Menu
Home Explore People Places Arts History Plants & Animals Science Life & Culture Technology
On this page

Meditation is a practice that trains attention and awareness to achieve a calm and stable mental state without judgment. Techniques fall into focused methods, such as attention to breath or mantras, and open monitoring methods like mindfulness. It appears in many religious traditions, including Jainism, Buddhism, and Hinduism, with early references in the Upanishads. Meditation techniques also occur in Christianity, Islam, and Judaism. Beyond spirituality, meditation reduces stress, anxiety, and depression, enhancing well-being and perception. Ongoing research explores its effects on health including psychological and neurological benefits.

We don't have any images related to Meditation yet.
We don't have any YouTube videos related to Meditation yet.
We don't have any PDF documents related to Meditation yet.
We don't have any Books related to Meditation yet.

Etymology

The English meditation is derived from Old French meditacioun, in turn from Latin meditatio from a verb meditari, meaning "to think, contemplate, devise, ponder".1516 In the Catholic tradition, the use of the term meditatio as part of a formal, stepwise process of meditation goes back to at least the 12th-century monk Guigo II,1718 before which the Greek word theoria was used for the same purpose.

Apart from its historical usage, the term meditation was introduced as a translation for Eastern spiritual practices, referred to as dhyāna in Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism, which comes from the Sanskrit root dhyai, meaning to contemplate or meditate.192021 The greek word theoria actually derives from the same root.22

The term "meditation" in English may also refer to practices from Islamic Sufism,23 or other traditions such as Jewish Kabbalah and Christian Hesychasm.24

Definitions

Difficulties in defining meditation

No universally accepted definition for meditation

Meditation has proven difficult to define as it covers a wide range of dissimilar practices in different traditions and cultures.25 In popular usage, the word "meditation" and the phrase "meditative practice" are often used imprecisely to designate practices found across many cultures.2627 These can include almost anything that is claimed to train the attention of mind or to teach calmness or compassion.28 There remains no definition of necessary and sufficient criteria for meditation that has achieved widespread acceptance within the modern scientific community.

Separation of technique from tradition

Some of the difficulty in precisely defining meditation has been in recognizing the particularities of the many various traditions;29 and theories and practice can differ within a tradition.30 Taylor noted that even within a faith such as "Hindu" or "Buddhist", schools and individual teachers may teach distinct types of meditation.31 Ornstein noted that "Most techniques of meditation do not exist as solitary practices but are only artificially separable from an entire system of practice and belief."32 For instance, while monks meditate as part of their everyday lives, they also engage in the codified rules and live together in monasteries in specific cultural settings that go along with their meditative practices.

Dictionary definitions

Dictionaries give both the original Latin meaning of "think[ing] deeply about (something)", as well as the popular usages of "focusing one's mind for a period of time",33 "the act of giving your attention to only one thing, either as a religious activity or as a way of becoming calm and relaxed",34 and "to engage in mental exercise (such as concentrating on one's breathing or repetition of a mantra) for the purpose of reaching a heightened level of spiritual awareness."35

Scholarly definitions

In modern psychological research, meditation has been defined and characterized in various ways. Many of these emphasize the role of attention36373839 and characterize the practice of meditation as attempts to detach from reflexive, "discursive thinking,"40 not judging the meditation-process itself ("logical relaxation"),41 to achieve a deeper, more devout, or more relaxed state.

Bond et al. (2009) identified criteria for defining a practice as meditation "for use in a comprehensive systematic review of the therapeutic use of meditation", using "a 5-round Delphi study with a panel of 7 experts in meditation research" who were also trained in diverse but empirically highly studied (Eastern-derived or clinical) forms of meditation42:

three main criteria ... as essential to any meditation practice: the use of a defined technique, logic relaxation,43 and a self-induced state/mode.

Other criteria deemed important [but not essential] involve a state of psychophysical relaxation, the use of a self-focus skill or anchor, the presence of a state of suspension of logical thought processes, a religious/spiritual/philosophical context, or a state of mental silence.44

... It is plausible that meditation is best thought of as a natural category of techniques best captured by 'family resemblances' ... or by the related 'prototype' model of concepts."45

Several other definitions of meditation have been used by influential modern reviews of research on meditation across multiple traditions:46

  • Walsh & Shapiro (2006): "Meditation refers to a family of self-regulation practices that focus on training attention and awareness in order to bring mental processes under greater voluntary control and thereby foster general mental well-being and development and/or specific capacities such as calm, clarity, and concentration"47
  • Cahn & Polich (2006): "Meditation is used to describe practices that self-regulate the body and mind, thereby affecting mental events by engaging a specific attentional set.... regulation of attention is the central commonality across the many divergent methods"48
  • Jevning et al. (1992): "We define meditation... as a stylized mental technique... repetitively practiced for the purpose of attaining a subjective experience that is frequently described as very restful, silent, and of heightened alertness, often characterized as blissful"49
  • Goleman (1988): "the need for the meditator to retrain his attention, whether through concentration or mindfulness, is the single invariant ingredient in... every meditation system"50

Classifications

Focused and open methods

In the West, meditation techniques have often been classified in two broad categories, which in actual practice are often combined: focused (or concentrative) meditation and open monitoring (or mindfulness) meditation:51

Direction of mental attention... A practitioner can focus intensively on one particular object (so-called concentrative meditation), on all mental events that enter the field of awareness (so-called mindfulness meditation), or both specific focal points and the field of awareness.52

Focused methods include paying attention to the breath, to an idea or feeling (such as mettā – loving-kindness), to a kōan, or to a mantra (such as in transcendental meditation), and single point meditation.5354 Open monitoring methods include mindfulness, shikantaza and other awareness states.55

Other possible typologies

Another typology divides meditation approaches into concentrative, generative, receptive and reflective practices:5657

  • concentrative: focused attention, including breath meditation, TM, and visualizations;
  • generative: developing qualities like loving kindness and compassion;
  • receptive: open monitoring;
  • reflective: systematic investigation, contemplation.

The Buddhist tradition often divides meditative practice into samatha, or calm abiding,5859 and vipassana, insight. Mindfulness of breathing, a form of focused attention, calms down the mind; this calmed mind can then investigate the nature of reality,606162 by monitoring the fleeting and ever-changing constituents of experience, by reflective investigation, or by "turning back the radiance," focusing awareness on awareness itself and discerning the true nature of mind as awareness itself.

Matko and Sedlmeier (2019) "call into question the common division into 'focused attention' and 'open-monitoring' practices." They argue for "two orthogonal dimensions along which meditation techniques could be classified," namely "activation" and "amount of body orientation," proposing seven clusters of techniques: "mindful observation, body-centered meditation, visual concentration, contemplation, affect-centered meditation, mantra meditation, and meditation with movement."63

Jonathan Shear argues that transcendental meditation is an "automatic self-transcending" technique, different from focused attention and open monitoring. In this kind of practice, "there is no attempt to sustain any particular condition at all. Practices of this kind, once started, are reported to automatically 'transcend' their own activity and disappear, to be started up again later if appropriate."64 Yet, Shear also states that "automatic self-transcending" also applies to the way other techniques such as from Zen and Qigong are practiced by experienced meditators "once they had become effortless and automatic through years of practice."65

Technique

Posture

Main article: Meditative postures

Asanas or body postures such as padmasana (full-lotus, half-lotus), cross-legged sitting, seiza, and kneeling positions are popular meditative postures in Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism,66 although other postures such as sitting, supine (lying), and standing are also used. Meditation is also sometimes done while walking, known as kinhin, while doing a simple task mindfully, known as samu, or while lying down, known as shavasana.6768

Frequency

The Transcendental Meditation technique recommends practice of 20 minutes twice per day.69 Some techniques suggest less time,70 especially when starting meditation,71 and Richard Davidson has quoted research saying benefits can be achieved with a practice of only 8 minutes per day.72 Research shows improvement in meditation time with simple oral and video training.73 Some meditators practice for much longer,7475 particularly when on a course or retreat.76 Some meditators find practice best in the hours before dawn.77

Supporting aids

Use of prayer beads

Some religions have traditions of using prayer beads as tools in devotional meditation.787980 Most prayer beads and Christian rosaries consist of pearls or beads linked together by a thread.8182 The Roman Catholic rosary is a string of beads containing five sets with ten small beads. Eastern and Oriental Orthodox have traditions of using prayer ropes called Comboschini or Meqetaria as an aid to prayerful meditation. The Hindu japa mala has 108 beads. The figure 108 in itself having spiritual significance as the energy of the sounds equivalates to Om,8384 as well as those used in Gaudiya Vaishnavism, the Hare Krishna tradition, and Jainism.8586 Buddhist prayer beads also have 108 beads, but hold a different meaning. In Buddhism, there are 108 human passions that impede enlightenment.87 Each bead is counted once as a person recites a mantra until the person has gone all the way around the mala.88 The Muslim misbaha has 99 beads. There is also quite a variance when it comes to materials used for beads. Beads made from seeds of rudraksha trees are considered sacred by devotees of Shiva, while followers of Vishnu revere the wood that comes from the Tulsi plant, also known as Holy Basil.89

Striking the meditator

The Buddhist literature has many stories of Enlightenment being attained through disciples being struck by their masters. T. Griffith Foulk recounts how the encouragement stick was an integral part of the Zen practice when he trained:

In the Rinzai monastery where I trained in the mid-1970s, according to an unspoken etiquette, monks who were sitting earnestly and well were shown respect by being hit vigorously and often; those known as laggards were ignored by the hall monitor or given little taps if they requested to be hit. Nobody asked about the 'meaning' of the stick, nobody explained, and nobody ever complained about its use.90

Using a narrative

Neuroscientist and long-time meditator Richard Davidson has expressed the view that having a narrative can help the maintenance of daily practice. For instance, he himself prostrates to the teachings, and meditates "not primarily for my benefit, but for the benefit of others".91

Psychedelics

Studies suggest the potential of psychedelics, such as psilocybin and DMT, to enhance meditative training.929394

Walking Meditation

Walking meditation is a fundamental technique in Theravāda and Zen traditions. It involves walking slowly and mindfully in a straight path or circle, focusing attention on each step, the movement of the feet, the breath, and bodily sensations. It is often used in alternation with sitting meditation during retreats and daily practice to integrate mindfulness into bodily movement.95

Meditation traditions

Origins

The history of meditation is intimately bound up with the religious context within which it was practiced.96 Rossano suggested that the emergence of the capacity for focused attention, an element of many methods of meditation, may have contributed to the latest phases of human biological evolution.97 Some of the earliest references to meditation, as well as proto-Samkhya, are found in the Upanishads of India.9899 According to Wynne, the earliest clear references to meditation are in the middle Upanishads and the Mahabharata (including the Bhagavad Gita).100101 According to Gavin Flood, the earlier Brihadaranyaka Upanishad is describing meditation when it states that "Having become calm and concentrated, one perceives the self (Ātman) within oneself" (BU 4.4.23).102

Indian religions

Hinduism

Main article: Hindu meditation

See also: Yoga

There are many schools and styles of meditation within Hinduism.103 In pre-modern and traditional Hinduism, Yoga and Dhyana are practised to recognize 'pure awareness', or 'pure consciousness', undisturbed by the workings of the mind, as one's eternal self. In Advaita Vedanta jivatman, individual self, is recognized as illusory, and in Reality identical with the omnipresent and non-dual Ātman-Brahman. In the dualistic Yoga school and Samkhya, the Self is called Purusha, a pure consciousness undisturbed by Prakriti, 'nature'. Depending on the tradition, the liberative event is named moksha, vimukti or kaivalya.104

One of the most influential texts of classical Hindu Yoga is Patañjali's Yoga sutras (c. 400 CE), a text associated with Yoga and Samkhya and influenced by Buddhism,105 which outlines eight limbs leading to kaivalya ("aloneness") or inner awareness. The first four, known as the "outer limbs," include ethical discipline (yamas), rules (niyamas), physical postures (āsanas), and breath control (prāṇāyama). The fifth, withdrawal from the senses (pratyāhāra), transitions into the "inner limbs" that are one-pointedness of mind (dhāraṇā), meditation (dhyāna), and finally samādhi.106

Later developments in Hindu meditation include the compilation of Hatha Yoga (forceful yoga) compendiums like the Hatha Yoga Pradipika, the development of Bhakti yoga as a major form of meditation, and Tantra. Another important Hindu yoga text is the Yoga Yajnavalkya, which makes use of Hatha Yoga and Vedanta Philosophy.107

Mantra Meditation

The Bhagavata Purana emphasizes that mantra meditation is a key practice for achieving liberation; practitioners can achieve a direct vision of the divine. The text integrates both Vedic and tantric elements, where mantras are not only seen as sacred sounds but as embodiment of the deity. This approach reflects a shift from the impersonal meditation on the sound-form of Brahman (Om) in the Upanishads to a personal, devotional focus on Krishna in the Bhagavata Purana.108

Jainism

Main article: Jain meditation

Jainism has three elements called the Ratnatraya ("Three Jewels"): right perception and faith, right knowledge and right conduct.109 Meditation in Jainism aims to reach and to remain in the pure state of soul which is believed to be pure consciousness, beyond any attachment or aversion. The practitioner strives to be just a knower-seer (gyata-drashta). Jain meditation can be broadly categorized into Dharma dhyana and Shukla dhyana. Dharma dhyana is discriminating knowledge (bheda-vijñāna) of the tattvas (truths or fundamental principles), while shukla dhyana is meditation proper.

