

  39. Baur, W. H. (1964). "On the crystal chemistry of salt hydrates. III. The determination of the crystal structure of FeSO4(H2O)7 (melanterite)". Acta Crystallographica. 17 (9): 1167–1174. Bibcode:1964AcCry..17.1167B. doi:10.1107/S0365110X64003000. https://doi.org/10.1107%2FS0365110X64003000 ↩

  40. Chou, I-Ming; Seal, Robert R.; Wang, Alian (2013). "The stability of sulfate and hydrated sulfate minerals near ambient conditions and their significance in environmental and planetary sciences". Journal of Asian Earth Sciences. 62: 734–758. Bibcode:2013JAESc..62..734C. doi:10.1016/j.jseaes.2012.11.027. /wiki/Bibcode_(identifier) ↩

  41. Redhammer, G. J.; Koll, L.; Bernroider, M.; Tippelt, G.; Amthauer, G.; Roth, G. (2007). "Co2+–Cu2+ Substitution in Bieberite Solid-Solution Series, (Co1−xCuxSO4·7H2O, 0.00 ≤ x ≤ 0.46: Synthesis, Single-Crystal Structure Analysis, and Optical Spectroscopy". American Mineralogist. 92 (4): 532–545. Bibcode:2007AmMin..92..532R. doi:10.2138/am.2007.2229. S2CID 95885758. /wiki/Bibcode_(identifier) ↩

  42. Wildner, M.; Giester, G. (1991). "The Crystal Structures of Kieserite-type Compounds. I. Crystal Structures of Me(II)SO4·H2O (Me = Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Zn) (English translation)". Neues Jahrbuch für Mineralogie - Monatshefte: 296–306.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) /wiki/Template:Cite_journal ↩

  43. Wildner, M.; Giester, G. (1991). "The Crystal Structures of Kieserite-type Compounds. I. Crystal Structures of Me(II)SO4·H2O (Me = Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Zn) (English translation)". Neues Jahrbuch für Mineralogie - Monatshefte: 296–306.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) /wiki/Template:Cite_journal ↩

  44. Baur, Werner H. (2002). "Zinc(II) Sulfate Tetrahydrate and Magnesium Sulfate Tetrahydrate. Addendum". Acta Crystallographica Section E. 58 (4): e9 – e10. Bibcode:2002AcCrE..58E...9B. doi:10.1107/S1600536802002192. https://doi.org/10.1107%2FS1600536802002192 ↩

  45. Chou, I-Ming; Seal, Robert R.; Wang, Alian (2013). "The stability of sulfate and hydrated sulfate minerals near ambient conditions and their significance in environmental and planetary sciences". Journal of Asian Earth Sciences. 62: 734–758. Bibcode:2013JAESc..62..734C. doi:10.1016/j.jseaes.2012.11.027. /wiki/Bibcode_(identifier) ↩

  46. Chou, I-Ming; Seal, Robert R.; Wang, Alian (2013). "The stability of sulfate and hydrated sulfate minerals near ambient conditions and their significance in environmental and planetary sciences". Journal of Asian Earth Sciences. 62: 734–758. Bibcode:2013JAESc..62..734C. doi:10.1016/j.jseaes.2012.11.027. /wiki/Bibcode_(identifier) ↩

  47. Cotton, F. Albert; Falvello, Larry R.; Llusar, Rosa; Libby, Eduardo; Murillo, Carlos A.; Schwotzer, Willi (1986). "Synthesis and Characterization of Four Vanadium(II) Compounds, Including Vanadium(II) Sulfate Hexahydrate and Vanadium(II) Saccharinates". Inorganic Chemistry. 25 (19): 3423–3428. doi:10.1021/ic00239a021. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  48. Cotton, F. Albert; Falvello, Larry R.; Murillo, Carlos A.; Pascual, Isabel; Schultz, Arthur J.; Tomas, Milagros (1994). "Neutron and X-ray Structural Characterization of the Hexaaquavanadium(II) Compound VSO4.cntdot.7H2O". Inorganic Chemistry. 33 (24): 5391–5395. doi:10.1021/ic00102a009. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  49. Dahmen, T.; Glaum, R.; Schmidt, G.; Gruehn, R. (1990). "Zur Darstellung und Kristallstruktur von CrSO4·3H2O" [Preparation and Crystal Structure of Chromium(2+) Sulfate Trihydrate]. Zeitschrift für Anorganische und Allgemeine Chemie. 586: 141–8. doi:10.1002/zaac.19905860119. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  50. T. P. Vaalsta; E. N. Maslen (1987). "Electron density in chromium sulfate pentahydrate". Acta Crystallogr. B43 (5): 448–454. Bibcode:1987AcCrB..43..448V. doi:10.1107/S0108768187097519. /wiki/Bibcode_(identifier) ↩

