• Images
• Videos
• Documents
• Books
• Articles

Related Image Collections Add Image

Profiles

1 Image

We don't have any YouTube videos related to History yet.

You can add one yourself here.

We don't have any PDF documents related to History yet.

You can add one yourself here.

We don't have any Books related to History yet.

You can add one yourself here.

Archived Web Articles Add Article

Two States. Eight Textbooks. Two American Stories.

Jan 12 2020

Texas Mother Teaches Textbook Company a Lesson on Accuracy

Oct 5 2015

Definition

As an academic discipline, history is the study of the past with the main focus on the human past.¹ It conceptualizes and describes what happened by collecting and analysing evidence to construct narratives. These narratives cover not only how events developed over time but also why they happened and in which contexts, providing an explanation of relevant background conditions and causal mechanisms. History further examines the meaning of historical events and the underlying human motives driving them.²

In a slightly different sense, history refers to the past events themselves. Under this interpretation, history is what happened rather than the academic field studying what happened. When used as a countable noun, a history is a representation of the past in the form of a history text. History texts are cultural products involving active interpretation and reconstruction. The narratives presented in them can change as historians discover new evidence or reinterpret already-known sources. The past itself, by contrast, is static and unchangeable.³ Some historians focus on the interpretative and explanatory aspects to distinguish histories from chronicles, arguing that chronicles only catalogue events in chronological order, whereas histories aim at a comprehensive understanding of their causes, contexts, and consequences.⁴⁵

History has been primarily concerned with written documents. It focused on recorded history since the invention of writing, leaving prehistory⁶ to other fields, such as archaeology.⁷ Its scope broadened in the 20th century as historians became interested in the human past before the invention of writing.⁸⁹

Historians debate whether history is a social science or forms part of the humanities. Like social scientists, historians formulate hypotheses, gather objective evidence, and present arguments based on this evidence. At the same time, history aligns closely with the humanities because of its reliance on subjective aspects associated with interpretation, storytelling, human experience, and cultural heritage.¹⁰ Some historians strongly support one or the other classification while others characterize history as a hybrid discipline that does not belong to one category at the exclusion of the other.¹¹ History contrasts with pseudohistory, a label used to describe practices that deviate from historiographical standards by relying on disputed historical evidence, selectively ignoring genuine evidence, or using other means to distort the historical record. Often motivated by specific ideological agendas, pseudohistorical practices mimic historical methodology to promote biased, misleading narratives that lack rigorous analysis and scholarly consensus.¹²

Purpose

Various suggestions about the purpose or value of history have been made. Some historians propose that its primary function is the pure discovery of truth about the past. This view emphasizes that the disinterested pursuit of truth is an end in itself, while external purposes, associated with ideology or politics, threaten to undermine the accuracy of historical research by distorting the past. In this role, history also challenges traditional myths lacking factual support.¹³¹⁴

A different perspective suggests that the main value of history lies in the lessons it teaches for the present. This view is based on the idea that an understanding of the past can guide decision-making, for example, to avoid repeating previous mistakes.¹⁵ A related perspective focuses on a general understanding of the human condition, making people aware of the diversity of human behaviour across different contexts—similar to what one can learn by visiting foreign countries.¹⁶ History can also foster social cohesion by providing people with a collective identity through a shared past, helping to preserve and cultivate cultural heritage and values across generations.¹⁷ For some scholars, including Whig historians and the Marxist scholar E. H. Carr, history is a key to understanding the present¹⁸ and, in Carr's case, shaping the future.¹⁹

History has sometimes been used for political or ideological purposes, for instance, to justify the status quo by emphasising the respectability of certain traditions or to promote change by highlighting past injustices.²⁰ In extreme forms, evidence is intentionally ignored or misinterpreted to construct misleading narratives, which can result in pseudohistory or historical denialism.²¹²² Influential examples are Holocaust denial, Armenian genocide denial, Nanjing Massacre denial, and Holodomor denial.²³

Etymology

The word history comes from the Ancient Greek term ἵστωρ (histōr), meaning 'learned, wise man'. It gave rise to the Ancient Greek word ἱστορία (historiā), which had a wide meaning associated with inquiry in general and giving testimony. The term was later adopted into Classical Latin as historia. In Hellenistic and Roman times, the meaning of the term shifted, placing more emphasis on narrative aspects and the art of presentation rather than focusing on investigation and testimony.²⁴

The word entered Middle English in the 14th century via the Old French term histoire.²⁵ At this time, it meant 'story, tale', encompassing both factual and fictional narratives. In the 15th century, its meaning shifted to cover the branch of knowledge studying the past in addition to narratives about the past.²⁶ In the 18th and 19th centuries, the word history became more closely associated with factual accounts and evidence-based inquiry, coinciding with the professionalization of historical inquiry, a meaning still dominant in contemporary usage.²⁷ The dual meaning, referring to both mere stories and factual accounts of the past, is present in the terms for history in many other European languages. They include the French histoire, the Italian storia, and the German Geschichte.²⁸

Methods

Main article: Historical method

The historical method is a set of techniques historians use to research and interpret the past, covering the processes of collecting, evaluating, and synthesizing evidence.²⁹ It seeks to ensure scholarly rigour, accuracy, and reliability in how historical evidence is chosen, analysed, and interpreted.³⁰ Historical research often starts with a research question to define the scope of the inquiry. Some research questions focus on a simple description of what happened. Others aim to explain why a particular event occurred, refute an existing theory, or confirm a new hypothesis.³¹

Sources and source criticism

To answer research questions, historians rely on various types of evidence to reconstruct the past and support their conclusions. Historical evidence is usually divided into primary and secondary sources.³² A primary source is a source that originated during the period that is studied. Primary sources can take various forms, such as official documents, letters, diaries, eyewitness accounts, photographs, and audio or video recordings. They also include historical remains examined in archaeology, geology, and the medical sciences, such as artefacts and fossils unearthed from excavations. Primary sources offer the most direct evidence of historical events.³³

A secondary source is a source that analyses or interprets information found in other sources.³⁴ Whether a document is a primary or a secondary source depends not only on the document itself but also on the purpose for which it is used. For example, if a historian writes a text about slavery based on an analysis of historical documents, then the text is a secondary source on slavery and a primary source on the historian's opinion.³⁵³⁶ Consistency with available sources is one of the main standards of historical works. For instance, the discovery of new sources may lead historians to revise or dismiss previously accepted narratives.³⁷ To find and access primary and secondary sources, historians consult archives, libraries, and museums. Archives play a central role by preserving countless original sources and making them available to researchers in a systematic and accessible manner. Thanks to technological advances, historians increasingly rely on online resources, which offer vast digital databases with methods to search and access specific documents.³⁸

Source criticism is the process of analysing and evaluating the information a source provides.³⁹ Typically, this process begins with external criticism, which evaluates the authenticity of a source. It addresses the questions of when and where the source was created and seeks to identify the author, understand their reasons for producing the source, and determine if it has undergone some type of modification since its creation. Additionally, the process involves distinguishing between original works, copies, and deceptive forgeries.⁴⁰

Internal criticism evaluates the content of a source, typically beginning with the clarification of the meaning within the source. This involves disambiguating individual terms that could be misunderstood but may also require a general translation if the source is written in an unfamiliar language.⁴¹ Once the information content of a source is understood, internal criticism is specifically interested in determining accuracy. Critics ask whether the information is reliable or misrepresents the topic and further question whether the source is comprehensive or omits important details. One way to make these assessments is to evaluate whether the author was able, in principle, to provide a faithful presentation of the studied event. Other approaches include the assessment of the influences of the author's intentions and prejudices, and cross-referencing information with other credible sources. Being aware of the inadequacies of a source helps historians decide whether and which aspects of it to trust, and how to use it to construct a narrative.⁴²

Synthesis and schools of thought

The selection, analysis, and criticism of sources result in the validation of a large collection of mostly isolated statements about the past. As a next step, sometimes termed historical synthesis, historians examine how the individual pieces of evidence fit together to form part of a larger story.⁴³ Constructing this broader perspective is crucial for a comprehensive understanding of the topic as a whole. It is a creative aspect⁴⁴ of historical writing that reconstructs, interprets, and explains what happened by showing how different events are connected.⁴⁵ In this way, historians address not only which events occurred but also why they occurred and what consequences they had.⁴⁶ While there are no universally accepted techniques for this synthesis, historians rely on various interpretative tools and approaches in this process.⁴⁷

One tool to provide an accessible overview of complex developments is the use of periodization, which divides a timeframe into different periods, each organized around central themes or developments that shaped the period. For example, the three-age system is traditionally used to divide early human history into Stone Age, Bronze Age, and Iron Age based on the predominant materials and technologies during these periods.⁴⁸ Another methodological tool is the examination of silences, gaps or omissions in the historical record of events that occurred but did not leave significant evidential traces. Silences can happen when contemporaries find information too obvious to document but may also occur if there are specific reasons to withhold or destroy information.⁴⁹⁵⁰ Conversely, when large datasets are available, quantitative approaches can be used. For instance, economic and social historians commonly employ statistical analysis to identify patterns and trends associated with large groups.⁵¹

Different schools of thought often come with their own methodological implications for how to write history.⁵² Positivists emphasize the scientific nature of historical inquiry, focusing on empirical evidence to discover objective truths.⁵³ In contrast, postmodernists reject grand narratives that claim to offer a single, objective truth. Instead, they highlight the subjective nature of historical interpretation, which leads to a multiplicity of divergent perspectives.⁵⁴ Marxists interpret historical developments as expressions of economic forces and class struggles.⁵⁵ The Annales school highlights long-term social and economic trends while relying on quantitative and interdisciplinary methods.⁵⁶ Feminist historians study the role of gender in history, with a particular interest in analysing the experiences of women to challenge patriarchal perspectives.⁵⁷

Areas of study

History is a wide field of inquiry encompassing many branches. Some branches focus on a specific time period, while others concentrate on a particular geographic region or a distinct theme. Specializations of different types can usually be combined; for example, a work on economic history in ancient Egypt merges temporal, regional, and thematic perspectives. For topics with a broad scope, the amount of primary sources is often too extensive for an individual historian to review, forcing them to either narrow the scope of their topic or also rely on secondary sources to arrive at a wide overview.⁵⁸

By period

Chronological division is a common approach to organizing the vast expanse of history into more manageable segments. Different periods are often defined based on dominant themes that characterize a specific time frame and significant events that initiated these developments or brought them to an end. Depending on the selected context and level of detail, a period may be as short as a decade or longer than several centuries.⁵⁹ A traditionally influential approach divides human history into prehistory, ancient history, post-classical history, early modern history, and modern history.⁶⁰⁶¹ Depending on the region and theme, the time frames covered by these periods can vary and historians may use entirely different periodizations.⁶² For example, traditional periodizations of Chinese history follow the main dynasties,⁶³ and the division into pre-Columbian, colonial, and post-colonial periods plays a central role in the history of the Americas.⁶⁴

The study of prehistory includes the examination of the evolution of human-like species several million years ago, leading to the emergence of anatomically modern humans about 200,000 years ago.⁶⁵ Subsequently, humans migrated out of Africa to populate most of the earth. Towards the end of prehistory, technological advances in the form of new and improved tools led many groups to give up their established nomadic lifestyle, based on hunting and gathering, in favour of a sedentary lifestyle supported by early forms of agriculture.⁶⁶ The absence of written documents from this period presents researchers with unique challenges. It results in an interdisciplinary approach relying on other forms of evidence from fields such as archaeology, anthropology, palaeontology, and geology.⁶⁷

Historians studying the ancient period examine the emergence of the first major civilizations in regions such as Mesopotamia, Egypt, the Indus Valley, China, and Peru, beginning approximately 3500 BCE in some regions. The new social, economic, and political complexities necessitated the development of writing systems. Thanks to advancements in agriculture, surplus food allowed these civilizations to support larger populations, leading to urbanization, the establishment of trade networks, and the emergence of regional empires. In the later part of the ancient period, sometimes termed the classical period, societies in China, India, Persia, and the Mediterranean expanded further, reaching new cultural, scientific, and political heights. Meanwhile, influential religious systems and philosophical ideas were first formulated, such as Hinduism, Buddhism, Confucianism, Judaism, and Greek philosophy.⁶⁸

In the study of post-classical or medieval history, which began around 500 CE, historians note the growing influence of major religions. Missionary religions, like Buddhism, Christianity, and Islam, spread rapidly and established themselves as world religions, marking a cultural shift as they gradually replaced other belief systems. Meanwhile, inter-regional trade networks flourished, leading to increased technological and cultural exchange. Conquering many territories in Asia and Europe, the Mongol Empire became a dominant force during the 13th and 14th centuries.⁶⁹

Historians focused on early modern history, which started roughly in 1500 CE, commonly highlight how European states rose to global power. As gunpowder empires, they explored and colonized large parts of the world. As a result, the Americas were integrated into the global network, triggering a vast biological exchange of plants, animals, people, and diseases.⁷⁰ The Scientific Revolution prompted major discoveries and accelerated technological progress. It was accompanied by other intellectual developments, such as humanism and the Enlightenment, which ushered in secularization.⁷¹

In the study of modern history, which began at the end of the 18th century, historians are interested in how the Industrial Revolution transformed economies by introducing more efficient modes of production. Western powers established vast colonial empires, gaining superiority through industrialized military technology. The increased international exchange of goods, ideas, and people marked the beginning of globalization. Various social revolutions challenged autocratic and colonial regimes, paving the way for democracies. Many developments in fields like science, technology, economy, living standards, and human population accelerated at unprecedented rates. This happened despite the widespread destruction caused by two world wars, which rebalanced international power relations by undermining European dominance.⁷²

By geographic location

Areas of historical study can also be categorized by the geographic locations they examine.⁷³ Geography plays a central role in history through its influence on food production, natural resources, economic activities, political boundaries, and cultural interactions.⁷⁴⁷⁵ Some historical works limit their scope to small regions, such as a village or a settlement. Others focus on broad territories that encompass entire continents, like the histories of Africa, Asia, Europe, the Americas, and Oceania.⁷⁶

The history of Africa begins with the examination of the evolution of anatomically modern humans.⁷⁷ Ancient historians describe how the invention of writing and the establishment of civilization happened in ancient Egypt in the 4th millennium BCE.⁷⁸ Over the next millennia, other notable civilizations and kingdoms formed in Nubia, Axum, Carthage, Ghana, Mali, and Songhay.⁷⁹ Islam began spreading across North Africa in the 7th century CE and became the dominant faith in many empires. Meanwhile, trade along the trans-Saharan route intensified.⁸⁰ Beginning in the 15th century, millions of Africans were enslaved and forcibly transported to the Americas as part of the Atlantic slave trade.⁸¹ Most of the continent was colonized by European powers in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.⁸² Amid rising nationalism, African states gradually gained independence in the aftermath of World War II, a period that saw economic progress, rapid population growth, and struggles for political stability.⁸³

Historians studying the history of Asia note the arrival of anatomically modern humans around 100,000 years ago.⁸⁴ They explore Asia's role as one of the cradles of civilization, with the emergence of some of the first ancient civilizations in Mesopotamia, the Indus Valley, and China beginning in the 4th and 3rd millennia BCE.⁸⁵ In the following millennia, civilisations on the Asian continent gave birth to all major world religions and several influential philosophical traditions, such as Hinduism, Buddhism, Confucianism, Taoism, Christianity, and Islam.⁸⁶ Other developments were the establishment of the Silk Road, which facilitated trade and cultural exchange across Eurasia, and the formation of powerful empires, such as the Mongol Empire.⁸⁷ European influence grew over the following centuries, ushering in the modern era. It culminated in the 19th and early 20th centuries when many parts of Asia came under direct colonial control until the end of World War II.⁸⁸ The post-independence period was characterized by modernization, economic growth, and a steep increase in population.⁸⁹

In the study of the history of Europe, historians describe the arrival of the first anatomically modern humans about 45,000 years ago.⁹⁰ They explore how in the first millennium BCE the Ancient Greeks contributed key elements to the culture, philosophy, and politics associated with the Western world,⁹¹ and how their cultural heritage influenced the Roman and Byzantine Empires.⁹² The medieval period began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century CE and was marked by the spread of Christianity.⁹³ Starting in the 15th century, European exploration and colonization interconnected the globe, while cultural, intellectual, and scientific developments transformed Western societies.⁹⁴ From the late 18th to the early 20th centuries, European global dominance was further solidified by the Industrial Revolution and the establishment of large overseas colonies.⁹⁵ It came to an end because of the devastating effects of two world wars.⁹⁶ In the following Cold War era, the continent was divided into a Western and an Eastern bloc. They pursued political and economic integration in the aftermath of the Cold War.⁹⁷