Jainism uses meditation techniques such as pindāstha-dhyāna, padāstha-dhyāna, rūpāstha-dhyāna, rūpātita-dhyāna, and savīrya-dhyāna. In padāstha dhyāna, one focuses on a mantra,110 a combination of core letters or words on deity or themes. Jain followers practice mantra regularly by chanting loudly or silently in mind.111

The meditation technique of contemplation includes agnya vichāya, in which one contemplates on seven facts – life and non-life, the inflow, bondage, stoppage and removal of karmas, and the final accomplishment of liberation. In apaya vichāya, one contemplates on the incorrect insights one indulges, which eventually develops right insight. In vipaka vichāya, one reflects on the eight causes or basic types of karma. In sansathan vichāya, one thinks about the vastness of the universe and the loneliness of the soul.112

Buddhism

Main article: Buddhist meditation

Buddhists pursue meditation as part of the path toward awakening and nirvana.113 The closest words for meditation in the classical languages of Buddhism are bhāvanā ("development"), and the core practices of body contemplations (repulsiveness and cemetery contemplations) and anapanasati (mindfulness of in-and-out breathing)114 culminating in jhāna/dhyāna or samādhi.115

While most classical and contemporary Buddhist meditation guides are school-specific,116 the root meditative practices of various body recollections and breath meditation have been preserved and transmitted in almost all Buddhist traditions, through Buddhist texts like the Satipatthana Sutta and the Dhyana sutras, and through oral teacher-student transmissions. These ancient practices are supplemented with various distinct interpretations of, and developments in, these practices.

The Theravāda tradition stresses the development of samatha and vipassana, postulating over fifty methods for developing mindfulness based on the Satipatthana Sutta,117 and forty for developing concentration based on the Visuddhimagga.

The Tibetan tradition incorporated Sarvastivada and Tantric practices, wedded with Madhyamaka philosophy, and developed thousands of visualization meditations.118

The Zen tradition incorporated mindfulness and breath-meditation via the Dhyana sutras, which are based on the Sarvastivada-tradition. Sitting meditation, known as zazen, is a central part of Zen practice. Downplaying the "petty complexities" of satipatthana and the body-recollections119120 (but maintaining the awareness of immanent death), the early Chan-tradition developed the notions or practices of wu nian ("no thought, no fixation on thought, such as one's own views, experiences, and knowledge")121122 and fēi sīliàng (非思量, Japanese: hishiryō, "nonthinking");123 and kanxin ("observing the mind")124 and shou-i pu i (守一不移, "maintaining the one without wavering,"125 turning the attention from the objects of experience, to the nature of mind, the perceiving subject itself, which is equated with Buddha-nature.126

The Silk Road transmission of Buddhism introduced Buddhist meditation to other Asian countries, reaching China in the 2nd century CE,127 and Japan in the 6th century CE.128 In the modern era, Buddhist meditation techniques have become popular in the wider world, due to the influence of Buddhist modernism on Asian Buddhism, and western lay interest in Zen and the Vipassana movement, with many non-Buddhists taking-up meditative practices. The modernized concept of mindfulness (based on the Buddhist term sati) and related meditative practices have in turn led to mindfulness based therapies.129

Dhyana

Dhyana, while often presented as a form of focused attention or concentration, as in Buddhagosa's Theravada classic the Visuddhimagga ("Path of purification", 5th c. CE), according to a number of contemporary scholars and scholar-practitioners, it is actually a description of the development of perfected equanimity and mindfulness, apparently induced by satipatthana, an open monitoring of the breath, without trying to regulate it. The same description, in a different formula, can be found in the bojjhanga, the "seven factors of awakening," and may therefore refer to the core program of early Buddhist bhavana.130 According to Vetter, dhyana seems to be a natural development from the sense-restraint and moral constrictions prescribed by the Buddhist tradition.131132

Samatha and vipassana

The Buddha identified two paramount mental qualities that arise from wholesome meditative practice or bhavana, namely samatha ("calm," "serenity" "tranquility") and vipassana (insight). As the developing tradition started to emphasize the value of liberating insight, and dhyana came to be understood as concentration,133134 samatha and vipassana were understood as two distinct meditative techniques. In this understanding, samatha steadies, composes, unifies and concentrates the mind, while vipassana enables one to see, explore and discern "formations" (conditioned phenomena based on the five aggregates).135

According to this understanding, which is central to Theravada orthodoxy but also plays a role in Tibetan Buddhism, through the meditative development of serenity, one is able to weaken the obscuring hindrances and bring the mind to a collected, pliant, and still state (samadhi). This quality of mind then supports the development of insight and wisdom (Prajñā) which is the quality of mind that can "clearly see" (vi-passana) the nature of phenomena. What exactly is to be seen varies within the Buddhist traditions. In Theravada, all phenomena are to be seen as impermanent, suffering, not-self and empty. When this happens, one develops dispassion (viraga) for all phenomena, including all negative qualities and hindrances and lets them go. It is through the release of the hindrances and ending of craving through the meditative development of insight that one gains liberation.136

Sikhism

Main article: Nām Japō

In Sikhism, simran (meditation) and good deeds are both necessary to achieve the devotee's spiritual goals;137 without good deeds meditation is futile. When Sikhs meditate, they aim to feel God's presence and emerge in the divine light.138 It is only God's divine will or order that allows a devotee to desire to begin to meditate.139 Nām japnā involves focusing one's attention on the names or great attributes of God.140

Taoism

Main article: Taoist meditation

Taoist meditation has developed techniques including concentration, visualization, qi cultivation, contemplation, and mindfulness meditations in its long history. Traditional Daoist meditative practices influenced Buddhism creating the unique meditative practices of Chinese Buddhism that then spread through the rest of east Asia from around the 5th century.Traditional Chinese medicine and the Chinese martial arts were influenced and influences of Taoist meditation.

Livia Kohn distinguishes three basic types of Taoist meditation: "concentrative", "insight", and "visualization".141 Ding 定 (literally means "decide; settle; stabilize") refers to "deep concentration", "intent contemplation", or "perfect absorption". Guan 觀 (lit. 'watch; observe; view') meditation seeks to merge and attain unity with the Dao. It was developed by Tang dynasty (618–907) Taoist masters based upon the Tiantai Buddhist practice of Vipassanā "insight" or "wisdom" meditation. Cun 存 (lit. 'exist; be present; survive') has a sense of "to cause to exist; to make present" in the meditation techniques popularized by the Taoist Shangqing and Lingbao Schools. A meditator visualizes or actualizes solar and lunar essences, lights, and deities within their body, which supposedly results in health and longevity, even xian 仙/仚/僊, "immortality".

The Guanzi essay (late 4th century BCE) Neiye "Inward training" is the oldest received writing on the subject of qi cultivation and breath-control meditation techniques.142 For instance, "When you enlarge your mind and let go of it, when you relax your vital breath and expand it, when your body is calm and unmoving: And you can maintain the One and discard the myriad disturbances. ... This is called "revolving the vital breath": Your thoughts and deeds seem heavenly."143

The Taoist Zhuangzi (c. 3rd century BCE) records zuowang or "sitting forgetting" meditation. Confucius asked his disciple Yan Hui to explain what "sit and forget" means: "I slough off my limbs and trunk, dim my intelligence, depart from my form, leave knowledge behind, and become identical with the Transformational Thoroughfare."144

Taoist meditation practices are central to Chinese martial arts (and some Japanese martial arts), especially the qi-related neijia "internal martial arts". Some well-known examples are daoyin ("guiding and pulling"), qigong ("life-energy exercises"), neigong ("internal exercises"), neidan ("internal alchemy"), and tai chi ("great ultimate boxing"), which is thought of as moving meditation. One common explanation contrasts "movement in stillness" referring to energetic visualization of qi circulation in qigong and zuochan ("seated meditation"),145 versus "stillness in movement" referring to a state of meditative calm in tai chi forms. Also the unification or middle road forms such as Wuxingheqidao that seeks the unification of internal alchemical forms with more external forms.`

Abrahamic religions

Judaism

Main article: Jewish meditation

Judaism has made use of meditative practices for thousands of years.146147 For instance, in the Torah, the patriarch Isaac is described as going "לשוח" (lasuach) in the field – a term understood by all commentators as some type of meditative practice (Genesis 24:63).148 Similarly, there are indications throughout the Tanakh (the Hebrew Bible) that the prophets meditated.149 In the Old Testament, there are two Hebrew words for meditation: hāgâ (Hebrew: הגה), to sigh or murmur, but also to meditate, and sîḥâ (Hebrew: שיחה), to muse, or rehearse in one's mind.150

Classical Jewish texts espouse a wide range of meditative practices, often associated with the cultivation of kavanah or intention. The first layer of rabbinic law, the Mishnah, describes ancient sages "waiting" for an hour before their prayers, "in order to direct their hearts to the Omnipresent One" (Mishnah Berakhot 5:1). Other early rabbinic texts include instructions for visualizing the Divine Presence (B. Talmud Sanhedrin 22a) and breathing with conscious gratitude for every breath (Genesis Rabba 14:9).151

One of the best-known types of meditation in early Jewish mysticism was the work of the Merkabah, from the root /R-K-B/ meaning "chariot" (of God).152 Some meditative traditions have been encouraged in Kabbalah, and some Jews have described Kabbalah as an inherently meditative field of study.153154155 Kabbalistic meditation often involves the mental visualization of the supernal realms. Aryeh Kaplan has argued that the ultimate purpose of Kabbalistic meditation is to understand and cleave to the Divine.156

Meditation has been of interest to a wide variety of modern Jews. In modern Jewish practice, one of the best known meditative practices is called "hitbodedut" (התבודדות, alternatively transliterated as "hisbodedus"), and is explained in Kabbalistic, Hasidic, and Mussar writings, especially the Hasidic method of Rabbi Nachman of Breslav. The word derives from the Hebrew word "boded" (בודד), meaning the state of being alone.157 Another Hasidic system is the Habad method of "hisbonenus", related to the Sephirah of "Binah", Hebrew for understanding.158 This practice is the analytical reflective process of making oneself understand a mystical concept well, that follows and internalises its study in Hasidic writings. The Musar Movement, founded by Rabbi Israel Salanter in the middle of the nineteenth-century, emphasized meditative practices of introspection and visualization that could help to improve moral character.159 Conservative rabbi Alan Lew has emphasized meditation playing an important role in the process of teshuvah (repentance).160161 Jewish Buddhists have adopted Buddhist styles of meditation.162

Christianity

Main article: Christian meditation

Christian meditation is a term for a form of prayer in which a structured attempt is made to get in touch with and deliberately reflect upon the revelations of God.163 In the Roman Empire, by 20 BCE Philo of Alexandria had written on some form of "spiritual exercises" involving attention (prosoche) and concentration164 and by the 3rd century Plotinus had developed meditative techniques. The word meditation comes from the Latin word meditatum, which means to "concentrate" or "to ponder". Monk Guigo II introduced this terminology for the first time in the 12th century AD. Christian meditation is the process of deliberately focusing on specific thoughts (e.g. a biblical scene involving Jesus and the Virgin Mary) and reflecting on their meaning in the context of the love of God.165 Christian meditation is sometimes taken to mean the middle level in a broad three-stage characterization of prayer: it then involves more reflection than first level vocal prayer, but is more structured than the multiple layers of contemplation in Christianity.166

Between the 10th and 14th centuries, hesychasm was developed, particularly on Mount Athos in Greece, and involves the repetition of the Jesus prayer.167 Interactions with Indians or the Sufis may have influenced the Eastern Christian meditation approach to hesychasm, but this is unproven.168

Western Christian meditation contrasts with most other approaches in that it does not involve the repetition of any phrase or action and requires no specific posture. Western Christian meditation progressed from the 6th century practice of Bible reading among Benedictine monks called Lectio Divina, i.e. divine reading. Its four formal steps as a "ladder" were defined by the monk Guigo II in the 12th century with the Latin terms lectio, meditatio, oratio, and contemplatio (i.e. read, ponder, pray, contemplate). Western Christian meditation was further developed by saints such as Ignatius of Loyola and Teresa of Avila in the 16th century.169170171172

On 28 April 2021, Pope Francis, in an address to the General Audience, said that meditation is a need for everyone.173174 He noted that the term "meditation" has had many meanings throughout history, and that "the ancients used to say that the organ of prayer is the heart."175

In Catholic Christianity, the Rosary is a devotion for the meditation of the mysteries of Jesus and Mary.176177 "The gentle repetition of its prayers makes it an excellent means to moving into deeper meditation. It gives us an opportunity to open ourselves to God's word, to refine our interior gaze by turning our minds to the life of Christ. The first principle is that meditation is learned through practice. Many people who practice rosary meditation begin very simply and gradually develop a more sophisticated meditation. The meditator learns to hear an interior voice, the voice of God.178 Similarly, the chotki of the Eastern Orthodox denomination, the Wreath of Christ of the Lutheran faith, and the Anglican prayer beads of the Episcopalian tradition are used for Christian prayer and meditation.179180

According to Edmund P. Clowney, Christian meditation contrasts with Eastern forms of meditation as radically as the portrayal of God the Father in the Bible contrasts with depictions of Krishna or Brahman in Indian teachings.181 Unlike some Eastern styles, most styles of Christian meditation do not rely on the repeated use of mantras, and yet are also intended to stimulate thought and deepen meaning. Christian meditation aims to heighten the personal relationship based on the love of God that marks Christian communion.182183 In Aspects of Christian meditation, the Catholic Church warned of potential incompatibilities in mixing Christian and Eastern styles of meditation.184 In 2003, in A Christian reflection on the New Age the Vatican announced that the "Church avoids any concept that is close to those of the New Age".185186187

Islam

Main article: Muraqabah

See also: Sufism, Sama (Sufism), and Dhikr § Sufi view

Dhikr (zikr) is a type of meditation within Islam, meaning remembering and mentioning God, which involves the repetition of the 99 Names of God since the 8th or 9th century.188189 It is interpreted in different meditative techniques in Sufism or Islamic mysticism.190191 This became one of the essential elements of Sufism as it was systematized traditionally. It is juxtaposed with fikr (thinking) which leads to knowledge.192 By the 12th century, the practice of Sufism included specific meditative techniques, and its followers practiced breathing controls and the repetition of holy words.193