  51. Wildner, M.; Giester, G. (1991). "The Crystal Structures of Kieserite-type Compounds. I. Crystal Structures of Me(II)SO4·H2O (Me = Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Zn) (English translation)". Neues Jahrbuch für Mineralogie - Monatshefte: 296–306.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) /wiki/Template:Cite_journal ↩

  52. Held, Peter; Bohatý, Ladislav (2002). "Manganese(II) Sulfate Tetrahydrate (Ilesite)". Acta Crystallographica Section E. 58 (12): i121 – i123. Bibcode:2002AcCrE..58I.121H. doi:10.1107/S1600536802020962. S2CID 62599961. https://doi.org/10.1107%2FS1600536802020962 ↩

  53. Redhammer, G. J.; Koll, L.; Bernroider, M.; Tippelt, G.; Amthauer, G.; Roth, G. (2007). "Co2+–Cu2+ Substitution in Bieberite Solid-Solution Series, (Co1−xCuxSO4·7H2O, 0.00 ≤ x ≤ 0.46: Synthesis, Single-Crystal Structure Analysis, and Optical Spectroscopy". American Mineralogist. 92 (4): 532–545. Bibcode:2007AmMin..92..532R. doi:10.2138/am.2007.2229. S2CID 95885758. /wiki/Bibcode_(identifier) ↩

  54. Wildner, M.; Giester, G. (1991). "The Crystal Structures of Kieserite-type Compounds. I. Crystal Structures of Me(II)SO4·H2O (Me = Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Zn) (English translation)". Neues Jahrbuch für Mineralogie - Monatshefte: 296–306.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) /wiki/Template:Cite_journal ↩

  55. Redhammer, G. J.; Koll, L.; Bernroider, M.; Tippelt, G.; Amthauer, G.; Roth, G. (2007). "Co2+–Cu2+ Substitution in Bieberite Solid-Solution Series, (Co1−xCuxSO4·7H2O, 0.00 ≤ x ≤ 0.46: Synthesis, Single-Crystal Structure Analysis, and Optical Spectroscopy". American Mineralogist. 92 (4): 532–545. Bibcode:2007AmMin..92..532R. doi:10.2138/am.2007.2229. S2CID 95885758. /wiki/Bibcode_(identifier) ↩

  56. Baur, Werner H. (2002). "Zinc(II) Sulfate Tetrahydrate and Magnesium Sulfate Tetrahydrate. Addendum". Acta Crystallographica Section E. 58 (4): e9 – e10. Bibcode:2002AcCrE..58E...9B. doi:10.1107/S1600536802002192. https://doi.org/10.1107%2FS1600536802002192 ↩

  57. L. Fanfani; A. Nunzi; P. F. Zanazzi (1970). "The Crystal Structure of Roemerite". American Mineralogist. 55: 78–89. ↩

  58. Wildner, M.; Giester, G. (1991). "The Crystal Structures of Kieserite-type Compounds. I. Crystal Structures of Me(II)SO4·H2O (Me = Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Zn) (English translation)". Neues Jahrbuch für Mineralogie - Monatshefte: 296–306.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) /wiki/Template:Cite_journal ↩

  59. Redhammer, G. J.; Koll, L.; Bernroider, M.; Tippelt, G.; Amthauer, G.; Roth, G. (2007). "Co2+–Cu2+ Substitution in Bieberite Solid-Solution Series, (Co1−xCuxSO4·7H2O, 0.00 ≤ x ≤ 0.46: Synthesis, Single-Crystal Structure Analysis, and Optical Spectroscopy". American Mineralogist. 92 (4): 532–545. Bibcode:2007AmMin..92..532R. doi:10.2138/am.2007.2229. S2CID 95885758. /wiki/Bibcode_(identifier) ↩

  60. Wildner, M.; Giester, G. (1991). "The Crystal Structures of Kieserite-type Compounds. I. Crystal Structures of Me(II)SO4·H2O (Me = Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Zn) (English translation)". Neues Jahrbuch für Mineralogie - Monatshefte: 296–306.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) /wiki/Template:Cite_journal ↩

  61. Stadnicka, K.; Glazer, A. M.; Koralewski, M. (1987). "Structure, absolute configuration and optical activity of α-nickel sulfate hexahydrate". Acta Crystallographica Section B. 43 (4): 319–325. Bibcode:1987AcCrB..43..319S. doi:10.1107/S0108768187097787. /wiki/Bibcode_(identifier) ↩