Historians examining the history of the Americas document the arrival of the first humans around 20,000 to 15,000 years ago.⁹⁸ The Americas were home to some of the earliest civilizations, like the Norte Chico civilization in South America and the Maya and Olmec civilizations in Central America.⁹⁹ Over the next millennia, major empires arose beside them, such as the Teotihuacan, Aztec, and Inca empires.¹⁰⁰ Following the arrival of the Europeans from the late 15th century onwards, the spread of newly introduced diseases drastically reduced the local population. Together with colonization, it led to the collapse of major empires as demographic and cultural landscapes were reshaped.¹⁰¹ Independence movements in the 18th and 19th centuries led to the formation of new nations across the Americas.¹⁰² In the 20th century, the United States emerged as a dominant global power and a key player in the Cold War.¹⁰³

In the study of the history of Oceania, historians note the arrival of humans about 60,000 to 50,000 years ago.¹⁰⁴ They explore the establishment of diverse regional societies and cultures, first in Australia and Papua New Guinea and later also on other Pacific Islands.¹⁰⁵ The arrival of the Europeans in the 16th century prompted significant transformations, and by the end of the 19th century, most of the region had come under Western control.¹⁰⁶ Oceania became involved in various conflicts during the world wars and experienced decolonization in the post-war period.¹⁰⁷

By theme

Historians often limit their inquiry to a specific theme.¹⁰⁸ Some propose a general subdivision into three major themes: political history, economic history, and social history. However, the boundaries between these branches are vague and their relation to other thematic branches, such as intellectual history, is not always clear.¹⁰⁹

Political history studies the organization of power in society, examining how power structures arise, develop, and interact. Throughout most of recorded history, states or state-like structures have been central to this field of study. It explores how a state was organized internally, like factions, parties, leaders, and other political institutions. It also examines which policies were implemented and how the state interacted with other states.¹¹⁰ Political history has been studied since antiquity by historians such as Herodotus and Thucydides, making it one of the oldest branches of history, while other major subfields have only become established branches in the past century.¹¹¹

Diplomatic and military history are associated with political history. Diplomatic history examines international relations between states. It covers foreign policy topics such as negotiations, strategic considerations, treaties, and conflicts between nations as well as the role of international organizations in these processes.¹¹² Military history studies the impact and development of armed conflicts in human history. This includes the examination of specific events, like the analysis of a particular battle and the discussion of the different causes of a war. It also involves more general considerations about the evolution of warfare, including advancements in military technology, strategies, tactics, logistics, and institutions.¹¹³

Economic history examines how commodities are produced, exchanged, and consumed. It covers economic aspects such as the use of land, labour, and capital, the supply and demand of goods, the costs and means of production, and the distribution of income and wealth. Economic historians typically focus on general trends in the form of impersonal forces, such as inflation, rather than the actions and decisions of individuals. If enough data is available, they rely on quantitative methods, like statistical analysis. For periods before the modern era, available data is often limited, forcing economic historians to rely on scarce sources and extrapolate information from them.¹¹⁴

Social history is a broad field investigating social phenomena, but its precise definition is disputed. Some theorists understand it as the study of everyday life outside the domains of politics and economics, including cultural practices, family structures, community interactions, and education. A closely related approach focuses on experience rather than activities, examining how members of particular social groups, like social classes, races, genders, or age groups, experienced their world. Other definitions see social history as the study of social problems, like poverty, disease, and crime, or take a broader perspective by examining how whole societies developed.¹¹⁵ Closely related fields include cultural history, gender history, and religious history.¹¹⁶

Intellectual history is the history of ideas and studies how concepts, philosophies, and ideologies have evolved. It is particularly interested in academic fields but not limited to them, including the study of the beliefs and prejudices of ordinary people. In addition to studying intellectual movements themselves, it also examines the cultural and social contexts that shaped them and their influence on other historical developments.¹¹⁷ As closely related fields, the history of philosophy investigates the development of philosophical thought¹¹⁸ while the history of science studies the evolution of scientific theories and practices, such as the scientific contributions of Charles Darwin and Albert Einstein.¹¹⁹ Art history, another connected discipline, examines historical works of art and the development of artistic activities, styles, and movements. It includes a discussion of the cultural, social, and political contexts of art production.¹²⁰

Environmental history studies the relation between humans and their environment. It seeks to understand how humans and the rest of nature have affected each other in the course of history.¹²¹ Other thematic branches include constitutional history, legal history, urban history, business history, history of technology, medical history, history of education, and people's history.¹²²

Others

Some branches of history are characterized by the methods they employ, such as quantitative history and digital history, which rely on quantitative methods and digital media.¹²³ Comparative history compares historical phenomena from distinct times, regions, or cultures to examine their similarities and differences.¹²⁴ Unlike most other branches, oral history relies on oral reports rather than written documents, encompassing eyewitness accounts, hearsay, and communal legends. It reflects the personal experiences, interpretations, and memories of common people, showcasing how people subjectively remember the past.¹²⁵ Counterfactual history uses counterfactual thinking to examine alternative courses of history, exploring what could have happened under different circumstances.¹²⁶ Certain branches of history are distinguished by their theoretical outlook, such as Marxist and feminist history.¹²⁷

Some distinctions focus on the scope of the studied topic. Big History is the branch with the broadest scope, covering everything from the Big Bang to the present, incorporating elements of cosmology, geology, biology, and anthropology.¹²⁸ World history is another branch with a wide topic. It examines human history as a whole, starting with the evolution of human-like species.¹²⁹ The terms macrohistory, mesohistory, and microhistory refer to different scales of analysis, ranging from large-scale patterns that affect the whole globe to detailed studies of local contexts, small communities, family histories, particular individuals, or specific events.¹³⁰ Closely related to microhistory is the genre of historical biography, which recounts an individual's life in its historical context and the legacy it left.¹³¹

Public history involves activities that present history to the general public. It usually happens outside the traditional academic settings in contexts like museums, historical sites, heritage tourism, and popular media.¹³²

Evolution of the discipline

Before the invention of writing, the preservation and transmission of historical knowledge were limited to oral traditions.¹³³ Early forms of historical writing mixed facts with mythological elements, such as the Epic of Gilgamesh from ancient Mesopotamia and the Odyssey, an ancient Greek text attributed to Homer.¹³⁴ Published in the 5th century BCE, the Histories by Herodotus¹³⁵ was one of the foundational texts of the Western historical tradition, putting more emphasis on rational and evidence-based inquiry than the stories of Homer and other poets.¹³⁶ Thucydides followed and further refined Herodotus's approach but focused more on particular political and military developments in contrast to the wide scope and ethnographic elements of Herodotus's work.¹³⁷ Roman historiography was heavily influenced by Greek traditions. It often included not only historical facts but also moral judgments of historical figures.¹³⁸ Early Roman historians used an annalistic style, arranging past events by year with little commentary, while later ones preferred a more narrative and analytical approach.¹³⁹

Another complex tradition of historical writing emerged in ancient China, with early precursors starting in the late 2nd millennium BCE. It considered annals the highest form of historical writing and emphasized verification through sources. This tradition was associated with Confucian philosophy and closely tied to the government in the form of the ruling dynasty. Chinese historians established a coherent and systematic method for recording historical events earlier than other traditions.¹⁴⁰ Of particular influence was the work of Sima Qian, whose meticulous research method and inclusion of alternative viewpoints shaped subsequent historiographical standards.¹⁴¹ In ancient India, historical narratives were closely associated with religion. They often mixed factual accounts with supernatural elements, as seen in works like the Mahabharata.¹⁴²

In Europe during the medieval period, history was primarily documented by the clergy in the form of chronicles. Christian historians drew from Greco-Roman and Jewish traditions and reinterpreted the past from a religious perspective as a narrative highlighting God's divine plan.¹⁴³ Influential contributions shaping this tradition were made by the historians Eusebius of Caesarea and Bede and by the theologian Augustine of Hippo.¹⁴⁴ In the Islamic world, historical writing was similarly influenced by religion, interpreting the past from a Muslim perspective. It placed great importance on the chain of transmission to preserve the authority of historical accounts.¹⁴⁵ Al-Tabari wrote a comprehensive history, spanning from the creation of the world to his present day. Ibn Khaldun reflected on philosophical issues underlying the practice of historians, such as universal patterns shaping historical changes and the limits of historical truth.¹⁴⁶

With the emergence of the Tang Dynasty (618–907 CE) in China, historical writing became increasingly institutionalized as a bureau for the writing of history was established in 629 CE. The bureau oversaw the establishment of Veritable Records, a comprehensive compilation serving as the basis of the standard national history. Tang dynasty historians emphasized the difference between actual events that occurred in the past and the way these events are documented in historical texts.¹⁴⁷ Historical writing in the Song dynasty (960–1279 CE) happened in a variety of historical genres, including encyclopedias, biographies, and historical novels, while history became a standard subject in the Chinese educational system.¹⁴⁸ Influenced by the Chinese model, a tradition of historical writing emerged in Japan in the 8th century CE. Like in China, historical writing was closely related to the imperial household, but Japanese historians placed less importance on critical source evaluation than their Chinese counterparts.¹⁴⁹

During the Renaissance and the early modern period (approximately 1500 to 1800), the different historical traditions came increasingly into contact with each other.¹⁵⁰ Starting in 14th-century Europe, the Renaissance led to a shift away from medieval religious outlooks towards a renewed interest in the earlier classical tradition of Greece and Rome. Renaissance humanists used sophisticated text criticism to scrutinize earlier religious historical works, which contributed to the secularization of historical writing. During the 15th to 17th centuries, historians placed greater emphasis on the didactic role of history, using it to promote the established order or argue for a return to an idealised vision of the past. As the invention of the printing press made written documents more accessible and affordable, interest in history expanded outside the clergy and nobility. At the same time, empiricist thought associated with the Scientific Revolution questioned the possibility of arriving at universal historical truths.¹⁵¹ During the Age of Enlightenment in the 18th century, historical writing was influenced by rationalism and scepticism. Aiming to challenge traditional authority and dogma through reason and empirical methods, historians tried to uncover deeper patterns and meaning in the past, while the scope of historical inquiry expanded with an increased focus on societal and economic topics as well as comparisons between different cultures.¹⁵²

In China during the Ming dynasty (1368–1644), public interest in historical writings and their availability also increased. In addition to the continuation of the Veritable Records by official governmental historians, non-official works by private scholars flourished. These scholars tended to use a more creative style and sometimes challenged orthodox accounts.¹⁵³ In the Islamic world, new traditions of historical writings emerged in the Safavid, Mughal, and Ottoman empires.¹⁵⁴ Meanwhile, in the Americas, European explorers recorded and interpreted indigenous narratives, which had been passed down through oral and pictographic practices. These views sometimes contested traditional European perspectives.¹⁵⁵

Historical writing was transformed in the 19th century as it became more professional and science-oriented. Following the work of Leopold von Ranke, a systematic method of source criticism was widely accepted while academic institutions dedicated to history were established in the form of university departments, professional associations, and journals.¹⁵⁶ In tune with this scientific outlook, Auguste Comte formulated the school of positivism and aimed to discover general laws of history, similar to the laws of nature studied by physicists.¹⁵⁷ Building on the philosophy of Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, Karl Marx proposed one such general law in his theory of historical materialism, arguing that economic forces and class struggle are the fundamental drivers of historical change.¹⁵⁸ Another influential development was the spread of European historiographical methods, which became the dominant approach to the academic study of the past worldwide.¹⁵⁹

In the 20th century, traditional historical assumptions and practices were challenged while the scope of historical research broadened.¹⁶⁰ The Annales school used insights from sociology, psychology, and economics to study long-term developments.¹⁶¹ Authoritarian regimes, like Nazi Germany, the Soviet Union, and China, manipulated historical narratives for ideological purposes.¹⁶² Various historians covered unconventional perspectives, focusing on the experiences of marginalized groups through approaches such as history from below, microhistory, oral history, and feminist history.¹⁶³ Postcolonialism aimed to undermine the hegemony of the Western approach and postmodernism rejected the claim to a single universal truth in history.¹⁶⁴ Intellectual historians examined the historical development of ideas.¹⁶⁵ In the second half of the century, renewed attempts to write histories of the world as a whole gained momentum, while technological advances fostered the growth of quantitative and digital history.¹⁶⁶

Related fields

Historiography

Main article: Historiography

Historiography is the study of the methods and development of historical research. Historiographers examine what historians do, resulting in a metatheory in the form of a history of history. Some theorists use the term historiography in a different sense to refer to written accounts of the past.¹⁶⁷

A central topic in historiography as a metatheory focuses on the standards of evidence and reasoning in historical inquiry. Historiographers examine and codify how historians use sources to construct narratives about the past, including the analysis of the interpretative assumptions from which they proceed. Closely related issues include the style and rhetorical presentation of works of history.¹⁶⁸

By comparing the works of different historians, historiographers identify schools of thought based on shared research methods, assumptions, and styles.¹⁶⁹ For example, they examine the characteristics of the Annales school, like its use of quantitative data from various disciplines and its interest in economic and social developments taking place over extended periods.¹⁷⁰ Comparisons also extend to whole eras from ancient to modern times. This way, historiography traces the development of history as an academic discipline, highlighting how the dominant methods, themes, and research goals have changed over time.¹⁷¹

Philosophy of history

Main article: Philosophy of history

The philosophy of history¹⁷² investigates the theoretical foundations of history. It is interested both in the past itself as a series of interconnected events and in the academic field studying this process. Insights and approaches from various branches of philosophy are relevant to this endeavour, such as metaphysics, epistemology, hermeneutics, and ethics.¹⁷³

In examining history as a process, philosophers explore the basic entities that make up historical phenomena. Some approaches rely primarily on the beliefs and actions of individual humans, while others include collective and other general entities, such as civilizations, institutions, ideologies, and social forces.¹⁷⁴ A related topic concerns the nature of causal mechanisms connecting historic events with their causes and consequences.¹⁷⁵ One view holds that there are general laws of history that determine the course of events, similar to the laws of nature studied in the natural sciences. According to another perspective, causal relations between historic events are unique and shaped by contingent factors.¹⁷⁶ Historically, some philosophers have suggested that the general direction of the course of history follows large patterns. According to one proposal, history is cyclic, meaning that on a sufficiently large scale, individual events or general trends repeat. Another such theory asserts that history is a linear, teleological process moving towards a predetermined goal.¹⁷⁷¹⁷⁸

The topics of philosophy of history and historiography overlap as both are interested in the standards of historical reasoning. Historiographers typically focus more on describing specific methods and developments encountered in the study of history. Philosophers of history, by contrast, tend to explore more general patterns, including evaluative questions about which methods and assumptions are correct.¹⁷⁹ Historical reasoning is sometimes used in philosophy and other disciplines as a method to explain phenomena. This approach, known as historicism, argues that understanding something requires knowledge of its unique history or how it evolved. For instance, historicism about truth states that truth depends on historical circumstances, meaning that there are no transhistorical truths. Historicism contrasts with approaches that seek a timeless and universal understanding of their subject matter.¹⁸⁰

Historical objectivity

Diverse debates in the philosophy of history focus on the possibility of an objective account of history. Various theorists argue that this ideal is not achievable, pointing to the subjective nature of interpretation, the narrative aspect of history, and the influence of personal values and biases on the perspective and actions of both historic individuals and historians. According to one view, some particular facts are objective, for example, facts about when a drought occurred or which army was defeated. However, this view does not ensure general objectivity since historians have to interpret and synthesize facts to arrive at an overall narrative describing large trends and developments.¹⁸¹ As a result, some historians, such as G. M. Trevelyan and Keith Jenkins, assert that all history is biased, arguing that historical narratives are never free of subjective presuppositions and value judgments.¹⁸²

Some outlooks associated with realism, empiricism, and reconstructionism,¹⁸³ conceptualise history as the search for truth or knowledge, which they see as recoverable through rigorous evaluation and careful interpretation of evidence.¹⁸⁴¹⁸⁵ Other scholars critique this view, emphasising the subjective and partial nature of historical knowledge.¹⁸⁶ Perspectivists claim that historical perspectives are inherently subjective, as they require selecting particular sources and inquiries, and ascertaining what information can be regarded as historical fact. They argue that statements can only be objective within or relative to one of several competing historical perspectives.¹⁸⁷ A stronger scepticist or relativist outlook states that no historical knowledge can be proven objective.¹⁸⁸¹⁸⁹ This emphasis on subjectivities has been extended by postmodernist theories that suggest that it is impossible to know the past objectively, adding that meaning is created through human-made texts, the language of which "constitute our world as we perceive it".¹⁹⁰¹⁹¹ Neo-realists have responded to this trend by reemphasising the centrality of empiricist methodologies to historical analysis. They acknowledge the influence of subjective evaluations but contend that historical truth is reachable nonetheless.¹⁹²¹⁹³