Sufism uses a meditative procedure like Buddhist concentration, involving high-intensity and sharply focused introspection. In the Oveyssi-Shahmaghsoudi Sufi order, for example, muraqabah takes the form of tamarkoz, "concentration" in Persian.194

Tafakkur or tadabbur in Sufism literally means reflection upon the universe: this is considered to permit access to a form of cognitive and emotional development that can emanate only from the higher level, i.e. from God. The sensation of receiving divine inspiration awakens and liberates both heart and intellect, permitting such inner growth that the apparently mundane actually takes on the quality of the infinite. Muslim teachings embrace life as a test of one's submission to God.195

Dervishes of certain Sufi orders practice whirling, a form of physically active meditation.196

Baháʼí Faith

In the teachings of the Baháʼí Faith, which derives from an Islamic context but is universalist in orientation, meditation is a primary tool for spiritual development,197 involving reflection on the words of God.198 While prayer and meditation are linked, where meditation happens generally in a prayerful attitude, prayer is seen specifically as turning toward God,199 and meditation is seen as a communion with one's self where one focuses on the divine.200

In Baháʼí teachings the purpose of meditation is to strengthen one's understanding of the words of God, and to make one's soul more susceptible to their potentially transformative power,201 more receptive to the need for both prayer and meditation to bring about and maintain a spiritual communion with God.202

Bahá'u'lláh, the founder of the religion, never specified any particular form of meditation, and thus each person is free to choose their own form.203 However, he did state that Baháʼís should read a passage of the Baháʼí writings twice a day, once in the morning, and once in the evening, and meditate on it. He also encouraged people to reflect on one's actions and worth at the end of each day.204 During the Nineteen Day Fast, a period of the year during which Baháʼís adhere to a sunrise-to-sunset fast, they meditate and pray to reinvigorate their spiritual forces.205

Modern spirituality

Modern dissemination in the West

Meditation has spread in the West since the late 19th century, accompanying increased travel and communication among cultures worldwide. Most prominent has been the transmission of Asian-derived practices to the West. In addition, interest in some Western-based meditative practices has been revived,206 and these have been disseminated to a limited extent to Asian countries.207

Ideas about Eastern meditation had begun "seeping into American popular culture even before the American Revolution through the various sects of European occult Christianity",208 and such ideas "came pouring in [to America] during the era of the transcendentalists, especially between the 1840s and the 1880s."209 The following decades saw further spread of these ideas to America:

The World Parliament of Religions, held in Chicago in 1893, was the landmark event that increased Western awareness of meditation. This was the first time that Western audiences on American soil received Asian spiritual teachings from Asians themselves. Thereafter, Swami Vivekananda [...] [founded] various Vedanta ashrams [...] Anagarika Dharmapala lectured at Harvard on Theravada Buddhist meditation in 1904; Abdul Baha [...] [toured] the US teaching the principles of Bahai [sic], and Soyen Shaku toured in 1907 teaching Zen.210

More recently, in the 1960s, another surge in Western interest in meditative practices began. The rise of communist political power in Asia led to many Asian spiritual teachers taking refuge in Western countries, oftentimes as refugees.211 In addition to spiritual forms of meditation, secular forms of meditation have taken root. Rather than focusing on spiritual growth, secular meditation emphasizes stress reduction, relaxation and self-improvement.212213

The 2012 US National Health Interview Survey of 34,525 subjects found that 8% of US adults used meditation,214 with lifetime and 12-month prevalence of meditation use of 5.2% and 4.1% respectively.215 Meditation use among workers was 10% (up from 8% in 2002).216

Mantra meditation, with the use of a japa mala and especially with focus on the Hare Krishna maha-mantra, is a central practice of the Gaudiya Vaishnava faith tradition and the International Society for Krishna Consciousness, also known as the Hare Krishna movement. Other popular New Religious Movements include the Ramakrishna Mission, Vedanta Society, Divine Light Mission, Chinmaya Mission, Osho, Sahaja Yoga, Transcendental Meditation, Oneness University, Brahma Kumaris, Vihangam Yoga and Heartfulness Meditation (Sahaj Marg).

New Age

New Age meditations are often influenced by Eastern philosophy, mysticism, yoga, Hinduism and Buddhism, yet may contain some degree of Western influence. In the West, meditation found its mainstream roots through the social revolution of the 1960s and 1970s, when many of the youth of the day rebelled against traditional religion as a reaction against what some perceived as the failure of Christianity to provide spiritual and ethical guidance.217 New Age meditation as practised by the early hippies is regarded for its techniques of blanking out the mind and releasing oneself from conscious thinking. This is often aided by repetitive chanting of a mantra, or focusing on an object.218 New Age meditation evolved into a range of purposes and practices, from serenity and balance to access to other realms of consciousness to the concentration of energy in group meditation to the supreme goal of samadhi, as in the ancient yogic practice of meditation.219

Guided meditation

Further information: Yoga nidra

Guided meditation is a form of meditation which uses a number of different techniques to achieve or enhance the meditative state. It may simply be meditation done under the guidance of a trained practitioner or teacher, or it may be through the use of imagery, music, and other techniques.220 The session can be either in person, via media221 comprising music or verbal instruction, or a combination of both.222223 The most common form is a combination of meditation music and receptive music therapy, guided imagery, relaxation, mindfulness, and journaling.224225226

Because of the different combinations used under the one term, it can be difficult to attribute positive or negative outcomes to any of the various techniques. Furthermore, the term is frequently used interchangeably with "guided imagery" and sometimes with "creative visualization" in popular psychology and self-help literature. It is less commonly used in scholarly and scientific publications. Consequently, guided meditation cannot be understood as a single technique but rather multiple techniques that are integral to its practice.227228229230

Guided meditation as an aggregate or synthesis of techniques includes meditation music, receptive music therapy, guided imagery, relaxation, meditative praxis, and self-reflective journaling, all of which have been shown to have therapeutic benefits when employed as an adjunct to primary strategies. Benefits include lower levels of stress,231 reducing asthmatic episodes,232 physical pain,233 insomnia,234 episodic anger,235 negative or irrational thinking,236 and anxiety, as well as improving coping skills,237 focus,238 and a general feeling of well-being.239240

Effects

Main article: Effects of meditation

Research on the processes and effects of meditation is a subfield of neurological research.241 Modern scientific techniques, such as functional magnetic resonance imaging and electroencephalography, were used to observe neurological responses during meditation.242 Concerns have been raised on the quality of meditation research,243244245 including the particular characteristics of individuals who tend to participate.246

Meditation lowers heart rate, oxygen consumption, breathing frequency, stress hormones, lactate levels, and sympathetic nervous system activity (associated with the fight-or-flight response), along with a modest decline in blood pressure.247248 However, those who have meditated for two or three years were found to already have low blood pressure. During meditation, the oxygen consumption decrease averages 10 to 20 percent over the first three minutes. During sleep for example, oxygen consumption decreases around 8 percent over four or five hours.249 For meditators who have practiced for years, breath rate can drop to three or four breaths per minute and "brain waves slow from the usual beta (seen in waking activity) or alpha (seen in normal relaxation) to much slower delta and theta waves".250

Studies demonstrate that meditation has a moderate effect to reduce pain.251 There is insufficient evidence for any effect of meditation on positive mood, attention, eating habits, sleep, or body weight.252

Luberto er all (2017), in a systematic review and meta-analysis of the effects of meditation on empathy, compassion, and prosocial behaviors, found that meditation practices had small to medium effects on self-reported and observable outcomes, concluding that such practices can "improve positive prosocial emotions and behaviors".253[unreliable medical source?] However, a meta-review published on Scientific Reports showed that the evidence is very weak and "that the effects of meditation on compassion were only significant when compared to passive control groups suggests that other forms of active interventions (like watching a nature video) might produce similar outcomes to meditation".254

Meditation has also been found to support the development of psychological resilience. Regular practice can help individuals manage chronic stress, trauma, and emotional challenges by fostering greater emotional regulation, reducing rumination, and enhancing adaptive coping strategies.255

"Challenging" and adverse effects

Main article: Adverse effects and limits of meditation and mindfulness

Contemplative traditions

Throughout East Asia the detrimental and undesirable effects of incorrect meditation and mindfulness practice are well documented due to the long varied history of cultivation in these fields. Many traditional herbal, intentional and manual treatments have been prescribed from the past to present day for what is diagnosed as zouhuorumo (Chinese: 走火入魔).256257

Meditation may induce "challenging"258259260 and "unwanted"261 experiences, and adverse effects to physical and mental health.262 Some of these experiences and effects are documented in the contemplative traditions,263 but can be quite perplexing and burdensome when the outcomes of meditation are expected to result in more advantageous and beneficial health outcomes than detrimental ones. By extension this problem is compounded with little or no support or explanatory framework publicly for novice or laity that is easily accessible for a practitioner to know when it is appropriate to self manage or when it is advisable to seek professional advice on the adverse symptomatology that may arise in this field of self-cultivation .264265266267

According to Farias et al. (2020), the most common adverse effects are in people with a history of anxiety and depression.268 Other adverse psychological symptoms may include narcissistic, sociopathic behaviour and depersonalization269 or altered sense of self or the world,270 distorted emotions or thoughts, a mild form of psychosis including auditory and visual hallucinations. In extreme cases in patients with underlying undiagnosed or historical emotional conditions there have been instances of self-harm.271272273

According to Schlosser et al. (2019), "preliminary findings suggest that their occurrence is highly dependent on a complex interaction of contextual factors."274 For instance, meditation-related psychosis has been linked to sleep deprivation,275 preceding mental dispositions,276277 and meditation without sufficient social support or any explanatory framework. However, according to Farias et al. (2020), "minor adverse effects have been observed in individuals with no previous history of mental health problems"278)279280 Farias et al. (2020) further note that "it is also possible that participants predisposed to heightened levels of anxiety and depression are more likely to begin or maintain a meditation practice to manage their symptoms."281

According to Farias et al. (2020) there is a prevalence of 8.3% adverse effects, "similar to those reported for psychotherapy practice in general."282 Schlosser et al. (2019) reported that of 1,232 regular meditators with at least two months of meditation experience, about a quarter reported having had particularly unpleasant meditation-related experiences which they thought may have been caused by their meditation practice.283 Meditators with high levels of repetitive negative thinking and those who only engage in deconstructive meditation (vipassana/insight meditation) were more likely to report unpleasant side effects.284

The appraisal of the experiences may be determined by the framework used to interpret these experiences.285286 Schlosser et al. "found strong evidence that religious participants have lower odds of having particularly unpleasant meditation-related experiences," and "found weak evidence that female participants were less likely to have unpleasant meditation-related experiences,"287 and note the importance of "understanding when these experiences are constitutive elements of meditative practice rather than merely negative effects."288

Difficult experiences encountered in meditation are mentioned in traditional sources, and some may be considered to be an expected part of the process.289290 According to Salguero,

Problematic experiences such as strange sensations, unexplained pains, psychological instability, undesired hallucinations, sexual anomalies, uncontrollable behaviors, demonic possession, suicidality, and so forth seem to be quite well-known and well-documented across traditions.291

The Visuddhimagga mentions various unpleasant stages, and possible "unwholesome or frightening visions" are mentioned in Practical Insight Meditation: Basic and Progressive Stages, a practical manual on vipassanā meditation by Mahāsi Sayādaw.292 Classical sources mention makyō, Zen sickness (Chinese and Japanese: 禪病; pinyin: Chánbìng; rōmaji: Zenbyō)293 and related difficulties, such as zouhuorumo (走火入魔; 'fire possession'), and mojing (魔境; 'demonic states').294 Traditional sources also precribe cures against these experiences,295 for example Hakuin Ekaku's treatment of Zen-sickness.