  62. Redhammer, G. J.; Koll, L.; Bernroider, M.; Tippelt, G.; Amthauer, G.; Roth, G. (2007). "Co2+–Cu2+ Substitution in Bieberite Solid-Solution Series, (Co1−xCuxSO4·7H2O, 0.00 ≤ x ≤ 0.46: Synthesis, Single-Crystal Structure Analysis, and Optical Spectroscopy". American Mineralogist. 92 (4): 532–545. Bibcode:2007AmMin..92..532R. doi:10.2138/am.2007.2229. S2CID 95885758. /wiki/Bibcode_(identifier) ↩

  63. Pley, Martin; Wickleder, Mathias S. (2005). "Monomers, Chains and Layers of [Pt2(SO4)4] Units in the Crystal Structures of the Platinum(III) Sulfates (NH4)2[Pt2(SO4)4(H2O)2], K4[Pt2(SO4)5] and Cs[Pt2(SO4)3(HSO4)]". European Journal of Inorganic Chemistry. 2005 (3): 529–535. doi:10.1002/ejic.200400755. https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fejic.200400755 ↩

  64. V. P. Ting, P. F. Henry, M. Schmidtmann, C. C. Wilson, M. T. Weller "In situ Neutron Powder Diffraction and Structure Determination in Controlled Humidities" Chem. Commun., 2009, 7527-7529. doi:10.1039/B918702B /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  65. Redhammer, G. J.; Koll, L.; Bernroider, M.; Tippelt, G.; Amthauer, G.; Roth, G. (2007). "Co2+–Cu2+ Substitution in Bieberite Solid-Solution Series, (Co1−xCuxSO4·7H2O, 0.00 ≤ x ≤ 0.46: Synthesis, Single-Crystal Structure Analysis, and Optical Spectroscopy". American Mineralogist. 92 (4): 532–545. Bibcode:2007AmMin..92..532R. doi:10.2138/am.2007.2229. S2CID 95885758. /wiki/Bibcode_(identifier) ↩

  66. Wildner, M.; Giester, G. (1991). "The Crystal Structures of Kieserite-type Compounds. I. Crystal Structures of Me(II)SO4·H2O (Me = Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Zn) (English translation)". Neues Jahrbuch für Mineralogie - Monatshefte: 296–306.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) /wiki/Template:Cite_journal ↩

  67. Baur, Werner H. (2002). "Zinc(II) Sulfate Tetrahydrate and Magnesium Sulfate Tetrahydrate. Addendum". Acta Crystallographica Section E. 58 (4): e9 – e10. Bibcode:2002AcCrE..58E...9B. doi:10.1107/S1600536802002192. https://doi.org/10.1107%2FS1600536802002192 ↩

  68. Blake, Alexander J.; Cooke, Paul A.; Hubberstey, Peter; Sampson, Claire L. (2001). "Zinc(II) sulfate tetrahydrate". Acta Crystallographica Section E. 57 (12): i109 – i111. Bibcode:2001AcCrE..57I.109B. doi:10.1107/S1600536801017998. /wiki/Bibcode_(identifier) ↩

  69. Spiess, M.; Gruehn, R. (1979). "Beiträge zum thermischen Verhalten von Sulfaten. II. Zur thermischen Dehydratisierung des ZnSO4·7H2O und zum Hochtemperaturverhalten von wasserfreiem ZnSO4". Zeitschrift für anorganische und allgemeine Chemie. 456: 222–240. doi:10.1002/zaac.19794560124. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  70. Redhammer, G. J.; Koll, L.; Bernroider, M.; Tippelt, G.; Amthauer, G.; Roth, G. (2007). "Co2+–Cu2+ Substitution in Bieberite Solid-Solution Series, (Co1−xCuxSO4·7H2O, 0.00 ≤ x ≤ 0.46: Synthesis, Single-Crystal Structure Analysis, and Optical Spectroscopy". American Mineralogist. 92 (4): 532–545. Bibcode:2007AmMin..92..532R. doi:10.2138/am.2007.2229. S2CID 95885758. /wiki/Bibcode_(identifier) ↩

  71. Theppitak, Chatphorn; Chainok, Kittipong (2015). "Crystal Structure of CdSO4(H2O): A Redetermination". Acta Crystallographica Section E. 71 (10): i8 – i9. doi:10.1107/S2056989015016904. PMC 4647421. PMID 26594423.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4647421 ↩