Education

History is part of the school curriculum in most countries.¹⁹⁴ Early history education aims to make students interested in the past and familiarize them with fundamental concepts of historical thought. By fostering a basic historical awareness, it seeks to instil a sense of identity by helping them understand their cultural roots.¹⁹⁵ It often takes a narrative form by presenting children with simple stories, which may focus on historic individuals or the origins of local holidays, festivals, and food.¹⁹⁶ More advanced history education encountered in secondary school covers a broader spectrum of topics, ranging from ancient to modern history, at both local and global levels. It further aims to acquaint students with historical research methodologies, including the abilities to interpret and critically evaluate historical claims.¹⁹⁷

History teachers employ a variety of teaching methods. They include narrative presentations of historical developments, questions to engage students and prompt critical thinking, and discussions on historical topics. Students work with historical sources directly to learn how to analyse and interpret evidence, both individually and in group activities. They engage in historical writing to develop the skills of articulating their thoughts clearly and persuasively. Assessment through oral or written tests aims to ensure that learning goals are reached.¹⁹⁸ Traditional methodologies in history education often present numerous facts, like dates of significant events and names of historical figures, which students are expected to memorize. Some modern approaches, by contrast, seek to foster a more active engagement and a deeper interdisciplinary understanding of general patterns, focusing not only on what happened but also on why it happened and its lasting historical significance.¹⁹⁹

History education in state schools serves a variety of purposes. A key skill is historical literacy, the ability to comprehend, critically analyse, and respond to historical claims. By making students aware of significant developments in the past, they can become familiar with various contexts of human life, helping them understand the present and its diverse cultures. At the same time, history education can foster a sense of cultural identity by connecting students with their heritage, traditions, and practices, for example, by introducing them to iconic elements ranging from national landmarks and monuments to historical figures and traditional festivities.²⁰⁰ Knowledge of a shared past and cultural heritage can contribute to the formation of a national identity and prepares students for active citizenship. This political aspect of history education may spark disputes about which topics school textbooks should cover. In various regions, it has resulted in so-called history wars over the curriculum.²⁰¹ It can lead to a biased treatment of controversial topics in an attempt to present their national heritage in a favourable light.²⁰²²⁰³

In addition to the formal education provided in public schools, history is also taught in informal settings outside the classroom. Public history takes place in locations like museums and memorial sites, where selected artefacts are often used to tell specific stories.²⁰⁴ It includes popular history, which aims to make the past accessible and appealing to a wide audience of non-specialists in media such as books, television programmes, and online content.²⁰⁵ Informal history education also happens in oral traditions as narratives about the past are transmitted across generations.²⁰⁶

Other fields

History employs an interdisciplinary methodology, drawing on findings from fields such as archaeology, geology, genetics, anthropology, and linguistics.²⁰⁷²⁰⁸ Archaeologists study human-made historical artefacts and other forms of material culture. Their findings provide crucial insights into past human activities and cultural developments.²⁰⁹ The interpretation of archaeological evidence presents challenges that differ from standard historical work with written documents. At the same time, it offers new possibilities by presenting information that was not recorded, allowing historians to access the past of non-literate societies and marginalized groups within literate societies by studying the remains of their material culture. Before the advent of modern archaeology in the 19th century, antiquarianism laid the groundwork for this discipline and played a vital role in preserving historical artefacts.²¹⁰

Geology and other earth sciences help historians understand the environmental contexts and physical processes that affected past societies, including climate conditions, landscapes, and natural events.²¹¹ Genetics provides key information about the evolutionary origins of humans as a species, human migration, ancestry, and demographic changes.²¹² Anthropologists investigate human culture and behaviour, such as social structures, belief systems, and ritual practices. This knowledge offers contexts for the interpretation of historical events.²¹³ Historical linguistics studies the development of languages over time, which can be crucial for the interpretation of ancient documents and can also provide information about migration patterns and cultural exchanges.²¹⁴ Historians further rely on evidence from various other fields belonging to the physical, biological, and social sciences as well as the humanities.²¹⁵

In virtue of its relation to ideology and national identity, history is closely connected to politics and historical theories can directly impact political decisions. For example, irredentist attempts by one state to annex territory of another state often rely on historical theories claiming that the disputed territory belonged to the first state in the past.²¹⁶ History also plays a central role in so-called historical religions, which base some of their core doctrines on historical events. For instance, Christianity is often categorized as a historical religion because it is centred around historical events surrounding Jesus Christ.²¹⁷ History is relevant to many fields through the study of their past, including the history of science, mathematics, philosophy, and art.²¹⁸