Mindfulness

Both the soundness of the scientific foundations of mindfulness, and the desirability of its social effects, have been questioned.296297298299 Hafenbrack et al. (2022), in a study on mindfulness with 1400 participants, found that focused-breathing meditation can dampen the relationship between transgressions and the desire to engage in reparative prosocial behaviors.300 Poullin et al. (2021) found that mindfulness can increase the trait of selfishness. The study, consisting of two interrelated parts and totaling 691 participants, found that a mindfulness induction, compared to a control condition, led to decreased prosocial behavior. This effect was moderated by self-construals such that people with relatively independent self-construals became less prosocial while people with relatively interdependent self-construals became more so. In the western world where independent self-construals generally predominate (self centric orientated) meditation may thus have potentially detrimental effects.301 These new findings about meditations socially problematic effects imply that it can be contraindicated to use meditation as a tool to handle acute personal conflicts or relational difficulties; in the words of Andrew Hafenbrack, one of the authors of the study, "If we 'artificially' reduce our guilt by meditating it away, we may end up with worse relationships, or even fewer relationships".302

Secular applications

Psychotherapy

See also: Analytic psychology and Psychoanalysis

Carl Jung (1875–1961) was an early western explorer of eastern religious practices.303304 He clearly advocated ways to increase the conscious awareness of an individual. Yet he expressed some caution concerning a westerner's direct immersion in eastern practices without some prior appreciation of the differing spiritual and cultural contexts.305306 Erich Fromm (1900–1980) later explored spiritual practices of the east.307

Clinical

See also: Mindfulness applications, Mindfulness-based stress reduction, Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy, and Mindfulness-based pain management

Since the 1970s, clinical psychology and psychiatry have developed meditation techniques for numerous psychological conditions.308 Mindfulness practice is employed in psychology to alleviate mental and physical conditions, such as affecting the endocrine system therefore reducing depression, and helping to alleviate stress, and anxiety.309310311312 Mindfulness is also used as a form of interventional therapy in the treatment of addiction including drug addiction, although the quantity and quality of evidence based research has been poor.313314

The US National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health states that "Meditation and mindfulness practices may have a variety of health benefits and may help people improve the quality of their lives. Recent studies have investigated if meditation or mindfulness helps people manage anxiety, stress, depression, pain, or symptoms related to withdrawal from nicotine, alcohol, or opioids." However, the NCCIC goes on to caution that, "results from the studies have been difficult to analyze and may have been interpreted too optimistically."315

A 2014 review found that practice of mindfulness meditation for two to six months by people undergoing long-term psychiatric or medical therapy could produce moderate improvements in pain management, anxiety, depression.316 In 2017, the American Heart Association issued a scientific statement that meditation may be a reasonable adjunct practice and intervention to help reduce the risk of cardiovascular diseases, with the qualification that meditation needs to be better defined in higher-quality clinical research of these disorders.317 Recent findings have also found evidence of meditation affecting migraines in adults. Mindfulness meditation may allow for a decrease in migraine episodes, and a drop in migraine medication usage.318

Early low-quality and low- quantity evidence indicates that the mechanism of meditation may help with irritable bowel syndrome,319320 insomnia,321 cognitive decline in the elderly,322 and post-traumatic stress disorder.323324 Sitting in silence, body scan meditation and concentrating on breathing was shown in a 2016 review to moderately decrease symptoms of PTSD and depression in war veterans and creating resilience to stresses in active service.325326 Researchers have found that participating in mindfulness meditation can aid insomnia patients by improving sleep quality and total wake time.327 Mindfulness meditation is a supportive therapy that aides in the treatment for patients diagnosed with insomnia.328

In the workplace

A 2010 review of the literature on spirituality and performance in organizations found an increase in corporate meditation programs.329

As of 2016 around a quarter of U.S. employers were using stress reduction initiatives.330331 The goal was to help reduce stress and improve reactions to stress. Aetna now offers its program to its customers. Google also implements mindfulness, offering more than a dozen meditation courses, with the most prominent one, "Search Inside Yourself", having been implemented since 2007.332 General Mills offers the Mindful Leadership Program Series, a course which uses a combination of mindfulness meditation, yoga and dialogue with the intention of developing the mind's capacity to pay attention.333

Many military organizations around the world have found meditation and mindfulness practice can support a range of benefits related to combat, including support for mental health, mental clarity, focus and stress control.334

In school

A review of 15 peer-reviewed studies of youth meditation in schools indicated transcendental meditation a moderate effect on wellbeing and a small effect on social competence. Insufficient research has been done on the effect of meditation on academic achievement.335 Evidence has also shown possible improvement to stress, cognitive performance in school taught meditation.336

Positive effects on emotion regulation, stress and anxiety can also be seen in students in university and nursing.337338

Relaxation response and biofeedback

Herbert Benson of Harvard Medical School conducted a series of clinical tests on meditators from various disciplines, including the Transcendental Meditation technique and Tibetan Buddhism. In 1975, Benson published a book titled The Relaxation Response where he outlined his own version of meditation for relaxation.339 Also in the 1970s, the American psychologist Patricia Carrington developed a similar technique called Clinically Standardized Meditation (CSM).340 In Norway, another sound-based method called Acem Meditation developed a psychology of meditation and has been the subject of several scientific studies.341

Biofeedback has been used by many researchers since the 1950s in an effort to enter deeper states of mind.342343

See also

Notes

Sources

Printed sources

Web sources

Further reading

References

  1. An influential definition by Shapiro (1982) states that "meditation refers to a family of techniques which have in common a conscious attempt to focus attention in a nonanalytical way and an attempt not to dwell on discursive, ruminating thought" (p. 6, italics in original). The term "discursive thought" has long been used in Western philosophy, and is often viewed as a synonym to logical thought.[31] - Shapiro, D. H. (1982). "Overview: Clinical and physiological comparison of meditation with other self-control strategies". American Journal of Psychiatry. 139 (3): 267–74. doi:10.1176/ajp.139.3.267. PMID 7036760. https://doi.org/10.1176%2Fajp.139.3.267 ↩

  2. Walsh & Shapiro 2006, pp. 228–229. - Walsh, Roger; Shapiro, Shauna L. (2006). "The meeting of meditative disciplines and western psychology: A mutually enriching dialogue". American Psychologist. 61 (3): 227–239. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.61.3.227. PMID 16594839. S2CID 3015768. http://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/7885t0n6 ↩

  3. Cahn & Polich 2006, p. 180. - Cahn, B. Rael; Polich, John (2006). "Meditation states and traits: EEG, ERP, and neuroimaging studies". Psychological Bulletin. 132 (2): 180–211. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.132.2.180. PMID 16536641. S2CID 2151810. https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0033-2909.132.2.180 ↩

  4. Jevning, Wallace & Beidebach 1992, p. 415. - Jevning, R.; Wallace, R.K.; Beidebach, M. (September 1992). "The physiology of meditation: A review. A wakeful hypometabolic integrated response". Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews. 16 (3): 415–424. doi:10.1016/s0149-7634(05)80210-6. PMID 1528528. S2CID 2650109. https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fs0149-7634%2805%2980210-6 ↩

  5. Goleman 1988, p. 107. - Goleman, Daniel (1988). The meditative mind: The varieties of meditative experience. New York: Tarcher. ISBN 978-0-87477-833-5. https://archive.org/details/meditativemind00dani ↩

  6. "Definition of meditate". Merriam-Webster Dictionary. 18 December 2017. Archived from the original on 24 December 2017. Retrieved 25 December 2017. https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/meditate ↩

  7. "meditate". Oxford Dictionaries – English. Archived from the original on 26 September 2016. https://web.archive.org/web/20160926015939/https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/meditate ↩

  8. Bond et al. (2009) report that 7 expert scholars who had studied different traditions of meditation agreed that an "essential" component of meditation "Involves logic relaxation: not 'to intend' to analyze the possible psychophysical effects, not 'to intend' to judge the possible results, not 'to intend' to create any type of expectation regarding the process" (p. 134, Table 4). In their final consideration, all 7 experts regarded this feature as an "essential" component of meditation; none of them regarded it as merely "important but not essential" (p. 234, Table 4). (This same result is presented in Table B1 in Ospina et al. 2007, p. 281). This does not mean that all meditation seeks to take a person beyond all thought processes, only those processes that are sometimes referred to as "discursive" or "logical" (see Shapiro 1982/1984; Bond et al. 2009; Appendix B, pp. 279–82 in Ospina et al. (2007)). - Bond, Kenneth; Ospina, Maria B.; Hooton, Nicola; Bialy, Liza; Dryden, Donna M.; Buscemi, Nina; Shannahoff-Khalsa, David; Dusek, Jeffrey; Carlson, Linda E. (2009). "Defining a complex intervention: The development of demarcation criteria for 'meditation'". Psychology of Religion and Spirituality. 1 (2): 129–137. doi:10.1037/a0015736. https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fa0015736 ↩

  9. Dhavamony, Mariasusai (1982). Classical Hinduism. Università Gregoriana Editrice. p. 243. ISBN 978-88-7652-482-0. Archived from the original on 17 March 2023. Retrieved 27 October 2020. 978-88-7652-482-0 ↩

  10. Hölzel, Britta K.; Lazar, Sara W.; Gard, Tim; Schuman-Olivier, Zev; Vago, David R.; Ott, Ulrich (November 2011). "How Does Mindfulness Meditation Work? Proposing Mechanisms of Action From a Conceptual and Neural Perspective". Perspectives on Psychological Science: A Journal of the Association for Psychological Science. 6 (6): 537–559. doi:10.1177/1745691611419671. ISSN 1745-6916. PMID 26168376. S2CID 2218023. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  11. "The Dalai Lama explains how to practice meditation properly". 3 May 2017. Archived from the original on 15 April 2021. Retrieved 8 May 2018. https://hackspirit.com/dalai-lama-reveals-practice-meditation-properly/ ↩

  12. "Meditation: In Depth". NCCIH. Archived from the original on 4 July 2018. Retrieved 1 May 2018. https://nccih.nih.gov/health/meditation/overview.htm ↩

  13. Goyal, M.; Singh, S.; Sibinga, E. M.; Gould, N. F.; Rowland-Seymour, A.; Sharma, R.; Berger, Z.; Sleicher, D.; Maron, D. D.; Shihab, H. M.; Ranasinghe, P. D.; Linn, S.; Saha, S.; Bass, E. B.; Haythornthwaite, J. A. (2014). "Meditation Programs for Psychological Stress and Well-being: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis". JAMA Internal Medicine. 174 (3): 357–368. doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2013.13018. ISSN 2168-6106. PMC 4142584. PMID 24395196. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4142584 ↩

  14. Shaner, Lynne; Kelly, Lisa; Rockwell, Donna; Curtis, Devorah (2016). "Calm Abiding". Journal of Humanistic Psychology. 57: 98. doi:10.1177/0022167815594556. S2CID 148410605. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  15. An universal etymological English dictionary 1773, London, by Nathan Bailey ISBN 1-002-37787-0. /wiki/ISBN_(identifier) ↩

  16. "Meditation". Online Etymology Dictionary, Douglas Harper. 2019. Archived from the original on 2 February 2019. Retrieved 2 February 2019. https://www.etymonline.com/word/meditation#etymonline_v_12520 ↩

  17. "Meditation". Online Etymology Dictionary, Douglas Harper. 2019. Archived from the original on 2 February 2019. Retrieved 2 February 2019. https://www.etymonline.com/word/meditation#etymonline_v_12520 ↩

  18. The Oblate Life by Gervase Holdaway, 2008 ISBN 0-8146-3176-2 p. 115 /wiki/ISBN_(identifier) ↩

  19. Sampaio, Cynthia Vieira Sanches; Lima, Manuela Garcia; Ladeia, Ana Marice (April 2017). "Meditation, Health and Scientific Investigations: Review of the Literature". Journal of Religion and Health. 56 (2): 411–427. doi:10.1007/s10943-016-0211-1. ISSN 0022-4197. PMID 26915053. S2CID 20088045. Archived from the original on 17 March 2023. Retrieved 16 November 2021. http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10943-016-0211-1 ↩

  20. Feuerstein, Georg (2006). "Yoga and Meditation (Dhyana)". Moksha Journal (1). OCLC 21878732. Archived from the original on 8 July 2018. Retrieved 27 June 2010. /wiki/Georg_Feuerstein ↩

  21. The verb root "dhyai" is listed as referring to "contemplate, meditate on" and "dhyāna" is listed as referring to "meditation; religious contemplation" on page 134 of Macdonell, Arthur Anthony (1971) [1929]. A practical Sanskrit dictionary with transliteration, accentuation and etymological analysis throughout. London: Oxford University Press. /wiki/Arthur_Anthony_Macdonell ↩

  22. Sandilands, Olivier (August 2019). "L'espace contemplatif. Étude des homologies entre expérience esthétique et méditation". Master's Thesis. Retrieved 8 December 2024. https://www.academia.edu/101688196 ↩

  23. Mirahmadi, Sayyid Nurjan; Naqshbandi, Muhammad Nazim Adil al-Haqqani; Kabbani, Muhammad Hisham; Mirahmadi, Hedieh (2005). The healing power of sufi meditation. Fenton, MI: Naqshbandi Haqqani Sufi Order of America. ISBN 978-1-930409-26-2. Archived from the original on 11 February 2007. Retrieved 29 January 2018. 978-1-930409-26-2 ↩

  24. Goleman 1988. - Goleman, Daniel (1988). The meditative mind: The varieties of meditative experience. New York: Tarcher. ISBN 978-0-87477-833-5. https://archive.org/details/meditativemind00dani ↩

  25. In 1971, Claudio Naranjo noted that "The word 'meditation' has been used to designate a variety of practices that differ enough from one another so that we may find trouble defining what meditation is."[20] A 2009 study noted a "persistent lack of consensus in the literature" and a "seeming intractability of defining meditation".[21] /wiki/Claudio_Naranjo ↩

  26. Goleman 1988. - Goleman, Daniel (1988). The meditative mind: The varieties of meditative experience. New York: Tarcher. ISBN 978-0-87477-833-5. https://archive.org/details/meditativemind00dani ↩

  27. Carroll, Mary (October 2005). "Divine Therapy: Teaching Reflective and Meditative Practices". Teaching Theology and Religion. 8 (4): 232–238. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9647.2005.00249.x. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  28. Lutz, Antoine; Dunne, John D.; Davidson, Richard J. (2007). "Meditation and the Neuroscience of Consciousness: An Introduction". In Zelazo, Philip David; Moscovitch, Morris; Thompson, Evan (eds.). The Cambridge Handbook of Consciousness. pp. 499–552. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511816789.020. ISBN 978-0-511-81678-9. 978-0-511-81678-9 ↩

  29. Lutz, Dunne and Davidson, "Meditation and the Neuroscience of Consciousness: An Introduction" in The Cambridge handbook of consciousness by Philip David Zelazo, Morris Moscovitch, Evan Thompson, 2007 ISBN 0-521-85743-0 pp. 499–551 (proof copy) (NB: pagination of published was 499–551 proof was 497–550). Archived 3 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine /wiki/ISBN_(identifier) ↩

  30. "John Dunne's speech". Archived from the original on 20 November 2012. https://web.archive.org/web/20121120171057/http://ccare.stanford.edu/node/21 ↩