  72. Lazar, D.; Ribár, B.; Divjaković, V.; Mészáros, Cs. (1991). "Structure of Hexaaquachromium(III) Nitrate Trihydrate". Acta Crystallographica Section C. 47 (5): 1060–1062. Bibcode:1991AcCrC..47.1060L. doi:10.1107/S0108270190012628. /wiki/Bibcode_(identifier) ↩

  73. Petrovič, D.; Ribár, B.; Djurič, S.; Krstanovič, I. (1976). "The crystal structure of hexaquomanganese nitrate, Mn(OH2)6(NO3)2". Zeitschrift für Kristallographie - Crystalline Materials. 144 (1–6): 334–340. doi:10.1524/zkri.1976.144.16.334. S2CID 97491858. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  74. Hair, Neil J.; Beattie, James K. (1977). "Structure of Hexaaquairon(III) Nitrate Trihydrate. Comparison of Iron(II) and Iron(III) Bond Lengths in High-Spin Octahedral Environments". Inorganic Chemistry. 16 (2): 245–250. doi:10.1021/ic50168a006. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  75. Schmidt, H.; Asztalos, A.; Bok, F.; Voigt, W. (2012). "New iron(III) nitrate hydrates: Fe(NO3)3·xH2O with x = 4, 5 and 6". Acta Crystallographica Section C. C68 (6): i29-33. doi:10.1107/S0108270112015855. PMID 22669180. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  76. Schmidt, H.; Asztalos, A.; Bok, F.; Voigt, W. (2012). "New iron(III) nitrate hydrates: Fe(NO3)3·xH2O with x = 4, 5 and 6". Acta Crystallographica Section C. C68 (6): i29-33. doi:10.1107/S0108270112015855. PMID 22669180. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  77. Schmidt, H.; Asztalos, A.; Bok, F.; Voigt, W. (2012). "New iron(III) nitrate hydrates: Fe(NO3)3·xH2O with x = 4, 5 and 6". Acta Crystallographica Section C. C68 (6): i29-33. doi:10.1107/S0108270112015855. PMID 22669180. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  78. Prelesnik, P. V.; Gabela, F.; Ribar, B.; Krstanovic, I. (1973). "Hexaaquacobalt(II) nitrate". Cryst. Struct. Commun. 2 (4): 581–583. ↩

  79. Gallezot, P.; Weigel, D.; Prettre, M. (1967). "Structure du Nitrate de Nickel Tétrahydraté". Acta Crystallographica. 22 (5): 699–705. Bibcode:1967AcCry..22..699G. doi:10.1107/S0365110X67001392. https://doi.org/10.1107%2FS0365110X67001392 ↩

  80. Morosin, B.; Haseda, T. (1979). "Crystal Structure of the β Form of Ni(NO3)2·4H2O". Acta Crystallographica Section B. 35 (12): 2856–2858. doi:10.1107/S0567740879010827. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  81. Laligant, Y.; Ferey, G.; Le Bail, A. (1991). "Crystal Structure of Pd(NO3)2(H2O)2". Materials Research Bulletin. 26 (4): 269–275. doi:10.1016/0025-5408(91)90021-D. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  82. Dornberger-Schiff, K.; Leciejewicz, J. (1958). "Zur Struktur des Kupfernitrates Cu(NO3)2·1.5H2O". Acta Crystallographica. 11 (11): 825–826. Bibcode:1958AcCry..11..825D. doi:10.1107/S0365110X58002322. https://doi.org/10.1107%2FS0365110X58002322 ↩

  83. Morosin, B. (1970). "The Crystal Structure of Cu(NO3)2·2.5H2O". Acta Crystallographica. B26 (9): 1203–1208. Bibcode:1970AcCrB..26.1203M. doi:10.1107/S0567740870003898. /wiki/Bibcode_(identifier) ↩

  84. J. Garaj, Sbornik Prac. Chem.-Technol. Fak. Svst., Cskosl. 1966, pp. 35–39. ↩

  85. Zibaseresht, R.; Hartshorn, R. M. (2006). "Hexaaquacopper(II) dinitrate: absence of Jahn-Teller distortion". Acta Crystallographica. E62 (1): i19 – i22. Bibcode:2006AcCrE..62I..19Z. doi:10.1107/S1600536805041851. /wiki/Bibcode_(identifier) ↩

  86. D. Grdenić (1956). "The Crystal Structure of Mercurous Nitrate Dihydrate". Journal of the Chemical Society: 1312. doi:10.1039/jr9560001312. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