See also

• History portal

• Glossary of history
• Outline of history

Notes

Citations

Sources

• Abrams, Lynn (2016). Oral History Theory (2nd ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-27798-9.
• Ackermann, Marsha E.; Schroeder, Michael J.; Terry, Janice J.; Upshur, Jiu-Hwa Lo; Whitters, Mark F., eds. (2008). Encyclopedia of World History 1: The Ancient World, Prehistoric Eras to 600 CE. Facts on File. ISBN 978-0-8160-6386-4.
• Ahlskog, Jonas (2020). The Primacy of Method in Historical Research: Philosophy of History and the Perspective of Meaning. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-000-28524-6.
• Alcock, A. (2002). A Short History of Europe: From the Greeks and Romans to the Present Day. Palgrave Macmillan. doi:10.1057/9780230597426. ISBN 978-0-230-59742-6.
• Aldenderfer, Mark (2011). "Era 1: Beginnings of Human Society to 4000 BCE". World History Encyclopedia. Vol. 2. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 1–327. ISBN 978-1-85109-930-6.
• Allchin, Douglas (2004). "Pseudohistory and Pseudoscience". Science & Education. 13 (3): 179–195. Bibcode:2004Sc&Ed..13..179A. doi:10.1023/B:SCED.0000025563.35883.e9.
• Andrén, Mats (2022). Thinking Europe: A History of the European Idea since 1800. Vol. 46. Berghahn Books. ISBN 978-1-80073-570-5. JSTOR j.ctv36cj83p.
• Antonellos, Steven; Rantall, Jayne (2017). "Indigenous History: A Conversation". Australasian Journal of American Studies. 36 (2): 115–128. JSTOR 26532936.
• Arcodia, Giorgio Francesco; Basciano, Bianca (2021). "Periodization of Chinese History". Chinese Linguistics: An Introduction. Oxford University Press. p. xv. doi:10.1093/oso/9780198847830.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-884783-0.
• Arnold, John (2000). History: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/actrade/9780192853523.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-285352-3.
• Asante, Molefi Kete (2024). The History of Africa: The Quest for Eternal Harmony (4 ed.). Routledge. doi:10.4324/9781003351306. ISBN 978-1-003-81615-7.
• Association of Academies of Sciences in Asia (AASA) (2011). Towards a Sustainable Asia: The Cultural Perspectives. China Science Publishing & Media and Springer Science+Business Media. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-16669-3. ISBN 978-7-03-029011-3.
• Baker, Alan R. H. (2003). Geography and History: Bridging the Divide. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-28885-9.
• Bayly, C. A. (2006). "Modern Indian Historiography". In Bentley, Michael (ed.). Companion to Historiography. Routledge. pp. 663–677. doi:10.4324/9780203991459. ISBN 978-1-134-97023-0.
• Bentley, Michael (2006). "General Introduction: The Project of Historiography". In Bentley, Michael (ed.). Companion to Historiography. Routledge. pp. xi–xvi. doi:10.4324/9780203991459. ISBN 978-1-134-97023-0.
• Berkhofer, R. (2008). Fashioning History: Current Practices and Principles. Springer. doi:10.1057/9780230617209. ISBN 978-0-230-61720-9.
• Berkhofer, Robert F. (2022). Forgeries and Historical Writing in England, France, and Flanders, 900–1200. Boydell Press. doi:10.2307/j.ctv24tr8rg. ISBN 978-1-78327-691-2. JSTOR j.ctv24tr8rg.
• Bhat, P. Ishwara (2019). "Historical Legal Research". Idea and Methods of Legal Research. Oxford University Press India. pp. 198–229. doi:10.1093/oso/9780199493098.003.0007. ISBN 978-0-19-909830-9.
• Birke, Dorothee; Butter, Michael; Köppe, Tilmann (2011). "Introduction". Counterfactual Thinking - Counterfactual Writing. de Gruyter. pp. 1–11. doi:10.1515/9783110268669. ISBN 978-3-11-026866-9.
• Black, Jeremy (2021). A History of Europe: From Pre-History to the 21st Century. Arcturus Publishing. ISBN 978-1-3988-0986-4.
• Bod, Rens (2013). A New History of the Humanities: The Search for Principles and Patterns from Antiquity to the Present. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-966521-1.
• Breisach, Ernst (2005). "Historiography: An Overview". In Jones, Lindsay (ed.). Encyclopedia of Religion (2nd ed.). Macmillan Reference. pp. 4024–4035. ISBN 978-0-02-865981-7.
• Brown, Alexander; Sinclair, Adriana (2024). Hate Speech Frontiers: Exploring the Limits of the Ordinary and Legal Concepts. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-009-35714-2.
• Buchanan, Ian (2010). "Revisionism". A Dictionary of Critical Theory. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-953291-9.
• Buchanan, Robert Angus (2024). "History of Technology". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 25 November 2024.
• Bulliet, Richard; Crossley, Pamela; Headrick, Daniel; Hirsch, Steven; Johnson, Lyman; Northrup, David (2015). The Earth and Its Peoples: A Global History. Vol. 1 (6th ed.). Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-1-285-44567-0. Archived from the original on 29 April 2024. Retrieved 25 August 2022.
• Burke, Peter (2019). What Is Cultural History? (3 ed.). John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-5095-2224-8.
• Carr, Edward Hallett (1990) [1961]. What Is History? (2 ed.). Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-013584-8.
• Carr, David (2006). "Philosophy of History". In Borchert, Donald M. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 7: Oakeshott - Presupposition (2 ed.). Thomson Gale, Macmillan Reference. pp. 386–399. ISBN 978-0-02-865787-5.
• Cheng, Eileen Ka-May (2012). Historiography: An Introductory Guide. Continuum. ISBN 978-1-4411-7767-4.
• Christian, David (2008). This Fleeting World: A Short History of Humanity. Berkshire Publishing. ISBN 978-1-933782-04-1.
• Christian, David (2015). "Introduction and Overview". In Christian, David (ed.). The Cambridge World History. Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–38. doi:10.1017/CBO9781139194662. ISBN 978-0-521-76333-2.
• Clark, Anna; Grever, Maria (2018). "Historical Consciousness". In Metzger, Scott Alan; Harris, Lauren McArthur (eds.). The Wiley International Handbook of History Teaching and Learning. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 177–201. doi:10.1002/9781119100812.ch7. ISBN 978-1-119-10081-2.
• Coleman, D. C.; Floud, Roderick; Barker, T. C.; Daunton, M. J.; Crafts, N. F. R. (1988). "What Is Economic History … ?". In Gardiner, Juliet (ed.). What Is History Today ... ?. Macmillan Education UK. pp. 31–41. doi:10.1007/978-1-349-19161-1_4. ISBN 978-1-349-19161-1.
• Collingwood, R. G. (1967). "The Nature and Aims of a Philosophy of History". Essays in the Philosophy of History. University of Texas Press. pp. 34–56. OCLC 17517213.
• Collingwood, R. G. (1993). The Idea of History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-285306-6.
• Collini, Stefan; Skinner, Quentin; Hollinger, David A.; Pocock, J. G. A.; Hunter, Michael (1988). "What Is Intellectual History … ?". In Gardiner, Juliet (ed.). What Is History Today … ?. Macmillan Education UK. pp. 105–119. doi:10.1007/978-1-349-19161-1_10. ISBN 978-1-349-19161-1.
• Collins Latin Concise Dictionary. HarperCollins. 2003. ISBN 978-0-06-053690-9.
• Collinson, Patrick; Brooke, Christopher; Norman, Edward; Lake, Peter; Hempton, David (1988). "What Is Religious History … ?". In Gardiner, Juliet (ed.). What Is History Today … ?. Macmillan Education UK. pp. 58–68. doi:10.1007/978-1-349-19161-1_6. ISBN 978-1-349-19161-1.
• Comber, Michael (2006). "Re-reading the Roman Historians". In Bentley, Michael (ed.). Companion to Historiography. Routledge. pp. 38–52. ISBN 978-1-134-97023-0.
• Cooper, Hilary (1995). History in the Early Years. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-10100-4.
• Cotterell, Arthur (2011). Asia: A Concise History. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-470-82959-2.
• Cresswell, Julia (2021). Oxford Dictionary of Word Origins (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-886875-0.
• d'Arcy, Paul (2012). "Oceania and Australasia". In Bentley, Jerry H. (ed.). Oxford Handbook of World History. Oxford University Press. pp. 546–563. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199235810.013.0031. ISBN 978-0-19-923581-0.
• Darby, Henry Clifford (2002). The Relations of History and Geography: Studies in England, France and the United States. University of Exeter Press. ISBN 978-0-85989-699-3.
• Davies, R. W. (1990) [1961]. ""From E. H. Carr's Files: Notes towards a Second Edition of What Is History?". In Carr, Edward Hallett; Davies, R. W. (eds.). What Is History? (2 ed.). Penguin. pp. 157–184. ISBN 978-0-14-013584-8.
• De Armond, Thea (2023). "Toward a Prosopography of Archaeology form the Margins". In Moshenska, Gabriel; Lewis, Clare (eds.). Life-writing in the History of Archaeology: Critical Perspectives. UCL Press. pp. 73–90. ISBN 978-1-80008-450-6.
• Devries, Kelly (2004). "Catapult". In Bradford, James C. (ed.). International Encyclopedia of Military History. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-95033-0.
• Diamond, Jared (1999). Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies. W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-06922-8.
• Donnelly, Mark; Norton, Claire (2012). Doing History. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-136-65694-1.
• Dorling Kindersley (2018). Timelines of Everything: From Woolly Mammoths to World Wars. Dorling Kindersley. ISBN 978-0-241-42807-8.
• Dray, William (2021). On History and Philosophers of History. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-45157-5.
• Evans, Richard J. (1999). In Defence of History. W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-04687-8.
• Evans, Richard J. (2001). "The Two Faces of E. H. Carr". History in Focus (2). University of London - Institute of Historical Research.
• Evans, Richard J. (2002). "Prologue: What Is History? – Now". In Cannadine, D. (ed.). What Is History Now?. Springer. pp. 1–18. doi:10.1057/9780230204522_1. ISBN 978-0-230-20452-2.
• Fagan, Brian M.; Durrani, Nadia (2019). World Prehistory: A Brief Introduction (10th ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-0-429-77280-1.
• Fasolt, Constantin (2013). The Limits of History. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-11564-1.
• Fazal, Tanweer (2023). "'Documents of Power': Historical Method and the Study of Politics". Studies in Indian Politics. 11 (1): 140–149. doi:10.1177/23210230231166179.
• Fernández-Armesto, Felipe (2003). The Americas: A Hemispheric History. Random House. ISBN 978-1-58836-302-2.
• Fisher, Michael H. (2014). Migration: A World History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-976434-1.
• Fronza, Emanuela (2018). Memory and Punishment: Historical Denialism, Free Speech and the Limits of Criminal Law. Springer. ISBN 978-94-6265-234-7.
• Gardiner, Juliet (1988). "Introduction". In Gardiner, Juliet (ed.). What Is History Today … ?. Macmillan Education UK. pp. 1–3. doi:10.1007/978-1-349-19161-1_1. ISBN 978-1-349-19161-1.
• Gaskell, Ivan; Carter, Sarah Anne (2020). "Introduction: Why History and Material Culture?". In Gaskell, Ivan; Carter, Sarah Anne (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of History and Material Culture. Oxford University Press. pp. 1–13. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199341764.002.0008 (inactive 9 March 2025). ISBN 978-0-19-934176-4.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of March 2025 (link)
• Gil, Jeffrey; Marsen, Sky (2022). Exploring Language in Global Contexts. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-000-59387-7.
• Girard, Brian; Harris, Lauren McArthur (2018). "Global and World History Education". In Metzger, Scott Alan; Harris, Lauren McArthur (eds.). The Wiley International Handbook of History Teaching and Learning. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 253–279. doi:10.1002/9781119100812.ch10. ISBN 978-1-119-10081-2.
• Glassberg, David (1996). "Public History and the Study of Memory". The Public Historian. 18 (2): 7–23. doi:10.2307/3377910. JSTOR 3377910.
• Grant, S. G. (2018). "Teaching Practices in History Education". In Metzger, Scott Alan; Harris, Lauren McArthur (eds.). The Wiley International Handbook of History Teaching and Learning. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 419–448. doi:10.1002/9781119100812.ch16. ISBN 978-1-119-10081-2.
• Groot, Jerome de (2016). Consuming History: Historians and Heritage in Contemporary Popular Culture. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-27796-5.
• Haviland, Beverly (1997). Henry James' Last Romance: Making Sense of the Past and the American Scene. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-56338-3.
• Headrick, Daniel R. (2009). Technology: A World History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-971366-0.
• Hedrick, Charles W. (2000). History and Silence: Purge and Rehabilitation of Memory in Late Antiquity. University of Texas Press. ISBN 0-292-73121-3.
• Heller, Agnes (2016). A Theory of History. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-26882-6.
• Hesketh, Ian (2023). A History of Big History. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-009-04156-0.
• "History". American Heritage Dictionary. HarperCollins. 2022. Retrieved 8 December 2024.
• Hoad, T. F. (1993). The Concise Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-283098-2.
• Howard, Michael; Bond, Brian; Stagg, J. C. A.; Chandler, David; Best, Geoffrey; Terrine, John (1988). "What Is Military History … ?". In Gardiner, Juliet (ed.). What Is History Today … ?. Macmillan Education UK. pp. 4–17. doi:10.1007/978-1-349-19161-1_2. ISBN 978-1-349-19161-1.
• Howell, Martha C.; Prevenier, Walter (2001). From Reliable Sources: An Introduction to Historical Methods. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-8560-2.
• Hsu, Cho-yun (1993). "Chinese Periodization". In Stearns, Peter N. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Social History. Routledge. pp. 161–163. ISBN 978-1-135-58347-7.
• Hughes, J. Donald (2016). What Is Environmental History?. Polity. ISBN 978-0-7456-8844-2.
• Hughes, Pat; Cox, Kath; Godard, Gillian (2013). Primary History Curriculum Guide. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-12742-9.
• Hunt, Martin (2006). "Why Learn History?". In Hunt, Martin (ed.). A Practical Guide to Teaching History in the Secondary School. Routledge. pp. 3–14. doi:10.4324/9780203029831. ISBN 978-1-134-19967-9.
• Iliffe, John (2007). Africans: The History of a Continent (2 ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-86438-1.
• Jackson, Ian; Xidias, Jason (2017). An Analysis of Francis Fukuyama's The End of History and the Last Man. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-351-35127-0.
• Jenkins, Keith (1995). On 'What Is History?': From Carr and Elton to Rorty and White. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-415-09725-3.
• Jenkins, Keith (2003). Rethinking History (3 ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-40827-6.
• Jensen, Anthony K. "History, Philosophy of". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 30 November 2024.
• Johnson, Peter (2024). R. G. Collingwood and Christianity: Faith, Philosophy and Politics. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-1-350-46543-5.
• Jordanova, Ludmilla (2000). History in Practice. Arnold Publishers. ISBN 978-0-340-66331-8.
• Joseph, Brian; Janda, Richard (2008). "On Language, Change, and Language Change - Or, Of History, Linguistics, and Historical Linguistics". In Joseph, Brian; Janda, Richard (eds.). The Handbook of Historical Linguistics. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 3–180. doi:10.1002/9780470756393.ch. ISBN 978-0-470-75633-1.
• Kamp, Jeannette; Legêne, Susan; Rossum, Matthias van; Rümke, Sebas (2020). Writing History!: A Companion for Historians. Amsterdam University Press. ISBN 978-90-485-3762-4.
• Kipfer, Barbara Ann (2000). Encyclopedic Dictionary of Archaeology. Springer. ISBN 978-0-306-46158-3.
• Kleingeld, Pauline (2006). "Editor's Introduction". Toward Perpetual Peace and Other Writings on Politics, Peace, and History. Yale University Press. pp. xv–xxiv. ISBN 978-0-300-11794-3.
• Korte, Barbara; Paletschek, Sylvia (2014). "Introduction". In Korte, Barbara; Paletschek, Sylvia (eds.). Popular History Now and Then: International Perspectives. transcript Verlag. pp. 7–12. ISBN 978-3-8394-2007-2.
• Kragh, Helge (1987). An Introduction to the Historiography of Science. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-38921-1.
• Law, David R. (2012). The Historical-Critical Method: A Guide for the Perplexed. Continuum. ISBN 978-0-567-40012-3.
• Lawson, Stephanie (2024). Regional Politics in Oceania: From Colonialism and Cold War to the Pacific Century. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-009-42758-6.
• Leavy, Patricia (2011). Oral History: Understanding Qualitative Research. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-539509-9.
• Lefkowitz, Mary (2008). "Historiography and Myth". In Tucker, Aviezer (ed.). A Companion to the Philosophy of History and Historiography. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 353–361. doi:10.1002/9781444304916.ch31. ISBN 978-1-4443-0491-6.
• Lemon, Michael C. (1995). The Discipline of History and the History of Thought. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-12346-4.
• Lemon, M. C. (2003). Philosophy of History: A Guide for Students. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-71746-0.
• Levstik, Linda S.; Thornton, Stephen J. (2018). "Reconceptualizing History for Early Childhood Through Early Adolescence". In Metzger, Scott Alan; Harris, Lauren McArthur (eds.). The Wiley International Handbook of History Teaching and Learning. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 473–501. doi:10.1002/9781119100812.ch18. ISBN 978-1-119-10081-2.
• Lewis, Martin W. (2012). Bentley, Jerry H. (ed.). Geographies. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-923581-0.
• Little, Daniel (2020). "Philosophy of History". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Retrieved 7 November 2024.
• Liu, Fangfang; Wang, Yiyun; Zhang, Zeyu; Zhu, Linkai; Li, Guang (2024). "Interdisciplinary Curriculum Design and Quasi-Experimental AI-Study of Junior High School History from the Perspective of Core Competencies". In Feng, Yongjun; Bhattacharjya, Aniruddha; Diao, Junfeng; Ghlamallah, Nahed Rajaa (eds.). Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Internet, Education and Information Technology (IEIT 2024). Springer. pp. 622–628. doi:10.2991/978-94-6463-574-4_71. ISBN 978-94-6463-574-4.
• Lloyd, Christopher (2011). "Historiographic Schools". In Tucker, Aviezer (ed.). A Companion to the Philosophy of History and Historiography. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 371–380. doi:10.1002/9781444304916.ch33. ISBN 978-1-4443-5152-1.
• Lo, Yuet Keung (1998). "Sima Qian [Ssu-ma Ch'ien] (145–85 BC)". In Woolf, D.R. (ed.). A Global Encyclopedia of Historical Writing: K-Z. Vol. 2. Garland Publishing. p. 835. ISBN 978-0-8153-1514-8.
• Lucas, Gavin (2004). The Archaeology of Time. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-38427-3.
• Manning, Patrick (2020). Methods for Human History: Studying Social, Cultural, and Biological Evolution. Springer. ISBN 978-3-030-53882-8.
• Mason, Colin (2005). A Short History of Asia (2 ed.). Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-4039-3611-0.
• Metzger, Scott Alan; Harris, Lauren McArthur (2018). "Introduction". In Metzger, Scott Alan; Harris, Lauren McArthur (eds.). The Wiley International Handbook of History Teaching and Learning. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 1–10. doi:10.1002/9781119100812.ch0. ISBN 978-1-119-10081-2.
• Michelet, Jules (1871). "Préface de 1869". Histoire de France (in French). Vol. 1. Librairie Internationale. pp. i–xxxviii.
• Miguel-Revilla, Diego; López-Torres, Esther; Ortuño-Molina, Jorge; Molina-Puche, Sebastián (2024). "Cultural Heritage and Iconic Elements for History Education: A Study with Primary Education Prospective Teachers in Spain". Humanities and Social Sciences Communications. 11 (1). doi:10.1057/s41599-024-04123-w.
• Miller, Bruce Granville (2024). Oral History on Trial: Recognizing Aboriginal Narratives in the Courts. UBC Press. ISBN 978-0-7748-2073-8.
• Mittag, Achim (2012). "Chinese Official Historical Writing under the Ming and Qing". In Rabasa, José; Sato, Masayuki; Tortarolo, Edoardo; Woolf, Daniel (eds.). The Oxford History of Historical Writing: Volume 3: 1400-1800. Oxford University Press. pp. 24–42. doi:10.1093/acprof:osobl/9780199219179.003.0002. ISBN 978-0-19-162944-0.
• Moloughney, Brian; Zarrow, Peter (2012). "Making History Modern: The Transformation of Chinese Historiography, 1895–1937". In Moloughney, Brian; Zarrow, Peter (eds.). Transforming History: The Making of a Modern Academic Discipline in Twentieth-Century China. The Chinese University of Hong Kong Press. ISBN 978-962-996-479-5.
• Moore, R. I. (2006). "World History". In Bentley, Michael (ed.). Companion to Historiography. Routledge. pp. 918–936. ISBN 978-1-134-97023-0.
• Morgan, David (2006). "The Evolution of Two Asian Historiographical Traditions". In Bentley, Michael (ed.). Companion to Historiography. Routledge. pp. 9–19. ISBN 978-1-134-97023-0.
• Morillo, Stephen (2017). What Is Military History?. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-5095-1764-0.
• Munslow, Alun (2001). "What History Is". History in Focus (2). University of London - Institute of Historical Research.
• Murphey, Rhoads; Stapleton, Kristin (2019). A History of Asia. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-351-23189-3.
• Ng, On-cho (2012). "Private Historiography in Late Imperial China". In Rabasa, José; Sato, Masayuki; Tortarolo, Edoardo; Woolf, Daniel (eds.). The Oxford History of Historical Writing: Volume 3: 1400-1800. Oxford University Press. pp. 60–79. doi:10.1093/acprof:osobl/9780199219179.003.0004. ISBN 978-0-19-162944-0.
• Norberg, Matilda Baraibar; Deutsch, Lisa (2023). The Soybean Through World History: Lessons for Sustainable Agrofood Systems. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-000-90347-8.
• Northrup, David R. (2015). "From Divergence to Convergence: Centrifugal and Centripetal Forces in History". In Christian, David (ed.). The Cambridge World History. Cambridge University Press. pp. 110–131. doi:10.1017/CBO9781139194662. ISBN 978-0-521-76333-2.
• O'Hara, Phillip Anthony (2019). "History of Institutional Economics". In Sinha, Ajit; Thomas, Alex M. (eds.). Pluralistic Economics and Its History. Taylor & Francis. pp. 171–190. doi:10.4324/9780429278860-12. ISBN 978-1-000-00183-9.
• Oberg, Barbara B. (2019). Women in the American Revolution: Gender, Politics, and the Domestic World. University of Virginia Press. ISBN 978-0-8139-4260-5.
• OED Staff (2024). "History, n." Oxford English Dictionary Online. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/OED/9602520444.
• Parrott, Linda J.; Hake, Don F. (1983). "Toward a Science of History". The Behavior Analyst. 6 (2): 121–132. doi:10.1007/BF03392391. PMC 2741978. PMID 22478582.
• Paul, Herman (2015). Key Issues in Historical Theory. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-80272-8.
• Phillips, Ian (2008). Teaching History: Developing as a Reflective Secondary Teacher. Sage. ISBN 978-1-4462-4538-5.
• Porter, Roy; Shapin, Steven; Schaffer, Simon; Young, Robert M.; Cooter, Roger; Crosland, Maurice (1988). "What Is the History of Science … ?". In Gardiner, Juliet (ed.). What Is History Today … ?. Macmillan Education UK. pp. 69–81. doi:10.1007/978-1-349-19161-1_7. ISBN 978-1-349-19161-1.
• Potts, Alex; House, John; Hope, Charles; Gretton, Tom (1988). "What Is the History of Art … ?". In Gardiner, Juliet (ed.). What Is History Today … ?. Macmillan Education UK. pp. 96–104. doi:10.1007/978-1-349-19161-1_9. ISBN 978-1-349-19161-1.
• Pozdnyakova, Ulyana A.; Golikov, Vyacheslav V.; Peters, Irina A.; Morozova, Irina A. (2018). "Genesis of the Revolutionary Transition to Industry 4.0 in the 21st Century and Overview of Previous Industrial Revolutions". In Popkova, Elena G.; Ragulina, Yulia V.; Bogoviz, Aleksei V. (eds.). Industry 4.0: Industrial Revolution of the 21st Century. Springer. pp. 11–20. ISBN 978-3-319-94310-7.
• Quinn, Sholeh A. (2020). Persian Historiography across Empires: The Ottomans, Safavids, and Mughals. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-108-90170-3.
• Raab, Josef; Rinke, Stefan (2019). "Introduction: history and society in the Americas from the 16th to the 19th century. The bigger picture". In Kaltmeier, Olaf; Raab, Josef; Foley, Mike; Nash, Alice; Rinke, Stefan; Rufer, Mario (eds.). The Routledge Handbook to the History and Society of the Americas. Routledge. pp. 15–33. ISBN 978-1-351-13869-7.
• Ramsay, John G. (2008). "Education, History of". In Provenzo, Eugene F. (ed.). Encyclopedia of the Social and Cultural Foundations of Education. Sage. pp. 283–288. ISBN 978-1-4522-6597-1. Retrieved 3 May 2023.
• Rana, Pradumna B. (2012). "Regional Economic Integration in Asia: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives". In Rana, Pradumna B. (ed.). Renaissance Of Asia: Evolving Economic Relations Between South Asia And East Asia. World Scientific. pp. 13–50. doi:10.1142/9789814366519_0002. ISBN 978-981-4458-19-1.
• Relethford, John H. (2012). Human Population Genetics. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-470-46467-0.
• Renfrew, Colin (2008). Prehistory: The Making of the Human Mind. Random House. ISBN 978-1-58836-808-9.
• Renier, G. J. (2016). History: Its Purpose and Method. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-24117-1.
• Ritter, Harry (1986). Dictionary of Concepts in History. Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0-313-22700-4.
• Roberts, J. (1997). The Penguin History of Europe. Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-192509-7.
• Samuel, Raphael; Breuilly, John; Clark, J. C. D.; Hopkins, Keith; Cannadine, David (1988). "What Is Social History … ?". In Gardiner, Juliet (ed.). What Is History Today … ?. Macmillan Education UK. pp. 42–57. doi:10.1007/978-1-349-19161-1_5. ISBN 978-1-349-19161-1.
• Santinello, Giovanni; Piaia, Gregorio (1 December 2010). Models of the History of Philosophy: Volume II: From Cartesian Age to Brucker. Springer. ISBN 978-90-481-9507-7. Retrieved 25 May 2023.
• Schneider, Claudia (2008). "The Japanese History Textbook Controversy in East Asian Perspective". The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. 617 (1): 107–122. doi:10.1177/0002716208314359.
• Shankman, Steven; Durrant, Stephen (2003). The Siren and the Sage: Knowledge and Wisdom in Ancient Greece and China. Wipf and Stock Publishers. ISBN 978-1-7252-0845-2.
• Sharp, Heather; Dallimore, Jonathon; Bedford, Alison; Kerby, Martin; Goulding, James; Güttner, Darius von; Heath, Treesa Clare; Zarmati, Louise (2021). Teaching Secondary History. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-108-96998-7.
• Shillington, Kevin (2018). History of Africa. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-1-137-52481-2.
• Singh, Upinder (2008). A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century. Pearson Education India. ISBN 978-81-317-1677-9.
• Sitton, Thad; Mehaffy, George L.; Davis, O. L. (2011). Oral History: A Guide for Teachers (and Others). University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-292-78582-3.
• Southgate, Beverley C. (2005). What Is History For?. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-35098-3.
• Stanford, Michael (1998). An Introduction to the Philosophy of History. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-631-19941-0.
• Stanton, Cathy (2017). "Between Pastness and Presentism: Public History and Local Food Activism". In Gardner, James B.; Hamilton, Paula (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Public History. Oxford University Press. pp. 217–238. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199766024.013.12. ISBN 978-0-19-067378-9.
• Stearns, Peter N. (2001). The Encyclopedia of World History: Ancient, Medieval, and Modern, Chronologically Arranged. Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 978-0-395-65237-4.
• Stearns, Peter N. (2010). World History: The Basics. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-136-88817-5.
• Stearns, Peter N. (2021). "Social History". Oxford Bibliographies. doi:10.1093/obo/9780199756384-0131. ISBN 978-0-19-975638-4. Retrieved 24 November 2024.
• Stevenson, Angus (2010). Oxford Dictionary of English. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-957112-3.
• Stoddard, Jeremy D. (2018). "Learning History Beyond School". In Metzger, Scott Alan; Harris, Lauren McArthur (eds.). The Wiley International Handbook of History Teaching and Learning. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 631–656. doi:10.1002/9781119100812.ch24. ISBN 978-1-119-10081-2.
• Storey, William Kelleher (2013). Writing History: A Guide for Students (4 ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-983004-6.
• Summerfield, Penny (2019). Histories of the Self: Personal Narratives and Historical Practice. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-429-94529-8.
• Thomson, Alistair (2012). "Memory and Remembering in Oral History". In Ritchie, Donald A. (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Oral History. Oxford University Press. pp. 77–95. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195339550.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-999636-0.
• Topolski, Y. (2012). Methodology of History. D. Reidel Publishing Company. ISBN 978-94-010-1123-5.
• Tosh, John (2002). The Pursuit of History: Aims, Methods and New Directions in the Study of Modern History. Pearson Education. ISBN 978-0-582-77254-0.
• Trevelyan, G. M. (1947). "Bias in History". History. 32 (115): 1–15. doi:10.1111/j.1468-229X.1947.tb00181.x.
• Tucker, Aviezer (2008). "Historiographic Revision and Revisionism". In Kopeček, Michal (ed.). Past in the Making: Historical Revisionism in Central Europe After 1989. Central European University Press. pp. 1–16. doi:10.1515/9786155211423. ISBN 978-6-155-21142-3.
• Tucker, Aviezer (2011). "Introduction". In Tucker, Aviezer (ed.). A Companion to the Philosophy of History and Historiography. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 1–6. doi:10.1002/9781444304916.ch1. ISBN 978-1-4443-5152-1.
• Tuniz, Claudio; Vipraio, Patrizia Tiberi (2016). Humans: An Unauthorized Biography. Springer. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-31021-3. ISBN 978-3-319-31021-3.
• Välimäki, Reima; Aali, Heta (2020). "The Ancient Finnish Kings and their Swedish Archenemy: Nationalism, Conspiracy Theories, and Alt-Right Memes in Finnish Online Medievalism". In Fugelso, Karl (ed.). Politics and Medievalism. Vol. 3. Boydell & Brewer. pp. 55–78. ISBN 978-1-84384-625-3. JSTOR j.ctv24cns6q.
• van Hover, Stephanie; Hicks, David (2018). "History Teacher Preparation and Professional Development". In Metzger, Scott Alan; Harris, Lauren McArthur (eds.). The Wiley International Handbook of History Teaching and Learning. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 389–418. doi:10.1002/9781119100812.ch15. ISBN 978-1-119-10081-2.
• Van Nieuwenhuyse, Karel (2020). "From Knowing the National Past to Doing History". In Berg, Christopher W.; Christou, Theodore M. (eds.). The Palgrave Handbook of History and Social Studies Education. Springer. pp. 355–386. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-37210-1_14. ISBN 978-3-030-37210-1.
• Vašíček, Zdeněk (2008). "Philosophy of History". In Tucker, Aviezer (ed.). A Companion to the Philosophy of History and Historiography. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 26–43. doi:10.1002/9781444304916.ch3. ISBN 978-1-4443-0491-6.
• Verene, Donald Phillip (20 June 2008). The History of Philosophy: A Reader's Guide. Northwestern University Press. ISBN 978-0-8101-5197-0. Retrieved 25 May 2023.
• Veysey, Laurence (1979). "The 'New' Social History in the Context of American Historical Writing". Reviews in American History. 7 (1): 1–12. doi:10.2307/2700953. JSTOR 2700953.
• Vision, Gerald A. (2023). Modern Anti-Realism and Manufactured Truth. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-003-80838-1.
• Watt, D. C.; Adams, Simon; Bullen, Roger; Brauer, Kinley; Iriye, Akira (1988). "What Is Diplomatic History … ?". In Gardiner, Juliet (ed.). What Is History Today … ?. Macmillan Education UK. pp. 131–142. doi:10.1007/978-1-349-19161-1_12. ISBN 978-1-349-19161-1.
• White, W. George; Millett, Bruce (2019). Kobayashi, Audrey (ed.). International Encyclopedia of Human Geography. Elsevier. pp. 419–426. ISBN 978-0-08-102296-2.
• Wiles, Maurice (1978). "In What Sense is Christianity a 'Historical' Religion?". Theology. 81 (679): 4–14. doi:10.1177/0040571X7808100102.
• Williams, L. Pearce (2024). "History of Science". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 24 November 2024.
• Wineburg, Sam (2018). Why Learn History (When It's Already on Your Phone). University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-35735-5.
• Wong, R. Bin (2005). "Comparative History". Berkshire Encyclopedia of World History. Berkshire Publishing. pp. 630–635. ISBN 978-0-9743091-0-1. JSTOR jj.9941129.
• Woolf, Daniel (2019). A Concise History of History: Global Historiography from Antiquity to the Present. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-108-42619-0.
• Wragg-Sykes, Rebecca (2016). "Threshold 6". Big History: Our Incredible Journey, from Big Bang to Now. Dorling Kindersley. pp. 180–223. ISBN 978-0-241-22590-5. Retrieved 4 May 2024.
• Wright, Edmund, ed. (2006). "Historiography". A Dictionary of World History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-280700-7.
• Yapp, M. E.; Bayly, C. A.; Clarence-Smith, Gervase; Abel, Christopher; Johnson, Gordon; Fyfe, Christopher (1988). "What Is Third World History … ?". In Gardiner, Juliet (ed.). What Is History Today … ?. Macmillan Education UK. pp. 155–167. doi:10.1007/978-1-349-19161-1_14. ISBN 978-1-349-19161-1.
• Yurdusev, A. (2003). International Relations and the Philosophy of History: A Civilizational Approach. Springer. doi:10.1057/9781403938404. ISBN 978-1-4039-3840-4.
• Zaagsma, Gerben (2023). "Digital History and the Politics of Digitization". Digital Scholarship in the Humanities. 38 (2): 830–851. doi:10.1093/llc/fqac050.
• Zajda, Joseph (2015). "Globalisation and the Politics of Education Reforms: History Education". Nation-Building and History Education in a Global Culture. Springer. pp. 1–14. doi:10.1007/978-94-017-9729-0_1. ISBN 978-94-017-9729-0.
• Zhao, Helen (2023). "Counterfactual History: Three Worries and Replies". Journal of the Philosophy of History. 17 (1): 9–30. doi:10.1163/18722636-12341487.