  31. Taylor 1999, p. 2. - Taylor, Eugene (1999). Murphy, Michael; Donovan, Steven; Taylor, Eugene (eds.). "Introduction". The Physical and Psychological Effects of Meditation: A Review of Contemporary Research with a Comprehensive Bibliography 1931–1996: 1–32. Archived from the original on 13 October 2016. Retrieved 13 October 2016. http://library.noetic.org/library/publication-bibliographies/physical-and-psychological-effects-meditation ↩

  32. Naranjo & Ornstein 1972, p. 143. - Naranjo, Claudio; Ornstein, Robert E. (1972) [1971]. On the psychology of meditation. A Viking compass book. New York: The Viking Press. ISBN 978-0-670-52506-5. LCCN 76149720. https://lccn.loc.gov/76149720 ↩

  33. "meditate". Oxford Dictionaries – English. Archived from the original on 26 September 2016. https://web.archive.org/web/20160926015939/https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/meditate ↩

  34. "meditation – Meaning". Cambridge English Dictionary. Archived from the original on 16 April 2017. Retrieved 16 April 2017. http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/meditation ↩

  35. "Definition of meditate". Merriam-Webster Dictionary. 18 December 2017. Archived from the original on 24 December 2017. Retrieved 25 December 2017. https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/meditate ↩

  36. Goleman 1988. - Goleman, Daniel (1988). The meditative mind: The varieties of meditative experience. New York: Tarcher. ISBN 978-0-87477-833-5. https://archive.org/details/meditativemind00dani ↩

  37. Walsh & Shapiro 2006. - Walsh, Roger; Shapiro, Shauna L. (2006). "The meeting of meditative disciplines and western psychology: A mutually enriching dialogue". American Psychologist. 61 (3): 227–239. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.61.3.227. PMID 16594839. S2CID 3015768. http://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/7885t0n6 ↩

  38. Cahn & Polich 2006. - Cahn, B. Rael; Polich, John (2006). "Meditation states and traits: EEG, ERP, and neuroimaging studies". Psychological Bulletin. 132 (2): 180–211. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.132.2.180. PMID 16536641. S2CID 2151810. https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0033-2909.132.2.180 ↩

  39. Jevning, Wallace & Beidebach 1992. - Jevning, R.; Wallace, R.K.; Beidebach, M. (September 1992). "The physiology of meditation: A review. A wakeful hypometabolic integrated response". Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews. 16 (3): 415–424. doi:10.1016/s0149-7634(05)80210-6. PMID 1528528. S2CID 2650109. https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fs0149-7634%2805%2980210-6 ↩

  40. An influential definition by Shapiro (1982) states that "meditation refers to a family of techniques which have in common a conscious attempt to focus attention in a nonanalytical way and an attempt not to dwell on discursive, ruminating thought" (p. 6, italics in original). The term "discursive thought" has long been used in Western philosophy, and is often viewed as a synonym to logical thought.[31] - Shapiro, D. H. (1982). "Overview: Clinical and physiological comparison of meditation with other self-control strategies". American Journal of Psychiatry. 139 (3): 267–74. doi:10.1176/ajp.139.3.267. PMID 7036760. https://doi.org/10.1176%2Fajp.139.3.267 ↩

  41. Bond et al. (2009) report that 7 expert scholars who had studied different traditions of meditation agreed that an "essential" component of meditation "Involves logic relaxation: not 'to intend' to analyze the possible psychophysical effects, not 'to intend' to judge the possible results, not 'to intend' to create any type of expectation regarding the process" (p. 134, Table 4). In their final consideration, all 7 experts regarded this feature as an "essential" component of meditation; none of them regarded it as merely "important but not essential" (p. 234, Table 4). (This same result is presented in Table B1 in Ospina et al. 2007, p. 281). This does not mean that all meditation seeks to take a person beyond all thought processes, only those processes that are sometimes referred to as "discursive" or "logical" (see Shapiro 1982/1984; Bond et al. 2009; Appendix B, pp. 279–82 in Ospina et al. (2007)). - Bond, Kenneth; Ospina, Maria B.; Hooton, Nicola; Bialy, Liza; Dryden, Donna M.; Buscemi, Nina; Shannahoff-Khalsa, David; Dusek, Jeffrey; Carlson, Linda E. (2009). "Defining a complex intervention: The development of demarcation criteria for 'meditation'". Psychology of Religion and Spirituality. 1 (2): 129–137. doi:10.1037/a0015736. https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fa0015736 ↩

  42. "members were chosen on the basis of their publication record of research on the therapeutic use of meditation, their knowledge of and training in traditional or clinically developed meditation techniques, and their affiliation with universities and research centers. Each member had specific expertise and training in at least one of the following meditation practices: kundalini yoga, Transcendental Meditation, relaxation response, mindfulness-based stress reduction, and vipassana meditation" (Bond et al. 2009, p. 131); their views were combined using "the Delphi technique ... a method of eliciting and refining group judgments to address complex problems with a high level of uncertainty" (Bond et al. 2009, p. 131). /wiki/Kundalini_yoga ↩

  43. Bond et al. (2009) report that 7 expert scholars who had studied different traditions of meditation agreed that an "essential" component of meditation "Involves logic relaxation: not 'to intend' to analyze the possible psychophysical effects, not 'to intend' to judge the possible results, not 'to intend' to create any type of expectation regarding the process" (p. 134, Table 4). In their final consideration, all 7 experts regarded this feature as an "essential" component of meditation; none of them regarded it as merely "important but not essential" (p. 234, Table 4). (This same result is presented in Table B1 in Ospina et al. 2007, p. 281). This does not mean that all meditation seeks to take a person beyond all thought processes, only those processes that are sometimes referred to as "discursive" or "logical" (see Shapiro 1982/1984; Bond et al. 2009; Appendix B, pp. 279–82 in Ospina et al. (2007)). - Bond, Kenneth; Ospina, Maria B.; Hooton, Nicola; Bialy, Liza; Dryden, Donna M.; Buscemi, Nina; Shannahoff-Khalsa, David; Dusek, Jeffrey; Carlson, Linda E. (2009). "Defining a complex intervention: The development of demarcation criteria for 'meditation'". Psychology of Religion and Spirituality. 1 (2): 129–137. doi:10.1037/a0015736. https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fa0015736 ↩

  44. Bond et al. 2009, p. 135. - Bond, Kenneth; Ospina, Maria B.; Hooton, Nicola; Bialy, Liza; Dryden, Donna M.; Buscemi, Nina; Shannahoff-Khalsa, David; Dusek, Jeffrey; Carlson, Linda E. (2009). "Defining a complex intervention: The development of demarcation criteria for 'meditation'". Psychology of Religion and Spirituality. 1 (2): 129–137. doi:10.1037/a0015736. https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fa0015736 ↩

  45. Bond et al. 2009, p. 135: "It is plausible that meditation is best thought of as a natural category of techniques best captured by 'family resemblances' (Wittgenstein, 1968) or by the related 'prototype' model of concepts (Rosch, 1973; Rosch & Mervin, 1975).". - Bond, Kenneth; Ospina, Maria B.; Hooton, Nicola; Bialy, Liza; Dryden, Donna M.; Buscemi, Nina; Shannahoff-Khalsa, David; Dusek, Jeffrey; Carlson, Linda E. (2009). "Defining a complex intervention: The development of demarcation criteria for 'meditation'". Psychology of Religion and Spirituality. 1 (2): 129–137. doi:10.1037/a0015736. https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fa0015736 ↩

  46. Regarding influential reviews encompassing multiple methods of meditation: Walsh & Shapiro (2006), Cahn & Polich (2006), and Jevning, Wallace & Beidebach (1992), are cited >80 times in PsycINFO. Number of citations in PsycINFO: 254 for Walsh & Shapiro, 2006 (26 August 2018); 561 for Cahn & Polich, 2006 (26 August 2018); 83 for Jevning et al. (1992) (26 August 2018). Goleman's book has 33 editions listed in WorldCat: 17 editions as The meditative mind: The varieties of meditative experience[33] and 16 editions as The varieties of meditative experience.[34] Citation and edition counts are as of August 2018 and September 2018 respectively. - Walsh, Roger; Shapiro, Shauna L. (2006). "The meeting of meditative disciplines and western psychology: A mutually enriching dialogue". American Psychologist. 61 (3): 227–239. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.61.3.227. PMID 16594839. S2CID 3015768. http://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/7885t0n6 ↩

  47. Walsh & Shapiro 2006, pp. 228–229. - Walsh, Roger; Shapiro, Shauna L. (2006). "The meeting of meditative disciplines and western psychology: A mutually enriching dialogue". American Psychologist. 61 (3): 227–239. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.61.3.227. PMID 16594839. S2CID 3015768. http://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/7885t0n6 ↩

  48. Cahn & Polich 2006, p. 180. - Cahn, B. Rael; Polich, John (2006). "Meditation states and traits: EEG, ERP, and neuroimaging studies". Psychological Bulletin. 132 (2): 180–211. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.132.2.180. PMID 16536641. S2CID 2151810. https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0033-2909.132.2.180 ↩

  49. Jevning, Wallace & Beidebach 1992, p. 415. - Jevning, R.; Wallace, R.K.; Beidebach, M. (September 1992). "The physiology of meditation: A review. A wakeful hypometabolic integrated response". Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews. 16 (3): 415–424. doi:10.1016/s0149-7634(05)80210-6. PMID 1528528. S2CID 2650109. https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fs0149-7634%2805%2980210-6 ↩

  50. Goleman 1988, p. 107. - Goleman, Daniel (1988). The meditative mind: The varieties of meditative experience. New York: Tarcher. ISBN 978-0-87477-833-5. https://archive.org/details/meditativemind00dani ↩

  51. Lutz, Antoine; Slagter, Heleen A.; Dunne, John D.; Davidson, Richard J. (April 2008). "Attention regulation and monitoring in meditation". Trends in Cognitive Sciences. 12 (4): 163–69. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2008.01.005. PMC 2693206. PMID 18329323. The term 'meditation' refers to a broad variety of practices...In order to narrow the explanandum to a more tractable scope, this article uses Buddhist contemplative techniques and their clinical secular derivatives as a paradigmatic framework (see e.g., 9,10 or 7,9 for reviews including other types of techniques, such as Yoga and Transcendental Meditation). Among the wide range of practices within the Buddhist tradition, we will further narrow this review to two common styles of meditation, FA and OM (see box 1–box 2), that are often combined, whether in a single session or over the course of practitioner's training. These styles are found with some variation in several meditation traditions, including Zen, Vipassanā and Tibetan Buddhism (e.g. 7,15,16)....The first style, FA meditation, entails voluntary focusing attention on a chosen object in a sustained fashion. The second style, OM meditation, involves non-reactively monitoring the content of experience from moment to moment, primarily as a means to recognize the nature of emotional and cognitive patterns. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2693206 ↩

  52. Bond et al. 2009, p. 130: "The differences and similarities among these techniques is often explained in the Western meditation literature in terms of the direction of mental attention (Koshikawa & Ichii, 1996; Naranjo, 1971; Orenstein, 1971): A practitioner can focus intensively on one particular object (so-called concentrative meditation), on all mental events that enter the field of awareness (so-called mindfulness meditation), or both specific focal points and the field of awareness (Orenstein, 1971)." - Bond, Kenneth; Ospina, Maria B.; Hooton, Nicola; Bialy, Liza; Dryden, Donna M.; Buscemi, Nina; Shannahoff-Khalsa, David; Dusek, Jeffrey; Carlson, Linda E. (2009). "Defining a complex intervention: The development of demarcation criteria for 'meditation'". Psychology of Religion and Spirituality. 1 (2): 129–137. doi:10.1037/a0015736. https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fa0015736 ↩

  53. Easwaran, Eknath (2018). The Bhagavad Gita: (Classics of Indian Spirituality). Nilgiri Press. ISBN 978-1-58638-019-9. Archived from the original on 17 March 2023. Retrieved 27 October 2020. 978-1-58638-019-9 ↩

  54. lywa (2 April 2015). "Developing Single-pointed Concentration". Archived from the original on 16 August 2017. Retrieved 8 May 2018. Single-pointed concentration (samadhi) is a meditative power that is useful in either of these two types of meditation. However, in order to develop samadhi itself we must cultivate principally concentration meditation. In terms of practice, this means that we must choose an object of concentration and then meditate single-pointedly on it every day until the power of samadhi is attained. https://www.lamayeshe.com/article/developing-single-pointed-concentration ↩

  55. Malinowski, Peter (19 July 2013). "Advanced Tibetan Buddhist meditation practice raises body temperature – Part 2". meditation-research.org.uk. Archived from the original on 22 April 2018. Retrieved 8 May 2018. http://meditation-research.org.uk/2013/07/advanced-tibetan-buddhist-meditation-practice-raises-body-temperature-part-2/ ↩

  56. Gangadharan & Hemamalini 2021, p. 70. - Gangadharan, Shobana; Hemamalini, M. (2021), Community Health Nursing: Framework for Practice: Vol 2-E-Book, Elsevier Health Sciences ↩

  57. Aguirre 2018, p. 18-20. - Aguirre, Blaise (2018), Mindfulness and Meditation: Your Questions Answered, ABC-CLIO ↩

  58. "Deepening Calm-Abiding – The Nine Stages of Abiding". terebess.hu. Archived from the original on 8 May 2018. Retrieved 8 May 2018. https://terebess.hu/english/oxherd27a.html ↩

  59. Dorje, Ogyen Trinley (24 December 2011). "Calm Abiding". Archived from the original on 8 May 2018. Retrieved 8 May 2018. https://tricycle.org/magazine/calm-abiding/ ↩

  60. "Mindful Breathing (Greater Good in Action)". ggia.berkeley.edu. Archived from the original on 8 May 2018. Retrieved 8 May 2018. https://ggia.berkeley.edu/practice/mindful_breathing#data-tab-how ↩