External links

• Internet History Sourcebooks Project See also Internet History Sourcebooks Project (Collections of public domain and copy-permitted historical texts for educational use)

References

1. Kragh 1987, p. 41Little 2020, § 1. History and its representationCollingwood 1967, § 4. History and the Philosophy of HistoryRitter 1986, pp. 193–194Collingwood 1993, p. 9 - Kragh, Helge (1987). An Introduction to the Historiography of Science. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-38921-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=OX7d7u_2rF4C&pg=PA41 ↩

2. Little 2020, § 1. History and its representationTosh 2002, pp. 140–143Munslow 2001Evans 2001 - Little, Daniel (2020). "Philosophy of History". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Retrieved 7 November 2024. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/history/ ↩

3. Tucker 2011, pp. xii, 2Arnold 2000, p. 5Evans 2002, pp. 1–2Ritter 1986, pp. 193–194Tosh 2002, pp. 140–143 - Tucker, Aviezer (2011). "Introduction". In Tucker, Aviezer (ed.). A Companion to the Philosophy of History and Historiography. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 1–6. doi:10.1002/9781444304916.ch1. ISBN 978-1-4443-5152-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=FeVdNxyFiKsC&pg=PA1 ↩

4. Evans 2002, pp. 1–2Ritter 1986, p. 196 - Evans, Richard J. (2002). "Prologue: What Is History? – Now". In Cannadine, D. (ed.). What Is History Now?. Springer. pp. 1–18. doi:10.1057/9780230204522_1. ISBN 978-0-230-20452-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=8-zMCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 ↩

5. Some authors restrict the term history to the factual series of past events and use the term historiography for the study of those events. Others use the term history for the study and representation of the past. They characterize historiography as a metatheory studying the methods and historical development of this academic discipline.[5] /wiki/Historiography ↩

6. Some theorists identify protohistory as a distinct period after prehistory that spans from the invention of writing to the first attempts to record history.[6] /wiki/Protohistory ↩

7. Woolf 2019, p. 300Renfrew 2008, p. 172 - Woolf, Daniel (2019). A Concise History of History: Global Historiography from Antiquity to the Present. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-108-42619-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 ↩

8. Woolf 2019, pp. 299–300Ackermann et al. 2008, p. xviiStearns 2010, pp. 17–18Tuniz & Vipraio 2016, pp. v, 1 - Woolf, Daniel (2019). A Concise History of History: Global Historiography from Antiquity to the Present. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-108-42619-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 ↩

9. Big History, formulated by the historian David Christian in the late 1980s, reaches back even further to the Big Bang, covering the cosmological development of the universe and the biological evolution of life in addition to human history.[9] ↩

10. Arnold 2000, pp. 114–115Parrott & Hake 1983, pp. 121–122Tosh 2002, pp. 50–52Ritter 1986, pp. 196–197 - Arnold, John (2000). History: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/actrade/9780192853523.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-285352-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=-lSsDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 ↩

11. Tosh 2002, pp. 50–52Ritter 1986, pp. 196–197, 415–416 - Tosh, John (2002). The Pursuit of History: Aims, Methods and New Directions in the Study of Modern History. Pearson Education. ISBN 978-0-582-77254-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=bM1mAAAAMAAJ ↩

12. Allchin 2004, pp. 179–180Välimäki & Aali 2020, p. 57 - Allchin, Douglas (2004). "Pseudohistory and Pseudoscience". Science & Education. 13 (3): 179–195. Bibcode:2004Sc&Ed..13..179A. doi:10.1023/B:SCED.0000025563.35883.e9. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/B:SCED.0000025563.35883.e9 ↩

13. Southgate 2005, pp. xi–xii, 1, 57Tosh 2002, pp. 50–52 - Southgate, Beverley C. (2005). What Is History For?. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-35098-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=rHXrMbXUsQ8C&pg=PA1 ↩

14. Early historians, such as Herodotus and Thucydides, already criticised the accounts of Homer and other poets as fantastic and inaccurate.[14] ↩

15. Arnold 2000, pp. 120–121Southgate 2005, pp. 11–12, 57–58Tosh 2002, pp. 26, 50–52 - Arnold, John (2000). History: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/actrade/9780192853523.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-285352-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=-lSsDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 ↩

16. Arnold 2000, pp. 121–122Tosh 2002, pp. 50–52 - Arnold, John (2000). History: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/actrade/9780192853523.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-285352-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=-lSsDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 ↩

17. Arnold 2000, p. 121Southgate 2005, pp. 38–39, 175–176Tosh 2002, pp. 50–51 - Arnold, John (2000). History: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/actrade/9780192853523.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-285352-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=-lSsDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 ↩

18. Jenkins 1995, p. 53Haviland 1997, p. 6 - Jenkins, Keith (1995). On 'What Is History?': From Carr and Elton to Rorty and White. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-415-09725-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=mW_rXrXGXa8C&pg=PA53 ↩

19. Evans 2002, p. 2 - Evans, Richard J. (2002). "Prologue: What Is History? – Now". In Cannadine, D. (ed.). What Is History Now?. Springer. pp. 1–18. doi:10.1057/9780230204522_1. ISBN 978-0-230-20452-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=8-zMCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 ↩

20. Southgate 2005, pp. xi–xii 49–51, 175–176 - Southgate, Beverley C. (2005). What Is History For?. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-35098-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=rHXrMbXUsQ8C&pg=PA1 ↩

21. Allchin 2004, pp. 179–180Välimäki & Aali 2020, p. 57 - Allchin, Douglas (2004). "Pseudohistory and Pseudoscience". Science & Education. 13 (3): 179–195. Bibcode:2004Sc&Ed..13..179A. doi:10.1023/B:SCED.0000025563.35883.e9. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/B:SCED.0000025563.35883.e9 ↩

22. Historical revisionism, a related outlook, seeks to overturn established perspectives on history. This can take a variety of forms, from the introduction of new evidence and methods which counter current thinking, to criticising the value or significance of historical events or actors. Some theorists use the term revisionism in a neutral sense for any rejection or reinterpretation of mainstream views. Others associate it with practices that disregard genuine evidence and incorporate intensely skeptical and relativist views to justify pseudohistorical perspectives, attempting to discredit established knowledge of historical events through epistemic criticism.[21] /wiki/Historical_revisionism ↩

23. Brown & Sinclair 2024, pp. 417–418 - Brown, Alexander; Sinclair, Adriana (2024). Hate Speech Frontiers: Exploring the Limits of the Ordinary and Legal Concepts. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-009-35714-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=bCDgEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA418 ↩

24. Ritter 1986, pp. 193–195Stevenson 2010, p. 831HarperCollins 2022Joseph & Janda 2008, p. 163HarperCollins 2003, p. 99OED Staff 2024 - Ritter, Harry (1986). Dictionary of Concepts in History. Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0-313-22700-4. ↩

25. HarperCollins 2022Joseph & Janda 2008, p. 163Stevenson 2010, p. 831 - "History". American Heritage Dictionary. HarperCollins. 2022. Retrieved 8 December 2024. https://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=history&submit.x=58&submit.y=14 ↩

26. Joseph & Janda 2008, p. 163Hoad 1993, p. 217Cresswell 2021, § HistoryOED Staff 2024 - Joseph, Brian; Janda, Richard (2008). "On Language, Change, and Language Change - Or, Of History, Linguistics, and Historical Linguistics". In Joseph, Brian; Janda, Richard (eds.). The Handbook of Historical Linguistics. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 3–180. doi:10.1002/9780470756393.ch. ISBN 978-0-470-75633-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=8F_O12CS9L8C&pg=PA163 ↩

27. Ritter 1986, pp. 195–196HarperCollins 2022 - Ritter, Harry (1986). Dictionary of Concepts in History. Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0-313-22700-4. ↩

28. Berkhofer 2022, pp. 10–11Tosh 2002, p. 141 - Berkhofer, Robert F. (2022). Forgeries and Historical Writing in England, France, and Flanders, 900–1200. Boydell Press. doi:10.2307/j.ctv24tr8rg. ISBN 978-1-78327-691-2. JSTOR j.ctv24tr8rg. https://books.google.com/books?id=bNnpEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA10 ↩

29. Understood in a narrow sense, the historical method is sometimes limited to the evaluation or criticism of sources.[29] ↩

30. Fazal 2023, p. 140Howell & Prevenier 2001, pp. 1–2Ahlskog 2020, pp. 1–2Kamp et al. 2020, pp. 9–10 Ritter 1986, p. 268 - Fazal, Tanweer (2023). "'Documents of Power': Historical Method and the Study of Politics". Studies in Indian Politics. 11 (1): 140–149. doi:10.1177/23210230231166179. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F23210230231166179 ↩

31. Kamp et al. 2020, pp. 19–20Bhat 2019, p. 203 - Kamp, Jeannette; Legêne, Susan; Rossum, Matthias van; Rümke, Sebas (2020). Writing History!: A Companion for Historians. Amsterdam University Press. ISBN 978-90-485-3762-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=vt_IDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 ↩

32. Kamp et al. 2020, p. 35Tosh 2002, pp. 57–58Ritter 1986, pp. 143–144 - Kamp, Jeannette; Legêne, Susan; Rossum, Matthias van; Rümke, Sebas (2020). Writing History!: A Companion for Historians. Amsterdam University Press. ISBN 978-90-485-3762-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=vt_IDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 ↩

33. Kamp et al. 2020, p. 36Tosh 2002, pp. 54–58Storey 2013, p. 32 - Kamp, Jeannette; Legêne, Susan; Rossum, Matthias van; Rümke, Sebas (2020). Writing History!: A Companion for Historians. Amsterdam University Press. ISBN 978-90-485-3762-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=vt_IDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 ↩

34. Kamp et al. 2020, p. 37Tosh 2002, pp. 57–58 - Kamp, Jeannette; Legêne, Susan; Rossum, Matthias van; Rümke, Sebas (2020). Writing History!: A Companion for Historians. Amsterdam University Press. ISBN 978-90-485-3762-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=vt_IDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 ↩

35. Kamp et al. 2020, p. 37Tosh 2002, pp. 57–59 - Kamp, Jeannette; Legêne, Susan; Rossum, Matthias van; Rümke, Sebas (2020). Writing History!: A Companion for Historians. Amsterdam University Press. ISBN 978-90-485-3762-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=vt_IDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 ↩

36. The exact definitions of primary source and secondary source are disputed and there is not always consensus on how a particular source should be categorized. For example, if a person was not present at a riot but reports on it shortly after it happened, some historians consider this report a primary source while others see it as a secondary source.[37] ↩

37. Tosh 2002, pp. 56–57 - Tosh, John (2002). The Pursuit of History: Aims, Methods and New Directions in the Study of Modern History. Pearson Education. ISBN 978-0-582-77254-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=bM1mAAAAMAAJ ↩

38. Kamp et al. 2020, pp. 40–45Arnold 2000, pp. 59–60Tosh 2002, p. 56 - Kamp, Jeannette; Legêne, Susan; Rossum, Matthias van; Rümke, Sebas (2020). Writing History!: A Companion for Historians. Amsterdam University Press. ISBN 978-90-485-3762-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=vt_IDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 ↩

39. Leopold von Ranke's emphasis on source evaluation significantly influenced the practice of historical research.[40] /wiki/Leopold_von_Ranke ↩

40. Kamp et al. 2020, pp. 70–71Tosh 2002, pp. 59, 87–88Topolski 2012, p. 432Ritter 1986, pp. 84–86 - Kamp, Jeannette; Legêne, Susan; Rossum, Matthias van; Rümke, Sebas (2020). Writing History!: A Companion for Historians. Amsterdam University Press. ISBN 978-90-485-3762-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=vt_IDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 ↩