  61. Shonin, Edo; Van Gordon, William (October 2016). "Experiencing the Universal Breath: a Guided Meditation". Mindfulness. 7 (5): 1243–1245. doi:10.1007/s12671-016-0570-4. S2CID 147845968. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  62. Perez-De-Albeniz & Holmes 2000. - Perez-De-Albeniz, Alberto; Holmes, Jeremy (2000). "Meditation: Concepts, Effects And Uses In Therapy". International Journal of Psychotherapy. 5 (1): 49–58. doi:10.1080/13569080050020263. https://doi.org/10.1080%2F13569080050020263 ↩

  63. Matko & Sedlmeier 2019. - Matko, Karin; Sedlmeier, Peter (15 October 2019), "What Is Meditation? Proposing an Empirically Derived Classification System", Front. Psychol., 10 (Sec. Cognition): 2276, doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02276, PMC 6803504, PMID 31681085 https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffpsyg.2019.02276 ↩

  64. According to Shear, "Focused Attention, Open Monitoring and Automatic Self-Transcending were likely to be associated with (γ and β)13, θ, and α1 EEG bands, respectively."[48] ↩

  65. Travis, Fred; Shear, Jonathan (December 2010). "Focused attention, open monitoring and automatic self-transcending: Categories to organize meditations from Vedic, Buddhist and Chinese traditions". Consciousness and Cognition. 19 (4): 1110–1118. doi:10.1016/j.concog.2010.01.007. PMID 20167507. S2CID 11036572. Archived from the original on 27 October 2021. Retrieved 5 August 2021. https://scholarscompass.vcu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1000&context=phil_pubs ↩

  66. Mallinson, James; Singleton, Mark (2017). Roots of Yoga. Penguin Books. pp. 86–87. ISBN 978-0-241-25304-5. OCLC 928480104. 978-0-241-25304-5 ↩

  67. "Meditation (savasana)". 14 August 2017. Archived from the original on 23 February 2020. Retrieved 23 February 2020. https://mindworks.org/blog/meditation-positions-lying-down/ ↩

  68. Ng, Teng-Kuan (2018). "Pedestrian Dharma: Slowness and Seeing in Tsai Ming-Liang's Walker". Religions. 9 (7): 200. doi:10.3390/rel9070200. https://doi.org/10.3390%2Frel9070200 ↩

  69. "The Daily Habit Of These Outrageously Successful People". Huffington Post. 5 July 2013. Archived from the original on 15 April 2021. Retrieved 1 May 2018. https://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/entry/business-meditation-executives-meditate_n_3528731 ↩

  70. "Mindful Breathing (Greater Good in Action)". ggia.berkeley.edu. Archived from the original on 8 May 2018. Retrieved 8 May 2018. https://ggia.berkeley.edu/practice/mindful_breathing#data-tab-how ↩

  71. Mindfulness#Meditation method /wiki/Mindfulness#Meditation_method ↩

  72. "Neuroscientist Says Dalai Lama Gave Him 'a Total Wake-Up Call'". ABC News. 27 July 2016. Archived from the original on 28 September 2019. Retrieved 8 May 2018. https://abcnews.go.com/Health/neuroscientist-richie-davidson-dalai-lama-gave-total-wake/story?id=40859233 ↩

  73. Strait, Julia Englund; Strait, Gerald Gill; McClain, Maryellen Brunson; Casillas, Laurel; Streich, Kristin; Harper, Kristina; Gomez, Jocelyn (27 January 2020). "Classroom Mindfulness Education Effects on Meditation Frequency, Stress, and Self-Regulation". Teaching of Psychology. 47 (2): 162–168. doi:10.1177/0098628320901386. S2CID 213924577. Archived from the original on 18 April 2021. Retrieved 9 November 2020. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0098628320901386 ↩

  74. "How Humankind Could Become Totally Useless". Time magazine. Archived from the original on 20 March 2020. Retrieved 17 March 2018. https://time.com/4672373/yuval-noah-harari-homo-deus-interview/ ↩

  75. Kaul, P.; Passafiume, J; Sargent, C.R.; O'Hara, B.F. (2010). "Meditation acutely improves psychomotor vigilance, and may decrease sleep need". Behavioral and Brain Functions. 6: 47. doi:10.1186/1744-9081-6-47. PMC 2919439. PMID 20670413. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2919439 ↩

  76. "Questions & Answers – Dhamma Giri – Vipassana International Academy". www.giri.dhamma.org. Archived from the original on 24 June 2019. Retrieved 1 May 2018. https://web.archive.org/web/20190624062750/http://www.giri.dhamma.org/qanda ↩

  77. "Brahmamuhurta: The best time for meditation". Times of India. Archived from the original on 2 May 2018. Retrieved 1 May 2018. https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/brahmamuhurta-the-best-time-for-meditation/articleshow/4659848.cms ↩

  78. Mysteries of the Rosary by Stephen J. Binz 2005 ISBN 1-58595-519-1 p. 3 /wiki/ISBN_(identifier) ↩

  79. The everything Buddhism book by Jacky Sach 2003 ISBN 978-1-58062-884-6 p. 175 /wiki/ISBN_(identifier) ↩

  80. For a general overview, see Henry, Gray; Marriott, Susannah (2008). Beads of faith: pathways to meditation and spirituality using rosaries, prayer beads, and sacred words. Louisville, KY: Fons Vitae. ISBN 978-1-887752-95-4. OCLC 179839679. 978-1-887752-95-4 ↩

  81. Mysteries of the Rosary by Stephen J. Binz 2005 ISBN 1-58595-519-1 p. 3 /wiki/ISBN_(identifier) ↩

  82. The everything Buddhism book by Jacky Sach 2003 ISBN 978-1-58062-884-6 p. 175 /wiki/ISBN_(identifier) ↩

  83. Dhavamony, Mariasusai (1982). Classical Hinduism. Università Gregoriana Editrice. p. 243. ISBN 978-88-7652-482-0. Archived from the original on 17 March 2023. Retrieved 27 October 2020. 978-88-7652-482-0 ↩

  84. DerSarkissian, Carol (15 February 2024). "What Are Mala Beads?". WebMd. Retrieved 31 May 2024. https://www.webmd.com/balance/what-are-mala-beads ↩

  85. "Chanting Hare Krishna on Japa Beads". Krishna.org – Real Krishna Consciousness. 29 September 2019. Archived from the original on 20 June 2020. Retrieved 8 July 2020. https://krishna.org/chanting-hare-krishna-on-beads/ ↩

  86. Vishnu Devananda, Swami (1995). Meditation and mantras. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 82–83. ISBN 81-208-1615-3. OCLC 50030094. 81-208-1615-3 ↩

  87. Arimura, R (October 2021). "A Case Study of the Evangelization of Japan". Anales del Instituto de Investigaciones Estéticas. XLIII (119): 209–247. doi:10.22201/iie.18703062e.2021.119.2761 – via Redalyc. https://www.redalyc.org/journal/369/36972034008/html/ ↩

  88. Vishnu Devananda, Swami (1995). Meditation and mantras. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 82–83. ISBN 81-208-1615-3. OCLC 50030094. 81-208-1615-3 ↩

  89. Simoons, Frederick J. (1998). Plants of life, plants of death. Madison, Wis.: University of Wisconsin Press. pp. 7–40. ISBN 0-585-17620-5. OCLC 45733876. 0-585-17620-5 ↩

  90. Foulk, T. Griffith (1998). "The Encouragement Stick: 7 Views". Tricycle (Winter). Archived from the original on 16 December 2019. Retrieved 6 May 2020. https://tricycle.org/magazine/encouragement-stick-7-views/ ↩

  91. "Neuroscientist Says Dalai Lama Gave Him 'a Total Wake-Up Call'". ABC News. 27 July 2016. Archived from the original on 28 September 2019. Retrieved 8 May 2018. https://abcnews.go.com/Health/neuroscientist-richie-davidson-dalai-lama-gave-total-wake/story?id=40859233 ↩

  92. Meling, Daniel; Egger, Klemens; Aicher, Helena D; Jareño Redondo, Javier; Mueller, Jovin; Dornbierer, Joëlle; Temperli, Elijah; Vasella, Emilia A; Caflisch, Luzia; Pfeiffer, David J; Schlomberg, Jonas TT; Smallridge, John W; Dornbierer, Dario A; Scheidegger, Milan (27 September 2024). "Meditating on psychedelics. A randomized placebo-controlled study of DMT and harmine in a mindfulness retreat". Journal of Psychopharmacology. 38 (10): 897–910. doi:10.1177/02698811241282637. ISSN 0269-8811. PMC 11487865. PMID 39340164. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11487865 ↩

  93. Jiwani, Zishan; Goldberg, Simon B.; Stroud, Jack; Young, Jacob; Curtin, John; Dunne, John D.; Simonsson, Otto; Webb, Christian A.; Carhart-Harris, Robin (28 August 2024). "Can Psychedelic Use Benefit Meditation Practice? Examining Individual, Psychedelic, and Meditation-Related Factors". pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. doi:10.1101/2024.08.27.24312677. Archived from the original on 1 March 2025. Retrieved 17 March 2025. http://web.archive.org/web/20250301200840/https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11383514/ ↩

  94. Singer, Berit; Meling, Daniel; Hirsch-Hoffmann, Matthias; Michels, Lars; Kometer, Michael; Smigielski, Lukasz; Dornbierer, Dario; Seifritz, Erich; Vollenweider, Franz X.; Scheidegger, Milan (26 March 2024). "Psilocybin enhances insightfulness in meditation: a perspective on the global topology of brain imaging during meditation". Scientific Reports. 14 (1): 7211. doi:10.1038/s41598-024-55726-x. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 10966054. PMID 38531905. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10966054 ↩

  95. Thích Nhất Hạnh. (1996). The Long Road Turns to Joy: A Guide to Walking Meditation. Parallax Press. ↩

  96. Everly & Lating 2002, p. 199–202. - Everly, George S.; Lating, Jeffrey M. (2002), A clinical guide to the treatment of human stress response, Springer Science & Business Media, ISBN 0-306-46620-1 ↩

  97. Rossano, Matt J. (February 2007). "Did Meditating Make Us Human?". Cambridge Archaeological Journal. 17 (1): 47–58. doi:10.1017/S0959774307000054. S2CID 44185634. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  98. Dhavamony, Mariasusai (1982). Classical Hinduism. Università Gregoriana Editrice. pp. 243–244. ISBN 978-88-7652-482-0. Archived from the original on 17 March 2023. Retrieved 27 October 2020. 978-88-7652-482-0 ↩

  99. Lusthaus 2018. - Lusthaus, Dan (2018), Samkhya, acmuller.net, Resources for East Asian Language and Thought, Musashino University ↩

  100. Alexander Wynne, The Origin of Buddhist Meditation. Routledge 2007, p. 51. The earliest reference is actually in the Mokshadharma, which dates to the early Buddhist period. ↩

  101. The Katha Upanishad describes yoga, including meditation. On meditation in this and other post-Buddhist Hindu literature, see Collins, Randall (2000). The Sociology of Philosophies: A Global Theory of Intellectual Change. Harvard University Press. p. 199. ↩

  102. Flood, Gavin (1996). An Introduction to Hinduism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 94–95. ISBN 978-0-521-43878-0. 978-0-521-43878-0 ↩

  103. Flood, Gavin (1996). An Introduction to Hinduism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 94–95. ISBN 978-0-521-43878-0. 978-0-521-43878-0 ↩

  104. "Human Development: Kaivalya". encyclopedia.uia.org. Archived from the original on 27 May 2023. Retrieved 26 May 2023. http://encyclopedia.uia.org/en/development/12338690 ↩

  105. According to Larson 2008, pp. 43–45, from Abhidharma Buddhism's idea of nirodhasamadhi the Yoga Sutras adopt the pursuit of an altered state of awareness. However, unlike Buddhism, which avoids stating whether self and soul exist, Yoga is physicalist and realist, like Samkhya, believing that each individual has a self and soul.[81] Karel Werner writes, "Patanjali's system is unthinkable without Buddhism. As far as its terminology goes there is much in the Yoga Sutras that reminds us of Buddhist formulations from the Pāli Canon and even more so from the Sarvāstivāda Abhidharma and from Sautrāntika."[82] See also D. Wujastyk (2018), Some Problematic Yoga Sutras and their Buddhist Background, in: P. Maas et al., Yoga in Transformation. Historical and Contemporary Perspectives on a Global Phenomenon, Vienna University Press; and Pradeep P. Gokhale (2020), The Yogasūtra of Patañjali: A New Introduction to the Buddhist Roots of the Yoga System, Routledge. - Larson, Gerald James (2008). The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies: Yoga: India's philosophy of meditation. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-3349-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=p6pURGdBBmIC ↩

  106. Ram, Bhava (2009). The 8 Limbs of Yoga: Pathway to Liberation. Deep Yoga. p. 170. ↩

  107. White, David Gordon (2014). The "Yoga Sutra of Patanjali": A Biography. Princeton University Press. pp. xiii–xvi, 49. ISBN 978-0691143774. 978-0691143774 ↩

  108. Holdrege, Barbara A. (2015). Bhakti and embodiment: fashioning divine bodies and devotional bodies in Kṛṣṇa bhakti. Routledge Hindu studies series. London; New York: Routledge. pp. 272–273. ISBN 978-0-415-67070-8. 978-0-415-67070-8 ↩

  109. Mahapragya, Acharya (2004). "Foreword". Jain Yog. Aadarsh Saahitya Sangh. ↩

  110. Jansma, Rudi; Key, Sneh Rani Jain (2006). "Yoga and Meditation". Introduction To Jainism. Prakrit Bharti Academy, Jaipur, India. Archived from the original on 13 December 2019. Retrieved 14 September 2009. http://www.herenow4u.net/index.php?id=66251 ↩

  111. Jansma, Rudi; Key, Sneh Rani Jain (2006). "Yoga and Meditation". Introduction To Jainism. Prakrit Bharti Academy, Jaipur, India. Archived from the original on 13 December 2019. Retrieved 14 September 2009. http://www.herenow4u.net/index.php?id=66251 ↩

  112. Jansma, Rudi; Key, Sneh Rani Jain (2006). "Yoga and Meditation". Introduction To Jainism. Prakrit Bharti Academy, Jaipur, India. Archived from the original on 13 December 2019. Retrieved 14 September 2009. http://www.herenow4u.net/index.php?id=66251 ↩

  113. For instance, Kamalashila (2003, p. 4), states that Buddhist meditation "includes any method of meditation that has Enlightenment as its ultimate aim." Likewise, Bodhi (1999) writes: "To arrive at the experiential realization of the truths it is necessary to take up the practice of meditation.... At the climax of such contemplation the mental eye ... shifts its focus to the unconditioned state, Nibbana...." A similar although in some ways slightly broader definition is provided by:[88] "Meditation – general term for a multitude of religious practices, often quite different in method, but all having the same goal: to bring the consciousness of the practitioner to a state in which he can come to an experience of 'awakening,' 'liberation,' 'enlightenment.'" Kamalashila (2003) further allows that some Buddhist meditations are "of a more preparatory nature" (p. 4). - Kamalashila (2003), Meditation: The Buddhist art of tranquility and insight, Birmingham: Windhorse Publications ↩

  114. The Pāli and Sanskrit word bhāvanā literally means "development" as in "mental development." For the association of this term with "meditation," see Epstein (1995, p. 105); and Fischer-Schreiber, Ehrhard & Diener (1991, p. 20). As an example from a well-known discourse of the Pali Canon, in "The Greater Exhortation to Rahula" (Maha-Rahulovada Sutta, MN 62), Ven. Sariputta tells Ven. Rahula (in Pali, based on VRI, n.d.): ānāpānassatiṃ, rāhula, bhāvanaṃ bhāvehi. Ṭhānissaro Bhikkhu (2006). "Maha-Rahulovada Sutta: The Greater Exhortation to Rahula (MN 62)". Archived from the original on 1 February 2021. Retrieved 16 February 2011. translates this as: "Rahula, develop the meditation [bhāvana] of mindfulness of in-&-out breathing." (Square-bracketed Pali word included based on Ṭhānissaro Bhikkhu, 2006, end note /wiki/P%C4%81li ↩

  115. See, for example, Ṭhānissaro Bhikkhu (1997). "One Tool Among Many: The Place of Vipassana in Buddhist Practice". Archived from the original on 12 April 2010. Retrieved 16 February 2011.; as well as Kapleau (1989, p. 385) for the derivation of the word "zen" from Sanskrit "dhyāna". Pāli Text Society Secretary Rupert Gethin, in describing the activities of wandering ascetics contemporaneous with the Buddha, wrote: There is the cultivation of meditative and contemplative techniques aimed at producing what might, for the lack of a suitable technical term in English, be referred to as "altered states of consciousness". In the technical vocabulary of Indian religious texts such states come to be termed "meditations" ([Skt.:] dhyāna / [Pali:] jhāna) or "concentrations" (samādhi); the attainment of such states of consciousness was generally regarded as bringing the practitioner to deeper knowledge and experience of the nature of the world. (Gethin 1998, p. 10) /wiki/%E1%B9%ACh%C4%81nissaro_Bhikkhu ↩

  116. Examples of contemporary school-specific classics include: from the Theravada tradition, Thera (1996). from the Zen tradition, Kapleau (1989). - Thera, Nyanaponika (1996). The Heart of Buddhist Meditation: A Handbook of Mental Training based on the Buddha's Way of Mindfulness. York Beach, ME: Samuel Weiser. ISBN 0-87728-073-8. ↩

  117. Goldstein (2003) writes that, in regard to the Satipatthana Sutta, "there are more than fifty different practices outlined in this Sutta. The meditations that derive from these foundations of mindfulness are called vipassana..., and in one form or another – and by whatever name – are found in all the major Buddhist traditions" (p. 92). - Goldstein, Joseph (2003). One Dharma: the emerging Western Buddhism. New York: Harper Collins. ISBN 0-06-251701-5. ↩

  118. Regarding Tibetan visualizations, Kamalashila (2003), writes: "The Tara meditation ... is one example out of thousands of subjects for visualization meditation, each one arising out of some meditator's visionary experience of enlightened qualities, seen in the form of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas" (p. 227). - Kamalashila (2003), Meditation: The Buddhist art of tranquility and insight, Birmingham: Windhorse Publications ↩

  119. Sharf 2015, p. 475. - Sharf, Robert H. (2015), "Is mindfulness Buddhist? (and why it matters)", Transcultural Psychiatry, 52 (4): 470–484, doi:10.1177/1363461514557561, PMID 25361692, S2CID 18518975, archived from the original on 17 March 2023, retrieved 7 September 2022 https://www.academia.edu/26441098 ↩

  120. McRae 1986, p. 116. - McRae, John (1986), The Northern School and the Formation of Early Chʻan Buddhism, University of Hawaii Press ↩

  121. Yu 2021, p. 157. - Yu, Jimmy (2021), Reimagining Chan Buddhism: Sheng Yen and the Creation of the Dharma Drum Lineage of Chan, Routledge ↩

  122. Lai & Cheng 2008, p. 351. - Lai, Whalen; Cheng, Yu-yin (2008), "Chinese Buddhist Philosophy from Han through Tang", in Mou, Bo (ed.), The Routledge History of Chinese Philosophy, Routledge ↩

  123. Suzuki 2014, p. 112. - Suzuki, D.T. (2014), Selected Works of D.T. Suzuki, Volume I: Zen, University of California Press ↩

  124. Schaik 2018, p. 70, 93. - Schaik, Sam van (2018), The spirit of Zen, Yale University Press ↩

  125. McRae 1986, p. 143. - McRae, John (1986), The Northern School and the Formation of Early Chʻan Buddhism, University of Hawaii Press ↩

  126. Sharf 2014, p. 939. - Sharf, Robert (2014), "Mindfulness and Mindlessness in Early Chan", Philosophy East & West, 64 (4): 933–964, doi:10.1353/pew.2014.0074, S2CID 144208166 https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fpew.2014.0074 ↩

  127. Heinrich Dumoulin (2005). Zen Buddhism: A History. Vol. 1: India and China. p. 64. ↩

  128. Heinrich Dumoulin (2005). Zen Buddhism: A History, Vol. 2: Japan. Translated by James W. Heisig; Paul F. Knitter. World Wisdom. p. 5. ISBN 0-941532-90-9. 0-941532-90-9 ↩

  129. "How to Use Guided Meditation for Calm and Mindfulness". United We Care. 5 March 2021. Archived from the original on 26 May 2021. Retrieved 26 May 2021. https://www.unitedwecare.com/guided-meditation-for-calm-mindfulness/ ↩

  130. Gethin, The Buddhist Path to Awakening ↩

  131. Vetter, The meditative practices of early Buddhism ↩

  132. Polak 2011. - Polak, Grzegorz (2011), Reexamining Jhana: Towards a Critical Reconstruction of Early Buddhist Soteriology, UMCS ↩

  133. Bronkhorst 1993, p. 131. - Bronkhorst, Johannes (1993), The Two Traditions Of Meditation In Ancient India, Motilal Banarsidass Publ. ↩

  134. Vetter 1988, pp. xxi–xxxvii. - Vetter, Tilmann (1988), The Ideas and Meditative Practices of Early Buddhism, BRILL ↩

  135. These definitions of samatha and vipassana are based on the "Four Kinds of Persons Sutta" (AN 4.94). This article's text is primarily based on Bodhi (2005, pp. 269–70, 440 n. 13). See also Ṭhānissaro Bhikkhu (1998d). "Samadhi Sutta: Concentration (Tranquillity and Insight) (AN 4.94)". Archived from the original on 13 October 2018. Retrieved 16 February 2011.. /wiki/Anguttara_Nikaya ↩

  136. See, for instance, AN 2.30 in Bodhi (2005, pp. 267–68), and Ṭhānissaro Bhikkhu (1998e). "Vijja-bhagiya Sutta: A Share in Clear Knowing (AN 2.30)". Archived from the original on 19 June 2013. Retrieved 16 February 2011. - Bodhi, Bhikkhu (2005), In the Buddha's Words: An Anthology of Discourses from the Pali Canon, Simon and Schuster ↩

  137. Sharma, Suresh (2004). Cultural and Religious Heritage of India: Sikhism. Mittal Publications. p. 7. ISBN 978-81-7099-961-4. 978-81-7099-961-4 ↩

  138. Ranjan, Abhiruchi (2019). "Ravidassia Religiosity in the Modern Era: Perspectives in Theory and from the Field". Sociological Bulletin. 68 (3): 274–289. doi:10.1177/0038022919876403. ISSN 0038-0229. JSTOR 48564546. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  139. Duggal, Kartar (1980). The Prescribed Sikh Prayers (Nitnem). Abhinav Publications. p. 20. ISBN 978-81-7017-377-9. 978-81-7017-377-9 ↩

  140. Singh, Nirbhai (1990). Philosophy of Sikhism: Reality and Its Manifestations. Atlantic Publishers & Distribution. p. 105. https://archive.org/details/philosophyofsikh0000nirb ↩

  141. Kohn, Livia (2008), "Meditation and visualization," in The Encyclopedia of Taoism, ed. by Fabrizio Pregadio, p. 118. ↩

  142. Harper, Donald; Loewe, Michael; Shaughnessy, Edward L. (2007) [First published in 1999]. The Cambridge History of Ancient China: From the Origins of Civilization to 221 BC. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 880. ISBN 978-0-521-47030-8. Archived from the original on 17 March 2023. Retrieved 27 October 2020. 978-0-521-47030-8 ↩

  143. Roth, Harold D. (1999), Original Tao: Inward Training (Nei-yeh) and the Foundations of Taoist Mysticism, Columbia University Press, p. 92. ↩

  144. Mair, Victor H., tr. (1994), Wandering on the Way: Early Taoist Tales and Parables of Chuang Tzu, Bantam Books, p. 64. ↩

  145. Perez-De-Albeniz & Holmes 2000. - Perez-De-Albeniz, Alberto; Holmes, Jeremy (2000). "Meditation: Concepts, Effects And Uses In Therapy". International Journal of Psychotherapy. 5 (1): 49–58. doi:10.1080/13569080050020263. https://doi.org/10.1080%2F13569080050020263 ↩

  146. The history and varieties of Jewish meditation by Mark Verman 1997 ISBN 978-1-56821-522-8 p. 1 /wiki/ISBN_(identifier) ↩

  147. Jacobs, L. (1976). Jewish Mystical Testimonies. Jerusalem: Keter Publishing House Jerusalem. ↩

  148. Kaplan 1978, p. 101. - Kaplan, A. (1978). Meditation and the Bible. Maine: Samuel Weiser. ↩

  149. The history and varieties of Jewish meditation by Mark Verman 1997 ISBN 978-1-56821-522-8 p. 45 /wiki/ISBN_(identifier) ↩

  150. Kaplan, A. (1985). Jewish Meditation: A Practical Guide. New York Schocken Books. ↩

  151. Buxbaum, Y. (1990) Jewish Spiritual Practices, New York, Rowman and Littlefield, pp. 108-10, 423-35. ↩

  152. Kaplan, A. (1985). Jewish Meditation: A Practical Guide. New York Schocken Books. ↩

  153. Scholem, Gershom Gerhard (1961). Major Trends in Jewish Mysticism. Schocken Books. p. 34. ISBN 978-0-8052-1042-2. Archived from the original on 17 March 2023. Retrieved 9 May 2018. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help) 978-0-8052-1042-2 ↩

  154. Kaplan 1982. - Kaplan, A. (1982). Meditation and Kabbalah. Maine: Samuel Weiser. ↩

  155. Matt, D.C. (1996) The Essential Kabbalah: The Heart of Jewish Mysticism, San Francisco, HarperCollins. ↩

  156. Kaplan, A. (1985). Jewish Meditation: A Practical Guide. New York Schocken Books. ↩

  157. Kaplan 1978, op cit p. 2. - Kaplan, A. (1978). Meditation and the Bible. Maine: Samuel Weiser. ↩

  158. Kaplan 1982, op cit, p. 13. - Kaplan, A. (1982). Meditation and Kabbalah. Maine: Samuel Weiser. ↩

  159. Claussen, Geoffrey. "The Practice of Musar" Archived 2013-09-02 at the Wayback Machine. Conservative Judaism 63, no. 2 (2012): 3–26. Retrieved 10 June 2014 https://www.academia.edu/1502958/The_Practice_of_Musar ↩

  160. "Rabbi Alan Lew". Religion & Ethics NewsWeekly, PBS. 15 September 2006. Archived from the original on 28 July 2019. Retrieved 9 August 2019. https://www.pbs.org/wnet/religionandethics/2006/09/15/september-15-2006-rabbi-alan-lew/3733/ ↩

  161. Lew, Alan (31 July 2007). Be Still and Get Going: A Jewish Meditation Practice for Real Life. Little, Brown. ISBN 978-0-316-02591-1. Archived from the original on 17 March 2023. Retrieved 9 August 2019. 978-0-316-02591-1 ↩

  162. Michaelson, Jay (10 June 2005). "Judaism, Meditation and The B-Word". The Forward. Archived from the original on 10 May 2018. Retrieved 9 May 2018. https://forward.com/culture/3652/judaism-meditation-and-the-b-word/ ↩