41. Historians consider the context and time of the document to understand the meanings of the terms it uses. For example, if a document uses the word awful, they have to decide whether it expresses the modern meaning 'terrible' or the historical meaning 'worthy of awe'.[42] ↩

42. Kamp et al. 2020, pp. 70–71Tosh 2002, pp. 59, 87–88, 91–92Topolski 2012, p. 432Ritter 1986, pp. 84–86 - Kamp, Jeannette; Legêne, Susan; Rossum, Matthias van; Rümke, Sebas (2020). Writing History!: A Companion for Historians. Amsterdam University Press. ISBN 978-90-485-3762-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=vt_IDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 ↩

43. This becomes particularly challenging if different sources provide seemingly contradictory information.[44] ↩

44. The creativity and imagination needed for this step is one of the reasons why some theorists understand history as an art rather than a science.[45] /wiki/The_arts ↩

45. Berkhofer 2008, pp. 49–50Tosh 2002, pp. 139–143 - Berkhofer, R. (2008). Fashioning History: Current Practices and Principles. Springer. doi:10.1057/9780230617209. ISBN 978-0-230-61720-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=1uvGAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 ↩

46. Tosh 2002, pp. 142–143Little 2020, § 1. History and its representation - Tosh, John (2002). The Pursuit of History: Aims, Methods and New Directions in the Study of Modern History. Pearson Education. ISBN 978-0-582-77254-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=bM1mAAAAMAAJ ↩

47. Tosh 2002, p. 140 - Tosh, John (2002). The Pursuit of History: Aims, Methods and New Directions in the Study of Modern History. Pearson Education. ISBN 978-0-582-77254-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=bM1mAAAAMAAJ ↩

48. Kamp et al. 2020, p. 78Lucas 2004, pp. 50–51Christian 2015, pp. 5–6 - Kamp, Jeannette; Legêne, Susan; Rossum, Matthias van; Rümke, Sebas (2020). Writing History!: A Companion for Historians. Amsterdam University Press. ISBN 978-90-485-3762-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=vt_IDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 ↩

49. Kamp et al. 2020, pp. 77–78 - Kamp, Jeannette; Legêne, Susan; Rossum, Matthias van; Rümke, Sebas (2020). Writing History!: A Companion for Historians. Amsterdam University Press. ISBN 978-90-485-3762-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=vt_IDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 ↩

50. For example, Martha Washington burned all private letters between her and her husband George Washington, leaving decades worth of silences on their relationship.[52] Another cause of silences, the existence of a taboo, such as a taboo against homosexuality, can have the effect that little information on the topic is recorded.[51] The practice of erasing names of deceased people considered enemies from public record is known as damnatio memoriae.[53] /wiki/Martha_Washington ↩

51. Tosh 2002, pp. 244–245Howell & Prevenier 2001, pp. 81, 92–93 - Tosh, John (2002). The Pursuit of History: Aims, Methods and New Directions in the Study of Modern History. Pearson Education. ISBN 978-0-582-77254-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=bM1mAAAAMAAJ ↩

52. Howell & Prevenier 2001, pp. 13–14, 88Berkhofer 2008, pp. 49–50Lloyd 2011, pp. 371–372 - Howell, Martha C.; Prevenier, Walter (2001). From Reliable Sources: An Introduction to Historical Methods. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-8560-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=wSqgwOZPjJ4C&pg=PA1 ↩

53. Howell & Prevenier 2001, p. 13Tosh 2002, pp. 166, 185 - Howell, Martha C.; Prevenier, Walter (2001). From Reliable Sources: An Introduction to Historical Methods. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-8560-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=wSqgwOZPjJ4C&pg=PA1 ↩

54. Tosh 2002, pp. 22, 185Berkhofer 2008, pp. 45, 78 - Tosh, John (2002). The Pursuit of History: Aims, Methods and New Directions in the Study of Modern History. Pearson Education. ISBN 978-0-582-77254-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=bM1mAAAAMAAJ ↩

55. Howell & Prevenier 2001, pp. 13–14Tosh 2002, pp. 27, 224–225 - Howell, Martha C.; Prevenier, Walter (2001). From Reliable Sources: An Introduction to Historical Methods. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-8560-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=wSqgwOZPjJ4C&pg=PA1 ↩

56. Howell & Prevenier 2001, pp. 110–111Tosh 2002, pp. 121, 133 - Howell, Martha C.; Prevenier, Walter (2001). From Reliable Sources: An Introduction to Historical Methods. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-8560-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=wSqgwOZPjJ4C&pg=PA1 ↩

57. Howell & Prevenier 2001, pp. 113–114Tosh 2002, p. 238 - Howell, Martha C.; Prevenier, Walter (2001). From Reliable Sources: An Introduction to Historical Methods. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-8560-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=wSqgwOZPjJ4C&pg=PA1 ↩

58. Tosh 2002, pp. 108–109Lemon 1995, p. 112Jordanova 2000, pp. 34–35Veysey 1979, p. 1 - Tosh, John (2002). The Pursuit of History: Aims, Methods and New Directions in the Study of Modern History. Pearson Education. ISBN 978-0-582-77254-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=bM1mAAAAMAAJ ↩

59. Kamp et al. 2020, p. 78Christian 2008, pp. 97–99Jordanova 2000, p. 34 - Kamp, Jeannette; Legêne, Susan; Rossum, Matthias van; Rümke, Sebas (2020). Writing History!: A Companion for Historians. Amsterdam University Press. ISBN 978-90-485-3762-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=vt_IDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 ↩

60. Van Nieuwenhuyse 2020, p. 375Christian 2008, pp. 98–99Stearns 2001, Table of ContentsChristian 2015, p. 7 - Van Nieuwenhuyse, Karel (2020). "From Knowing the National Past to Doing History". In Berg, Christopher W.; Christou, Theodore M. (eds.). The Palgrave Handbook of History and Social Studies Education. Springer. pp. 355–386. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-37210-1_14. ISBN 978-3-030-37210-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=bhLbDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA375 ↩

61. There are disagreements about when exactly each period starts and ends. Alternative subdivisions may use overlapping or radically different time frames.[64] ↩

62. Christian 2015, pp. 5–6Northrup 2015, pp. 110–111 - Christian, David (2015). "Introduction and Overview". In Christian, David (ed.). The Cambridge World History. Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–38. doi:10.1017/CBO9781139194662. ISBN 978-0-521-76333-2. https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/cambridge-world-history/F3021D314888B26D40EF701D7F060799 ↩

63. Hsu 1993, p. 161Arcodia & Basciano 2021, p. xv - Hsu, Cho-yun (1993). "Chinese Periodization". In Stearns, Peter N. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Social History. Routledge. pp. 161–163. ISBN 978-1-135-58347-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=EJeNAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA161 ↩

64. Northrup 2015, p. 111 - Northrup, David R. (2015). "From Divergence to Convergence: Centrifugal and Centripetal Forces in History". In Christian, David (ed.). The Cambridge World History. Cambridge University Press. pp. 110–131. doi:10.1017/CBO9781139194662. ISBN 978-0-521-76333-2. https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/cambridge-world-history/F3021D314888B26D40EF701D7F060799 ↩

65. Tuniz & Vipraio 2016, pp. 1, 10Stearns 2010, pp. 17–20Aldenderfer 2011, p. 4 - Tuniz, Claudio; Vipraio, Patrizia Tiberi (2016). Humans: An Unauthorized Biography. Springer. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-31021-3. ISBN 978-3-319-31021-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=jW1BDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 ↩

66. Christian 2015, p. 2Stearns 2010, pp. 17–20Wragg-Sykes 2016, pp. 195, 199, 211, 221 - Christian, David (2015). "Introduction and Overview". In Christian, David (ed.). The Cambridge World History. Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–38. doi:10.1017/CBO9781139194662. ISBN 978-0-521-76333-2. https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/cambridge-world-history/F3021D314888B26D40EF701D7F060799 ↩

67. Aldenderfer 2011, p. 1Tuniz & Vipraio 2016, p. v - Aldenderfer, Mark (2011). "Era 1: Beginnings of Human Society to 4000 BCE". World History Encyclopedia. Vol. 2. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 1–327. ISBN 978-1-85109-930-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=s5X3EAAAQBAJ&pg=RA1-PA1 ↩

68. Stearns 2010, pp. 19–32Bulliet et al. 2015, pp. 1–2, 89–90Ackermann et al. 2008, pp. xxix–xxxix - Stearns, Peter N. (2010). World History: The Basics. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-136-88817-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=LMMtCgAAQBAJ ↩

69. Stearns 2010, pp. 33–36Bulliet et al. 2015, pp. 193–194, 291–292 - Stearns, Peter N. (2010). World History: The Basics. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-136-88817-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=LMMtCgAAQBAJ ↩

70. New diseases and European military aggression and exploitation had severe consequences in the form of a drastic loss of life and cultural disruption among Indigenous communities in the Americas.[74] ↩

71. Stearns 2010, pp. 36–39Bulliet et al. 2015, pp. 401–402 - Stearns, Peter N. (2010). World History: The Basics. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-136-88817-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=LMMtCgAAQBAJ ↩

72. Stearns 2010, pp. 39–46Bulliet et al. 2015, pp. 537–538, 677–678, 817–818 - Stearns, Peter N. (2010). World History: The Basics. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-136-88817-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=LMMtCgAAQBAJ ↩

73. Tosh 2002, pp. 108–109Jordanova 2000, pp. 34, 46–47 - Tosh, John (2002). The Pursuit of History: Aims, Methods and New Directions in the Study of Modern History. Pearson Education. ISBN 978-0-582-77254-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=bM1mAAAAMAAJ ↩

74. Diamond 1999, pp. 22, 25–32Darby 2002, p. 14Baker 2003, p. 23Jordanova 2000, pp. 34, 46–47 - Diamond, Jared (1999). Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies. W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-06922-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=PWnWRFEGoeUC&pg=PA1 ↩

75. Emphasizing the central relation between geography and history, Jules Michelet wrote in the 1869 preface of his Histoire de France: "without geographical basis, the people, the makers of history, seem to be walking on air".[80] /wiki/Jules_Michelet ↩

76. Tosh 2002, pp. 108–109Jordanova 2000, pp. 46–47 - Tosh, John (2002). The Pursuit of History: Aims, Methods and New Directions in the Study of Modern History. Pearson Education. ISBN 978-0-582-77254-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=bM1mAAAAMAAJ ↩

77. Fisher 2014, p. 127Tuniz & Vipraio 2016, p. 12Stearns 2010, pp. 17–20 - Fisher, Michael H. (2014). Migration: A World History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-976434-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=Ytx1DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA127 ↩

78. Iliffe 2007, p. 5Stearns 2010, pp. 24–25 - Iliffe, John (2007). Africans: The History of a Continent (2 ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-86438-1. ↩

79. Asante 2024, p. 92 - Asante, Molefi Kete (2024). The History of Africa: The Quest for Eternal Harmony (4 ed.). Routledge. doi:10.4324/9781003351306. ISBN 978-1-003-81615-7. https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/mono/10.4324/9781003351306/history-africa-molefi-kete-asante ↩

80. Shillington 2018, pp. 93–94Iliffe 2007, pp. 2, 42–45 - Shillington, Kevin (2018). History of Africa. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-1-137-52481-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=rxtHEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA93 ↩

81. Shillington 2018, p. 103Iliffe 2007, pp. 131–132 - Shillington, Kevin (2018). History of Africa. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-1-137-52481-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=rxtHEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA93 ↩

82. Iliffe 2007, pp. 193–195 - Iliffe, John (2007). Africans: The History of a Continent (2 ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-86438-1. ↩

83. Shillington 2018, p. 417Iliffe 2007, pp. 242, 253, 260, 267–268 - Shillington, Kevin (2018). History of Africa. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-1-137-52481-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=rxtHEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA93 ↩

84. Tuniz & Vipraio 2016, p. 15Headrick 2009, p. 6Wragg-Sykes 2016, p. 199 - Tuniz, Claudio; Vipraio, Patrizia Tiberi (2016). Humans: An Unauthorized Biography. Springer. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-31021-3. ISBN 978-3-319-31021-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=jW1BDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 ↩

85. Mason 2005, pp. 17–18Murphey & Stapleton 2019, pp. 10–13Cotterell 2011, pp. xiii, 3–4AASA 2011, pp. 3–4Stearns 2010, pp. 24–25 - Mason, Colin (2005). A Short History of Asia (2 ed.). Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-4039-3611-0. ↩

86. Cotterell 2011, pp. xiii–xivAASA 2011, pp. 3–4 - Cotterell, Arthur (2011). Asia: A Concise History. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-470-82959-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=9_vVTWXK5kQC&pg=PA1 ↩

87. Cotterell 2011, pp. 256–257Mason 2005, pp. 77–78 - Cotterell, Arthur (2011). Asia: A Concise History. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-470-82959-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=9_vVTWXK5kQC&pg=PA1 ↩

88. Mason 2005, pp. 111–112, 167–168Murphey & Stapleton 2019, pp. 282–283Cotterell 2011, pp. xvii–xviiiRana 2012, pp. 13–14 - Mason, Colin (2005). A Short History of Asia (2 ed.). Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-4039-3611-0. ↩

89. Murphey & Stapleton 2019, p. 445Mason 2005, p. 1Rana 2012, pp. 13–14 - Murphey, Rhoads; Stapleton, Kristin (2019). A History of Asia. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-351-23189-3. ↩

90. Tuniz & Vipraio 2016, p. 12 - Tuniz, Claudio; Vipraio, Patrizia Tiberi (2016). Humans: An Unauthorized Biography. Springer. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-31021-3. ISBN 978-3-319-31021-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=jW1BDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 ↩

91. Roberts 1997, § The Importance of the Classical Past, § The Greeks, § An Attempt to Summarize - Roberts, J. (1997). The Penguin History of Europe. Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-192509-7. ↩

92. Roberts 1997, § The Importance of the Classical Past, § The Rise of Roman Power, § EmpireBlack 2021, § What is Europe? - Roberts, J. (1997). The Penguin History of Europe. Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-192509-7. ↩

93. Roberts 1997, § Decline and Fall in the West, § ChristiandomBlack 2021, § What is Europe? - Roberts, J. (1997). The Penguin History of Europe. Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-192509-7. ↩

94. Roberts 1997, § Launching Modern History 1500–1800Stearns 2010, pp. 36–39Bulliet et al. 2015, pp. 401–402 - Roberts, J. (1997). The Penguin History of Europe. Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-192509-7. ↩

95. Roberts 1997, § The European AgeStearns 2010, pp. 39–42Bulliet et al. 2015, pp. 677–678 - Roberts, J. (1997). The Penguin History of Europe. Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-192509-7. ↩

96. Roberts 1997, § Europe's Twentieth Century: The Era of European Civil WarStearns 2010, p. 44Bulliet et al. 2015, pp. 677–678 - Roberts, J. (1997). The Penguin History of Europe. Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-192509-7. ↩

97. Roberts 1997, § Europe in the Cold War and After, § European IntegrationAlcock 2002, pp. 266–268Stearns 2010, pp. 39–46Bulliet et al. 2015, pp. 677–678, 817–818Andrén 2022, pp. 298, 304 - Roberts, J. (1997). The Penguin History of Europe. Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-192509-7. ↩

98. Fisher 2014, p. 127Tuniz & Vipraio 2016, p. 12 - Fisher, Michael H. (2014). Migration: A World History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-976434-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=Ytx1DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA127 ↩

99. Ackermann et al. 2008, pp. xvii–xixFernández-Armesto 2003, § Between Colonizations: The Americas' First 'Normalcy'Dorling Kindersley 2018, pp. 94–95 - Ackermann, Marsha E.; Schroeder, Michael J.; Terry, Janice J.; Upshur, Jiu-Hwa Lo; Whitters, Mark F., eds. (2008). Encyclopedia of World History 1: The Ancient World, Prehistoric Eras to 600 CE. Facts on File. ISBN 978-0-8160-6386-4. https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofworldhistory_201912 ↩

100. Fernández-Armesto 2003, § Between Colonizations: The Americas' First 'Normalcy'Dorling Kindersley 2018, pp. 94–95 - Fernández-Armesto, Felipe (2003). The Americas: A Hemispheric History. Random House. ISBN 978-1-58836-302-2. ↩

101. Fernández-Armesto 2003, § Colonial Americas: Divergence and its Limits, § The Independence EraStearns 2010, pp. 36–38Dorling Kindersley 2018, p. 95 - Fernández-Armesto, Felipe (2003). The Americas: A Hemispheric History. Random House. ISBN 978-1-58836-302-2. ↩

102. Fernández-Armesto 2003, § The Independence EraRaab & Rinke 2019, p. 20 - Fernández-Armesto, Felipe (2003). The Americas: A Hemispheric History. Random House. ISBN 978-1-58836-302-2. ↩

103. Fernández-Armesto 2003, § The American CenturyBulliet et al. 2015, pp. 817–818 - Fernández-Armesto, Felipe (2003). The Americas: A Hemispheric History. Random House. ISBN 978-1-58836-302-2. ↩

104. Tuniz & Vipraio 2016, p. 12Lawson 2024, p. 57d'Arcy 2012, § Indigenous Exploration and Colonization of the Region - Tuniz, Claudio; Vipraio, Patrizia Tiberi (2016). Humans: An Unauthorized Biography. Springer. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-31021-3. ISBN 978-3-319-31021-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=jW1BDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 ↩

105. Lawson 2024, pp. 32, 57d'Arcy 2012, § Indigenous Exploration and Colonization of the Region - Lawson, Stephanie (2024). Regional Politics in Oceania: From Colonialism and Cold War to the Pacific Century. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-009-42758-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=T6j4EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 ↩

106. Lawson 2024, pp. 59–60, 85–86d'Arcy 2012, § The Intersection of European and Indigenous Worlds, § The Impact of Pre-Colonial European Influences, § European Settler Societies and Plantation Colonies - Lawson, Stephanie (2024). Regional Politics in Oceania: From Colonialism and Cold War to the Pacific Century. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-009-42758-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=T6j4EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 ↩

107. d'Arcy 2012, § Times of Anxiety: World Wars, Pandemic, and Economic Depression, § Post-War Themes: The Nuclear Pacific, Decolonization, and the Search for IdentityLawson 2024, pp. xii, 2, 96 - d'Arcy, Paul (2012). "Oceania and Australasia". In Bentley, Jerry H. (ed.). Oxford Handbook of World History. Oxford University Press. pp. 546–563. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199235810.013.0031. ISBN 978-0-19-923581-0. https://academic.oup.com/edited-volume/34513/chapter-abstract/292859287 ↩

108. Jordanova 2000, pp. 34–35Yurdusev 2003, p. 24Tosh 2002, p. 109Gardiner 1988, pp. 1–3 - Jordanova, Ludmilla (2000). History in Practice. Arnold Publishers. ISBN 978-0-340-66331-8. ↩

109. Tosh 2002, pp. 109, 122Jordanova 2000, pp. 34–35Gardiner 1988, pp. 1–3 - Tosh, John (2002). The Pursuit of History: Aims, Methods and New Directions in the Study of Modern History. Pearson Education. ISBN 978-0-582-77254-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=bM1mAAAAMAAJ ↩

110. Tosh 2002, pp. 109–110Jordanova 2000, pp. 35–36 - Tosh, John (2002). The Pursuit of History: Aims, Methods and New Directions in the Study of Modern History. Pearson Education. ISBN 978-0-582-77254-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=bM1mAAAAMAAJ ↩

111. Tosh 2002, p. 110Arnold 2000, pp. 16–17, 33–34, 41Woolf 2019, pp. 21–25 - Tosh, John (2002). The Pursuit of History: Aims, Methods and New Directions in the Study of Modern History. Pearson Education. ISBN 978-0-582-77254-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=bM1mAAAAMAAJ ↩

112. Tosh 2002, pp. 112–113Watt et al. 1988, pp. 131–133 - Tosh, John (2002). The Pursuit of History: Aims, Methods and New Directions in the Study of Modern History. Pearson Education. ISBN 978-0-582-77254-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=bM1mAAAAMAAJ ↩

113. Howard et al. 1988, pp. 4–5Morillo 2017, § 1. An Introduction to Military History - Howard, Michael; Bond, Brian; Stagg, J. C. A.; Chandler, David; Best, Geoffrey; Terrine, John (1988). "What Is Military History … ?". In Gardiner, Juliet (ed.). What Is History Today … ?. Macmillan Education UK. pp. 4–17. doi:10.1007/978-1-349-19161-1_2. ISBN 978-1-349-19161-1. https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-349-19161-1_2 ↩

114. Tosh 2002, pp. 122–124Coleman et al. 1988, pp. 31–32 - Tosh, John (2002). The Pursuit of History: Aims, Methods and New Directions in the Study of Modern History. Pearson Education. ISBN 978-0-582-77254-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=bM1mAAAAMAAJ ↩

115. Samuel et al. 1988, pp. 48–51Tosh 2002, pp. 125–127Stearns 2021 - Samuel, Raphael; Breuilly, John; Clark, J. C. D.; Hopkins, Keith; Cannadine, David (1988). "What Is Social History … ?". In Gardiner, Juliet (ed.). What Is History Today … ?. Macmillan Education UK. pp. 42–57. doi:10.1007/978-1-349-19161-1_5. ISBN 978-1-349-19161-1. https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-349-19161-1_5 ↩

116. Collinson et al. 1988, pp. 58–59Tosh 2002, pp. 101, 236–237, 286Burke 2019, § Introduction - Collinson, Patrick; Brooke, Christopher; Norman, Edward; Lake, Peter; Hempton, David (1988). "What Is Religious History … ?". In Gardiner, Juliet (ed.). What Is History Today … ?. Macmillan Education UK. pp. 58–68. doi:10.1007/978-1-349-19161-1_6. ISBN 978-1-349-19161-1. https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-349-19161-1_6 ↩

117. Tosh 2002, pp. 272–273Collini et al. 1988, pp. 105–106, 109–110 - Tosh, John (2002). The Pursuit of History: Aims, Methods and New Directions in the Study of Modern History. Pearson Education. ISBN 978-0-582-77254-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=bM1mAAAAMAAJ ↩

118. Santinello & Piaia 2010, pp. 487–488Verene 2008, pp. 6–8 - Santinello, Giovanni; Piaia, Gregorio (1 December 2010). Models of the History of Philosophy: Volume II: From Cartesian Age to Brucker. Springer. ISBN 978-90-481-9507-7. Retrieved 25 May 2023. https://books.google.com/books?id=gC2J3V7_TPUC ↩

119. Porter et al. 1988, pp. 78–79Williams 2024, § Lead section - Porter, Roy; Shapin, Steven; Schaffer, Simon; Young, Robert M.; Cooter, Roger; Crosland, Maurice (1988). "What Is the History of Science … ?". In Gardiner, Juliet (ed.). What Is History Today … ?. Macmillan Education UK. pp. 69–81. doi:10.1007/978-1-349-19161-1_7. ISBN 978-1-349-19161-1. https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-349-19161-1_7 ↩

120. Potts et al. 1988, pp. 96–104 - Potts, Alex; House, John; Hope, Charles; Gretton, Tom (1988). "What Is the History of Art … ?". In Gardiner, Juliet (ed.). What Is History Today … ?. Macmillan Education UK. pp. 96–104. doi:10.1007/978-1-349-19161-1_9. ISBN 978-1-349-19161-1. https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-349-19161-1_9 ↩

121. Hughes 2016, p. 1 - Hughes, J. Donald (2016). What Is Environmental History?. Polity. ISBN 978-0-7456-8844-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=-WZNDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 ↩

122. Tosh 2002, pp. 101, 112–113, 124–125, 127, 129Yapp et al. 1988, pp. 155, 158Antonellos & Rantall 2017, p. 115Buchanan 2024, Lead sectionRamsay 2008, p. 283 - Tosh, John (2002). The Pursuit of History: Aims, Methods and New Directions in the Study of Modern History. Pearson Education. ISBN 978-0-582-77254-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=bM1mAAAAMAAJ ↩

123. Tosh 2002, pp. 244–245Howell & Prevenier 2001, pp. 81, 92–93Zaagsma 2023, § IntroductionJordanova 2000, pp. 49–50 - Tosh, John (2002). The Pursuit of History: Aims, Methods and New Directions in the Study of Modern History. Pearson Education. ISBN 978-0-582-77254-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=bM1mAAAAMAAJ ↩

124. Wong 2005, pp. 416–417 - Wong, R. Bin (2005). "Comparative History". Berkshire Encyclopedia of World History. Berkshire Publishing. pp. 630–635. ISBN 978-0-9743091-0-1. JSTOR jj.9941129. https://www.jstor.org/stable/jj.9941129 ↩

125. Sitton, Mehaffy & Davis 2011, p. 4Abrams 2016, 2. The Peculiarities of Oral HistoryMiller 2024, pp. 157–158Thomson 2012, p. 80 - Sitton, Thad; Mehaffy, George L.; Davis, O. L. (2011). Oral History: A Guide for Teachers (and Others). University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-292-78582-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=xcwc7iAa1vkC&pg=PA4 ↩

126. Zhao 2023, pp. 9–10Birke, Butter & Köppe 2011, p. 7 - Zhao, Helen (2023). "Counterfactual History: Three Worries and Replies". Journal of the Philosophy of History. 17 (1): 9–30. doi:10.1163/18722636-12341487. https://doi.org/10.1163%2F18722636-12341487 ↩

127. Howell & Prevenier 2001, pp. 13–14, 113–114Tosh 2002, pp. 27, 224–225, 238Veysey 1979, p. 1 - Howell, Martha C.; Prevenier, Walter (2001). From Reliable Sources: An Introduction to Historical Methods. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-8560-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=wSqgwOZPjJ4C&pg=PA1 ↩

128. Hesketh 2023, pp. 1–4, 41 - Hesketh, Ian (2023). A History of Big History. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-009-04156-0. ↩

129. Christian 2015, p. 3Stearns 2010, pp. 11–13, 17–20 - Christian, David (2015). "Introduction and Overview". In Christian, David (ed.). The Cambridge World History. Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–38. doi:10.1017/CBO9781139194662. ISBN 978-0-521-76333-2. https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/cambridge-world-history/F3021D314888B26D40EF701D7F060799 ↩

130. Bod 2013, p. 260O'Hara 2019, p. 176 - Bod, Rens (2013). A New History of the Humanities: The Search for Principles and Patterns from Antiquity to the Present. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-966521-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=KaOcAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA260 ↩

131. Tosh 2002, pp. 113–115De Armond 2023, p. 75 - Tosh, John (2002). The Pursuit of History: Aims, Methods and New Directions in the Study of Modern History. Pearson Education. ISBN 978-0-582-77254-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=bM1mAAAAMAAJ ↩

132. Glassberg 1996, pp. 7–8Tosh 2002, pp. xiv–xvStanton 2017, p. 224 - Glassberg, David (1996). "Public History and the Study of Memory". The Public Historian. 18 (2): 7–23. doi:10.2307/3377910. JSTOR 3377910. https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3377910 ↩

133. Fagan & Durrani 2019, § Written Records, Oral History, and ArchaeologyWright 2006Tosh 2002, pp. 1–3, 295 - Fagan, Brian M.; Durrani, Nadia (2019). World Prehistory: A Brief Introduction (10th ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-0-429-77280-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=dB24DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT54 ↩

134. Woolf 2019, pp. 20–21Wright 2006Lefkowitz 2008, pp. 353–354 - Woolf, Daniel (2019). A Concise History of History: Global Historiography from Antiquity to the Present. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-108-42619-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 ↩

135. Herodotus is traditionally considered the "father of history" but has also been called the "father of lies" because not all of his accounts were reliable.[141] ↩

136. Woolf 2019, pp. 21–23Wright 2006Jensen, § 1. Ancient through MedievalLefkowitz 2008, pp. 354–355 - Woolf, Daniel (2019). A Concise History of History: Global Historiography from Antiquity to the Present. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-108-42619-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 ↩

137. Woolf 2019, pp. 23–24Jensen, § 1. Ancient through MedievalLefkowitz 2008, p. 356 - Woolf, Daniel (2019). A Concise History of History: Global Historiography from Antiquity to the Present. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-108-42619-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 ↩

138. This aspect is also found to some degree in works of Greek historians, including Herodotus and Polybius.[144] /wiki/Polybius ↩

139. Woolf 2019, pp. 28–30, 34Comber 2006, pp. 38–40, 42–43 - Woolf, Daniel (2019). A Concise History of History: Global Historiography from Antiquity to the Present. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-108-42619-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 ↩

140. Woolf 2019, pp. 35–39, 41–42Morgan 2006, pp. 14–15 - Woolf, Daniel (2019). A Concise History of History: Global Historiography from Antiquity to the Present. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-108-42619-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 ↩

141. Wright 2006Woolf 2019, pp. 39–43 - Wright, Edmund, ed. (2006). "Historiography". A Dictionary of World History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-280700-7. https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095938853 ↩

142. Vašíček 2008, pp. 33–34Bayly 2006, pp. 664–665Singh 2008, pp. 18–19 - Vašíček, Zdeněk (2008). "Philosophy of History". In Tucker, Aviezer (ed.). A Companion to the Philosophy of History and Historiography. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 26–43. doi:10.1002/9781444304916.ch3. ISBN 978-1-4443-0491-6. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781444304916.ch3 ↩

143. Woolf 2019, pp. 49–50Wright 2006Breisach 2005, § Christian Traditional Historiography - Woolf, Daniel (2019). A Concise History of History: Global Historiography from Antiquity to the Present. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-108-42619-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 ↩

144. Woolf 2019, pp. 49–52, 55Wright 2006Breisach 2005, § Christian Traditional Historiography - Woolf, Daniel (2019). A Concise History of History: Global Historiography from Antiquity to the Present. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-108-42619-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 ↩

145. Woolf 2019, pp. 56–57Wright 2006Breisach 2005, § Islamic Traditional HistoriographyMorgan 2006, pp. 9–10 - Woolf, Daniel (2019). A Concise History of History: Global Historiography from Antiquity to the Present. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-108-42619-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 ↩

146. Woolf 2019, pp. 57, 60Wright 2006Breisach 2005, § Islamic Traditional HistoriographyMorgan 2006, pp. 11, 14 - Woolf, Daniel (2019). A Concise History of History: Global Historiography from Antiquity to the Present. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-108-42619-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 ↩

147. Woolf 2019, pp. 64–65Breisach 2005, § Chinese Traditional Historiography - Woolf, Daniel (2019). A Concise History of History: Global Historiography from Antiquity to the Present. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-108-42619-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 ↩

148. Woolf 2019, pp. 68–69, 84 - Woolf, Daniel (2019). A Concise History of History: Global Historiography from Antiquity to the Present. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-108-42619-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 ↩

149. Woolf 2019, pp. 67–68Breisach 2005, § Japanese Traditional Historiography - Woolf, Daniel (2019). A Concise History of History: Global Historiography from Antiquity to the Present. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-108-42619-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 ↩

150. Woolf 2019, p. 84 - Woolf, Daniel (2019). A Concise History of History: Global Historiography from Antiquity to the Present. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-108-42619-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 ↩

151. Woolf 2019, pp. 78, 89, 124Breisach 2005, § The Age of Anthropocentric HistoriographyJensen, § 2. Humanism through RenaissanceArnold 2000, pp. 26–27 - Woolf, Daniel (2019). A Concise History of History: Global Historiography from Antiquity to the Present. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-108-42619-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 ↩

152. Wright 2006Woolf 2019, pp. 129–130, 134, 166–167Arnold 2000, pp. 46–51 - Wright, Edmund, ed. (2006). "Historiography". A Dictionary of World History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-280700-7. https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095938853 ↩

153. Woolf 2019, pp. 99–100Mittag 2012, pp. 27–28Ng 2012, pp. 60–62 - Woolf, Daniel (2019). A Concise History of History: Global Historiography from Antiquity to the Present. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-108-42619-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 ↩

154. Woolf 2019, pp. 101–106Quinn 2020, pp. 1–4, 8–10 - Woolf, Daniel (2019). A Concise History of History: Global Historiography from Antiquity to the Present. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-108-42619-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 ↩

155. Woolf 2019, pp. 5, 106–114 - Woolf, Daniel (2019). A Concise History of History: Global Historiography from Antiquity to the Present. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-108-42619-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 ↩

156. Wright 2006Woolf 2019, pp. 174–177Jensen, § 5. 19th Century Scientific HistoriographyMoloughney & Zarrow 2012, p. 2 - Wright, Edmund, ed. (2006). "Historiography". A Dictionary of World History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-280700-7. https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095938853 ↩

157. Wright 2006Jensen, § 5. 19th Century Scientific HistoriographyWoolf 2019, pp. 184–185 - Wright, Edmund, ed. (2006). "Historiography". A Dictionary of World History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-280700-7. https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095938853 ↩

158. Wright 2006Woolf 2019, pp. 187–189Jensen, § 4. 19th Century Teleological Systems - Wright, Edmund, ed. (2006). "Historiography". A Dictionary of World History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-280700-7. https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095938853 ↩

159. Woolf 2019, pp. 5–6, 196–197, 215–216 - Woolf, Daniel (2019). A Concise History of History: Global Historiography from Antiquity to the Present. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-108-42619-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 ↩

160. Woolf 2019, pp. 216–217, 279–280Wright 2006 - Woolf, Daniel (2019). A Concise History of History: Global Historiography from Antiquity to the Present. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-108-42619-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 ↩

161. Wright 2006Woolf 2019, pp. 229–230 - Wright, Edmund, ed. (2006). "Historiography". A Dictionary of World History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-280700-7. https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095938853 ↩

162. Woolf 2019, pp. 239–240, 242–245 - Woolf, Daniel (2019). A Concise History of History: Global Historiography from Antiquity to the Present. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-108-42619-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 ↩

163. Wright 2006Woolf 2019, pp. 232, 247–249, 255–256 - Wright, Edmund, ed. (2006). "Historiography". A Dictionary of World History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-280700-7. https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095938853 ↩

164. Woolf 2019, pp. 262–264, 268–269 - Woolf, Daniel (2019). A Concise History of History: Global Historiography from Antiquity to the Present. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-108-42619-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 ↩

165. Woolf 2019, pp. 251–252Collini et al. 1988, pp. 105–107 - Woolf, Daniel (2019). A Concise History of History: Global Historiography from Antiquity to the Present. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-108-42619-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 ↩

166. Moore 2006, pp. 918–919Woolf 2019, pp. 6, 297–300Wright 2006 - Moore, R. I. (2006). "World History". In Bentley, Michael (ed.). Companion to Historiography. Routledge. pp. 918–936. ISBN 978-1-134-97023-0. ↩

167. Woolf 2019, p. 3Tucker 2011, pp. xii, 2Ritter 1986, pp. 188–189Little 2020, § 4. Historiography and the Philosophy of History - Woolf, Daniel (2019). A Concise History of History: Global Historiography from Antiquity to the Present. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-108-42619-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 ↩

168. Little 2020, § 4. Historiography and the Philosophy of HistoryLloyd 2011, pp. 371, 374 - Little, Daniel (2020). "Philosophy of History". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Retrieved 7 November 2024. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/history/ ↩

169. Little 2020, § 4. Historiography and the Philosophy of HistoryCheng 2012, pp. 1–2 - Little, Daniel (2020). "Philosophy of History". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Retrieved 7 November 2024. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/history/ ↩

170. Howell & Prevenier 2001, pp. 110–111Tosh 2002, pp. 121, 133Little 2020, § 4. Historiography and the Philosophy of History - Howell, Martha C.; Prevenier, Walter (2001). From Reliable Sources: An Introduction to Historical Methods. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-8560-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=wSqgwOZPjJ4C&pg=PA1 ↩

171. Little 2020, § 4. Historiography and the Philosophy of HistoryBentley 2006, pp. xi, xvCheng 2012, pp. 1–2 - Little, Daniel (2020). "Philosophy of History". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Retrieved 7 November 2024. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/history/ ↩

172. Historical theory is a closely related term sometimes used as a synonym.[181] ↩

173. Carr 2006, Lead sectionJensen, Lead sectionLittle 2020, Lead section, § 1. History and its representationPaul 2015, p. 10 - Carr, David (2006). "Philosophy of History". In Borchert, Donald M. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 7: Oakeshott - Presupposition (2 ed.). Thomson Gale, Macmillan Reference. pp. 386–399. ISBN 978-0-02-865787-5. https://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/philosophy-history ↩

174. Little 2020, Lead section, § 1. History and its representationPaul 2015, p. 10 - Little, Daniel (2020). "Philosophy of History". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Retrieved 7 November 2024. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/history/ ↩

175. Stanford 1998, pp. 85–87Little 2020, § 3.3 Causation in history - Stanford, Michael (1998). An Introduction to the Philosophy of History. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-631-19941-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=PijhEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 ↩

176. Carr 2006, § 2. "Critical" Philosophy of History: Philosophical Reflection on Historical KnowledgeLittle 2020, § 3.1 General laws in history?, § 3.3 Causation in history - Carr, David (2006). "Philosophy of History". In Borchert, Donald M. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 7: Oakeshott - Presupposition (2 ed.). Thomson Gale, Macmillan Reference. pp. 386–399. ISBN 978-0-02-865787-5. https://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/philosophy-history ↩

177. Little 2020, § 2.2 Does history possess directionality?Stanford 1998, pp. 74–75Paul 2015, p. 10Kleingeld 2006, p. xxi - Little, Daniel (2020). "Philosophy of History". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Retrieved 7 November 2024. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/history/ ↩

178. Some philosophers have followed Francis Fukuyama in arguing that the "end of history" has already arrived based on the claim that the ideological evolution of humanity has reached its endpoint.[187] /wiki/Francis_Fukuyama ↩

179. Little 2020, § 4. Historiography and the philosophy of historyHeller 2016, § 14. The Specificity of Philosophy of History - Little, Daniel (2020). "Philosophy of History". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Retrieved 7 November 2024. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/history/ ↩

180. Lemon 2003, p. 125Stanford 1998, p. 155Carr 2006, § 4. Historicity, Historicism and the Historicization of PhilosophyVision 2023, § VI Truth Epistemologized: 6. Historicism - Lemon, M. C. (2003). Philosophy of History: A Guide for Students. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-71746-0. ↩

181. Little 2020, § 3.2 Historical objectivityCarr 2006, § 2. "Critical" Philosophy of History: Philosophical Reflection on Historical KnowledgeStanford 1998, pp. 50–53Paul 2015, p. 10Carr 1990, pp. 7–8, 21–22Evans 1999, pp. 1–4 - Little, Daniel (2020). "Philosophy of History". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Retrieved 7 November 2024. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/history/ ↩

182. Dray 2021, p. 58Wineburg 2018, p. 56Fasolt 2013, p. xixTrevelyan 1947, pp. 1–2Groot 2016, p. 173Jenkins 2003, pp. xi–xii, 44–45 - Dray, William (2021). On History and Philosophers of History. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-45157-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=4NEVEQAAQBAJ&pg=PA58 ↩

183. Donnelly & Norton 2012, pp. 35–39 - Donnelly, Mark; Norton, Claire (2012). Doing History. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-136-65694-1. ↩

184. Jenkins 2003, pp. 16–18 - Jenkins, Keith (2003). Rethinking History (3 ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-40827-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=nCyJ26nIuRgC&pg=PA44 ↩

185. The German historian Leopold von Ranke was among the most important proponents of this scientific approach in the 19th century.[194] Key modern scholars taking this view include Sir Geoffrey Elton, Arthur Marwick and E. P. Thompson.[193] /wiki/Leopold_von_Ranke ↩

186. These critiques rest on arguments including that: it is impossible to recover the totality of the past; as events have already passed, accounts cannot be verified against events but against other accounts; historical writing is mediated and constructed by the historian and the process of narrative construction involves interpretation and selective readings;[195] and evidence itself is necessarily subjective as its content is mediated through its maker and its survival through processes of selection.[196] From this viewpoint, hindsight and modern theorising also allow historians to piece together evidence and put forward interpretations that are only visible after the fact and do so from a biased perspective, meaning that history as the known past is a human creation.[197] ↩

187. Kragh 1987, pp. 56–57 - Kragh, Helge (1987). An Introduction to the Historiography of Science. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-38921-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=OX7d7u_2rF4C&pg=PA41 ↩

188. Kragh 1987, pp. 58–60Tucker 2008, pp. 3–4 - Kragh, Helge (1987). An Introduction to the Historiography of Science. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-38921-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=OX7d7u_2rF4C&pg=PA41 ↩

189. Among the proponnents of the more relativist viewpoint was E. H. Carr, whose What Is History? (1961) examined how historical and social contexts impact the way historians choose and analyse facts.[200] /wiki/E._H._Carr ↩

190. Donnelly & Norton 2012, p. 100 - Donnelly, Mark; Norton, Claire (2012). Doing History. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-136-65694-1. ↩

191. Some scholars argue that recognising the subjective nature of historical sources has the benefit of opening up new areas of research and new ways of engaging with historical subjects; it also provides new approaches for analysing sources, critiquing dominant narratives, and allowing historians to engage with different concepts.[202] ↩

192. Donnelly & Norton 2012, pp. 104–106 - Donnelly, Mark; Norton, Claire (2012). Doing History. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-136-65694-1. ↩

193. Scholars advocating for this view include Richard J. Evans.[203] /wiki/Richard_J._Evans ↩

194. Metzger & Harris 2018, p. 2 - Metzger, Scott Alan; Harris, Lauren McArthur (2018). "Introduction". In Metzger, Scott Alan; Harris, Lauren McArthur (eds.). The Wiley International Handbook of History Teaching and Learning. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 1–10. doi:10.1002/9781119100812.ch0. ISBN 978-1-119-10081-2. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781119100812.ch0 ↩

195. Hughes, Cox & Godard 2013, pp. 4–5, 10–11Metzger & Harris 2018, p. 3Levstik & Thornton 2018, pp. 476–477Cooper 1995, pp. 3–4 - Hughes, Pat; Cox, Kath; Godard, Gillian (2013). Primary History Curriculum Guide. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-12742-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=33guAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 ↩

196. Levstik & Thornton 2018, p. 477Cooper 1995, pp. 110–112 - Levstik, Linda S.; Thornton, Stephen J. (2018). "Reconceptualizing History for Early Childhood Through Early Adolescence". In Metzger, Scott Alan; Harris, Lauren McArthur (eds.). The Wiley International Handbook of History Teaching and Learning. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 473–501. doi:10.1002/9781119100812.ch18. ISBN 978-1-119-10081-2. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781119100812.ch18 ↩

197. Sharp et al. 2021, pp. 66–67, 71Hunt 2006, p. 49Phillips 2008, pp. 34, 48–50 - Sharp, Heather; Dallimore, Jonathon; Bedford, Alison; Kerby, Martin; Goulding, James; Güttner, Darius von; Heath, Treesa Clare; Zarmati, Louise (2021). Teaching Secondary History. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-108-96998-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=edxBEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA49 ↩

198. van Hover & Hicks 2018, pp. 407–408Metzger & Harris 2018, pp. 6–7Hunt 2006, p. 36Grant 2018, pp. 422–428 - van Hover, Stephanie; Hicks, David (2018). "History Teacher Preparation and Professional Development". In Metzger, Scott Alan; Harris, Lauren McArthur (eds.). The Wiley International Handbook of History Teaching and Learning. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 389–418. doi:10.1002/9781119100812.ch15. ISBN 978-1-119-10081-2. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781119100812.ch15 ↩

199. Metzger & Harris 2018, p. 6Cooper 1995, p. 2Liu et al. 2024, p. 623 - Metzger, Scott Alan; Harris, Lauren McArthur (2018). "Introduction". In Metzger, Scott Alan; Harris, Lauren McArthur (eds.). The Wiley International Handbook of History Teaching and Learning. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 1–10. doi:10.1002/9781119100812.ch0. ISBN 978-1-119-10081-2. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781119100812.ch0 ↩

200. Metzger & Harris 2018, pp. 3, 6–7Sharp et al. 2021, p. 49Hunt 2006, pp. 6–7Miguel-Revilla et al. 2024, pp. 1–2 - Metzger, Scott Alan; Harris, Lauren McArthur (2018). "Introduction". In Metzger, Scott Alan; Harris, Lauren McArthur (eds.). The Wiley International Handbook of History Teaching and Learning. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 1–10. doi:10.1002/9781119100812.ch0. ISBN 978-1-119-10081-2. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781119100812.ch0 ↩

201. Sharp et al. 2021, p. 49Zajda 2015, pp. 5–6 - Sharp, Heather; Dallimore, Jonathon; Bedford, Alison; Kerby, Martin; Goulding, James; Güttner, Darius von; Heath, Treesa Clare; Zarmati, Louise (2021). Teaching Secondary History. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-108-96998-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=edxBEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA49 ↩

202. Girard & Harris 2018, p. 258Schneider 2008, pp. 107–108 - Girard, Brian; Harris, Lauren McArthur (2018). "Global and World History Education". In Metzger, Scott Alan; Harris, Lauren McArthur (eds.). The Wiley International Handbook of History Teaching and Learning. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 253–279. doi:10.1002/9781119100812.ch10. ISBN 978-1-119-10081-2. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781119100812.ch10 ↩

203. For example, some Japanese high school history textbooks have faced various criticisms for playing down Japan's colonial and wartime activities.[213] /wiki/Japanese_history_textbook_controversies ↩

204. Stoddard 2018, pp. 631–632Clark & Grever 2018, p. 181 - Stoddard, Jeremy D. (2018). "Learning History Beyond School". In Metzger, Scott Alan; Harris, Lauren McArthur (eds.). The Wiley International Handbook of History Teaching and Learning. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 631–656. doi:10.1002/9781119100812.ch24. ISBN 978-1-119-10081-2. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781119100812.ch24 ↩

205. Clark & Grever 2018, pp. 181, 184Korte & Paletschek 2014, pp. 7–8 - Clark, Anna; Grever, Maria (2018). "Historical Consciousness". In Metzger, Scott Alan; Harris, Lauren McArthur (eds.). The Wiley International Handbook of History Teaching and Learning. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 177–201. doi:10.1002/9781119100812.ch7. ISBN 978-1-119-10081-2. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781119100812.ch7 ↩

206. Leavy 2011, p. 4Abrams 2016, 2. The Peculiarities of Oral History - Leavy, Patricia (2011). Oral History: Understanding Qualitative Research. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-539509-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=2Zk6DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA4 ↩

207. Tuniz & Vipraio 2016, p. vKamp et al. 2020, p. 36Manning 2020, pp. 1–2Norberg & Deutsch 2023, p. 15Aldenderfer 2011, p. 1 - Tuniz, Claudio; Vipraio, Patrizia Tiberi (2016). Humans: An Unauthorized Biography. Springer. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-31021-3. ISBN 978-3-319-31021-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=jW1BDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 ↩

208. They are sometimes grouped under the label auxiliary sciences of history.[218] /wiki/Auxiliary_sciences_of_history ↩

209. Tuniz & Vipraio 2016, pp. v, 1, 15Tosh 2002, pp. 11, 55 - Tuniz, Claudio; Vipraio, Patrizia Tiberi (2016). Humans: An Unauthorized Biography. Springer. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-31021-3. ISBN 978-3-319-31021-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=jW1BDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 ↩

210. Gaskell & Carter 2020, pp. 1–5 - Gaskell, Ivan; Carter, Sarah Anne (2020). "Introduction: Why History and Material Culture?". In Gaskell, Ivan; Carter, Sarah Anne (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of History and Material Culture. Oxford University Press. pp. 1–13. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199341764.002.0008 (inactive 9 March 2025). ISBN 978-0-19-934176-4. https://academic.oup.com/edited-volume/28036/chapter/211920648 ↩

211. Manning 2020, pp. 2–3 - Manning, Patrick (2020). Methods for Human History: Studying Social, Cultural, and Biological Evolution. Springer. ISBN 978-3-030-53882-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=iuv_DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 ↩

212. Tuniz & Vipraio 2016, pp. 4, 10, 13–16Relethford 2012, p. 237 - Tuniz, Claudio; Vipraio, Patrizia Tiberi (2016). Humans: An Unauthorized Biography. Springer. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-31021-3. ISBN 978-3-319-31021-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=jW1BDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 ↩

213. Tuniz & Vipraio 2016, pp. v, 1, 11, 19Tosh 2002, pp. 34, 205 - Tuniz, Claudio; Vipraio, Patrizia Tiberi (2016). Humans: An Unauthorized Biography. Springer. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-31021-3. ISBN 978-3-319-31021-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=jW1BDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 ↩

214. Tosh 2002, pp. 90, 186–187Lewis 2012, § The Disciplines of Space and Time - Tosh, John (2002). The Pursuit of History: Aims, Methods and New Directions in the Study of Modern History. Pearson Education. ISBN 978-0-582-77254-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=bM1mAAAAMAAJ ↩

215. Manning 2020, p. 3 - Manning, Patrick (2020). Methods for Human History: Studying Social, Cultural, and Biological Evolution. Springer. ISBN 978-3-030-53882-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=iuv_DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 ↩

216. Southgate 2005, pp. xi, 21Arnold 2000, p. 121White & Millett 2019, pp. 419–421 - Southgate, Beverley C. (2005). What Is History For?. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-35098-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=rHXrMbXUsQ8C&pg=PA1 ↩

217. Wiles 1978, pp. 4–6Johnson 2024, § 10. Historiography and HistoryLaw 2012, p. 1 - Wiles, Maurice (1978). "In What Sense is Christianity a 'Historical' Religion?". Theology. 81 (679): 4–14. doi:10.1177/0040571X7808100102. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0040571X7808100102 ↩

218. Porter et al. 1988, pp. 78–79Verene 2008, pp. 6–8Potts et al. 1988, pp. 96–104 - Porter, Roy; Shapin, Steven; Schaffer, Simon; Young, Robert M.; Cooter, Roger; Crosland, Maurice (1988). "What Is the History of Science … ?". In Gardiner, Juliet (ed.). What Is History Today … ?. Macmillan Education UK. pp. 69–81. doi:10.1007/978-1-349-19161-1_7. ISBN 978-1-349-19161-1. https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-349-19161-1_7 ↩