  163. Christian Meditation for Beginners by Thomas Zanzig, Marilyn Kielbasa 2000, ISBN 0-88489-361-8 p. 7 /wiki/ISBN_(identifier) ↩

  164. Hadot, Pierre; Arnold I. Davidson (1995) Philosophy as a way of life ISBN 0-631-18033-8 pp. 83–84 /wiki/ISBN_(identifier) ↩

  165. An introduction to Christian spirituality by F. Antonisamy, 2000 ISBN 81-7109-429-5 pp. 76–77 /wiki/ISBN_(identifier) ↩

  166. Simple Ways to Pray by Emilie Griffin 2005 ISBN 0-7425-5084-2 p. 134 /wiki/ISBN_(identifier) ↩

  167. Archived from the original Archived 29 July 2010 at the Wayback Machine on 11 February 2014. https://web.archive.org/web/20101021081733/http://www.macedonian-heritage.gr/Athos/General/AthosHistory.html ↩

  168. An introduction to the Christian Orthodox churches by John Binns 2002 ISBN 0-521-66738-0 p. 128 /wiki/ISBN_(identifier) ↩

  169. Christian Spirituality: A Historical Sketch by George Lane 2005 ISBN 0-8294-2081-9 p. 20 /wiki/ISBN_(identifier) ↩

  170. Christian spirituality: themes from the tradition by Lawrence S. Cunningham, Keith J. Egan 1996 ISBN 0-8091-3660-0 p. 38 /wiki/ISBN_(identifier) ↩

  171. The Oblate Life by Gervase Holdaway, 2008 ISBN 0-8146-3176-2 p. 109 /wiki/ISBN_(identifier) ↩

  172. After Augustine: the meditative reader and the text by Brian Stock 2001 ISBN 0-8122-3602-5 p. 105 /wiki/Brian_Stock_(historian) ↩

  173. "Pope at Audience: Meditating is a way of encountering Jesus - Vatican News". www.vaticannews.va. 28 April 2021. Archived from the original on 19 December 2022. Retrieved 20 December 2022. https://www.vaticannews.va/en/pope/news/2021-04/pope-francis-general-audience-meditation-prayer.html ↩

  174. kathleenaleteia (28 April 2021). "Meditation is more than a self-help trend, explains Pope". Aleteia — Catholic Spirituality, Lifestyle, World News, and Culture. Archived from the original on 19 December 2022. Retrieved 20 December 2022. https://aleteia.org/2021/04/28/meditation-is-more-than-a-self-help-trend-explains-pope/ ↩

  175. "Pope at Audience: Meditating is a way of encountering Jesus - Vatican News". www.vaticannews.va. 28 April 2021. Archived from the original on 19 December 2022. Retrieved 20 December 2022. https://www.vaticannews.va/en/pope/news/2021-04/pope-francis-general-audience-meditation-prayer.html ↩

  176. "Home". Archived from the original on 1 June 2017. Retrieved 19 June 2017. https://web.archive.org/web/20170601223011/http://www.fatima.org/it/essentials/whatucando/potetefare.asp ↩

  177. "The Holy Rosary". www.theholyrosary.org. Archived from the original on 22 January 2020. Retrieved 18 June 2017. http://www.theholyrosary.org/ ↩

  178. "The Rosary as a Tool for Meditation by Liz Kelly". www.loyolapress.com. Archived from the original on 6 July 2017. Retrieved 18 June 2017. http://www.loyolapress.com/our-catholic-faith/prayer/personal-prayer-life/different-ways-to-pray/the-rosary-as-a-tool-for-meditation-by-liz-kelly ↩

  179. Dhiman, Satinder K. (8 September 2020). The Routledge Companion to Mindfulness at Work. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-429-53486-7. 978-0-429-53486-7 ↩

  180. Winston, Kimberly (1 March 2008). Bead One, Pray Too. Church Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8192-2092-9. 978-0-8192-2092-9 ↩

  181. Christian Meditation by Edmund P. Clowney, 1979 ISBN 1-57383-227-8 p. 12 /wiki/ISBN_(identifier) ↩

  182. Christian Meditation by Edmund P. Clowney, 1979 ISBN 1-57383-227-8 pp. 12–13 /wiki/ISBN_(identifier) ↩

  183. The encyclopedia of Christianity, Volume 3 by Erwin Fahlbusch, Geoffrey William Bromiley 2003 ISBN 90-04-12654-6 p. 488 /wiki/ISBN_(identifier) ↩

  184. EWTN: Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith Archived 2010-05-02 at the Wayback Machine Letter on certain aspects of Christian meditation (in English), 15 October 1989] http://www.ewtn.com/library/curia/cdfmed.htm ↩

  185. "Los Angeles Times, February 8, 2003, New Age Beliefs Aren't Christian, Vatican Finds". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on 1 July 2012. Retrieved 1 July 2010. https://archive.today/20120701141606/http://articles.latimes.com/2003/feb/08/local/me-relignewage8/2 ↩

  186. "Vatican sounds New Age alert". 4 February 2003. Archived from the original on 25 October 2019. Retrieved 1 July 2010 – via news.bbc.co.uk. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/2722743.stm ↩

  187. "Prersentation of Holy See's Document on New Age". www.vatican.va. Archived from the original on 9 August 2007. Retrieved 15 March 2020. https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/pontifical_councils/interelg/documents/rc_pc_interelg_doc_20030203_press-conf-new-age_en.html ↩

  188. Prayer: a history by Philip Zaleski, Carol Zaleski 2005 ISBN 0-618-15288-1 pp. 147–49 /wiki/ISBN_(identifier) ↩

  189. Global Encyclopaedia of Education by Rama Sankar Yadav & B.N. Mandal 2007 ISBN 978-81-8220-227-6 p. 63 /wiki/ISBN_(identifier) ↩

  190. Prayer: a history by Philip Zaleski, Carol Zaleski 2005 ISBN 0-618-15288-1 pp. 147–49 /wiki/ISBN_(identifier) ↩

  191. Global Encyclopaedia of Education by Rama Sankar Yadav & B.N. Mandal 2007 ISBN 978-81-8220-227-6 p. 63 /wiki/ISBN_(identifier) ↩

  192. Sainthood and revelatory discourse by David Emmanuel Singh 2003 ISBN 81-7214-728-7 p. 154 /wiki/ISBN_(identifier) ↩

  193. Spiritual Psychology by Akbar Husain 2006 ISBN 81-8220-095-4 p. 109 /wiki/ISBN_(identifier) ↩

  194. Dwivedi, Kedar Nath (2016). "Book Reviews". Group Analysis. 22 (4): 434. doi:10.1177/0533316489224010. S2CID 220434155. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  195. Khalifa, Rashad (2001). Quran: The Final Testament. Universal Unity. p. 536. ISBN 978-1-881893-05-9. 978-1-881893-05-9 ↩

  196. Holmes, David S. (January 1984). "Meditation and Somatic Arousal Reduction" (PDF). American Psychologist. 39 (1): 1–10. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.39.1.1. PMID 6142668. Archived (PDF) from the original on 22 September 2020. Retrieved 2 July 2020. http://www.appstate.edu/~bromanfulksj/Holmes%20-%20Meditation%20and%20Somatic%20Arousal%20Reduction.pdf ↩

  197. "Meditation". Baháʼí International Community. 2015. Archived from the original on 12 November 2020. Retrieved 16 December 2020. https://www.bahai.org/beliefs/life-spirit/devotion/meditation ↩

  198. Smith, Peter (2000). "Meditation". A concise encyclopedia of the Baháʼí Faith. Oxford: Oneworld Publications. pp. 243–44. ISBN 978-1-85168-184-6. 978-1-85168-184-6 ↩

  199. Smith, Peter (2000). "Prayer". A concise encyclopedia of the Bahá'í Faith. Oxford: Oneworld Publications. p. 274. ISBN 978-1-85168-184-6. 978-1-85168-184-6 ↩

  200. Smith, Peter (2000). "Meditation". A concise encyclopedia of the Baháʼí Faith. Oxford: Oneworld Publications. pp. 243–44. ISBN 978-1-85168-184-6. 978-1-85168-184-6 ↩

  201. Smith, Peter (2000). "Meditation". A concise encyclopedia of the Baháʼí Faith. Oxford: Oneworld Publications. pp. 243–44. ISBN 978-1-85168-184-6. 978-1-85168-184-6 ↩

  202. Hatcher, William S. (1982). The Concept of Spirituality Archived 2021-04-15 at the Wayback Machine. Bahá'í Studies, volume 11. Association for Bahá'í Studies. Ottawa. https://bahai-library.com/hatcher_bw18_spirituality ↩

  203. "Meditation". Baháʼí International Community. 2015. Archived from the original on 12 November 2020. Retrieved 16 December 2020. https://www.bahai.org/beliefs/life-spirit/devotion/meditation ↩

  204. Smith, Peter (2000). "Meditation". A concise encyclopedia of the Baháʼí Faith. Oxford: Oneworld Publications. pp. 243–44. ISBN 978-1-85168-184-6. 978-1-85168-184-6 ↩

  205. Effendi, Shoghi (1973). Directives from The Guardian. Hawaii Baháʼí Publishing Trust. p. 28. Archived from the original on 6 July 2008. Retrieved 1 July 2011. /wiki/Shoghi_Effendi ↩

  206. Gustave Reininger, ed. (1997). Centering prayer in daily life and ministry. New York: Continuum. ISBN 978-0-8264-1041-2. Archived from the original on 17 March 2023. Retrieved 7 May 2020. 978-0-8264-1041-2 ↩

  207. The organization Contemplative Outreach Archived 2011-11-03 at the Wayback Machine, which teaches Christian Centering Prayer, has chapters in non-Western locations in Malaysia, Singapore, and South Korea (accessed 5 July 2010) http://www.contemplativeoutreach.org/site/PageServer?pagename=community_chapters_international ↩

  208. Taylor 1999, p. 3. - Taylor, Eugene (1999). Murphy, Michael; Donovan, Steven; Taylor, Eugene (eds.). "Introduction". The Physical and Psychological Effects of Meditation: A Review of Contemporary Research with a Comprehensive Bibliography 1931–1996: 1–32. Archived from the original on 13 October 2016. Retrieved 13 October 2016. http://library.noetic.org/library/publication-bibliographies/physical-and-psychological-effects-meditation ↩

  209. Taylor 1999, p. 3. - Taylor, Eugene (1999). Murphy, Michael; Donovan, Steven; Taylor, Eugene (eds.). "Introduction". The Physical and Psychological Effects of Meditation: A Review of Contemporary Research with a Comprehensive Bibliography 1931–1996: 1–32. Archived from the original on 13 October 2016. Retrieved 13 October 2016. http://library.noetic.org/library/publication-bibliographies/physical-and-psychological-effects-meditation ↩

  210. Taylor 1999, p. 4. - Taylor, Eugene (1999). Murphy, Michael; Donovan, Steven; Taylor, Eugene (eds.). "Introduction". The Physical and Psychological Effects of Meditation: A Review of Contemporary Research with a Comprehensive Bibliography 1931–1996: 1–32. Archived from the original on 13 October 2016. Retrieved 13 October 2016. http://library.noetic.org/library/publication-bibliographies/physical-and-psychological-effects-meditation ↩

  211. Taylor 1999, p. 7. - Taylor, Eugene (1999). Murphy, Michael; Donovan, Steven; Taylor, Eugene (eds.). "Introduction". The Physical and Psychological Effects of Meditation: A Review of Contemporary Research with a Comprehensive Bibliography 1931–1996: 1–32. Archived from the original on 13 October 2016. Retrieved 13 October 2016. http://library.noetic.org/library/publication-bibliographies/physical-and-psychological-effects-meditation ↩

  212. Everly & Lating 2002, p. 200. - Everly, George S.; Lating, Jeffrey M. (2002), A clinical guide to the treatment of human stress response, Springer Science & Business Media, ISBN 0-306-46620-1 ↩

  213. Encyclopedia of Psychology and Religion by David A. Leeming, Kathryn Madden, Stanton Marlan 2009 ISBN page 559 ↩

  214. "8.0% of U.S. adults (18 million) used Meditation". NCCIH. 11 November 2014. Archived from the original on 14 January 2018. Retrieved 14 January 2018. https://nccih.nih.gov/research/statistics/NHIS/2012/mind-body/meditation ↩

  215. Cramer, Holger; Hall, Helen; Leach, Matthew; Frawley, Jane; Zhang, Yan; Leung, Brenda; Adams, Jon; Lauche, Romy (2016). "Prevalence, patterns, and predictors of meditation use among US adults: A nationally representative survey". Scientific Reports. 6: 36760. Bibcode:2016NatSR...636760C. doi:10.1038/srep36760. PMC 5103185. PMID 27829670. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5103185 ↩

  216. Kachan, Diana; Olano, Henry; Tannenbaum, Stacey L.; Annane, Debra W.; Mehta, Ashwin; Arheart, Kristopher L.; Fleming, Lora E.; Yang, Xuan; McClure, Laura A.; Lee, David J. (5 January 2017). "Prevalence of Mindfulness Practices in the US Workforce: National Health Interview Survey". Preventing Chronic Disease. 14: E01. doi:10.5888/pcd14.160034. PMC 5217767. PMID 28055821. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5217767 ↩

  217. "Time Magazine, "Youth: The Hippies" Jul. 7, 1967". Archived from the original on 3 May 2007. https://web.archive.org/web/20070503045854/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,899555-1,00.html ↩

  218. Barnia, George (1996). The Index of Leading Spiritual Indicators. Dallas, Texas: Word Publishing. Archived from the original on 4 January 2011. Retrieved 15 October 2008. http://www.religioustolerance.org/newage.htm ↩

  219. Lash, John (1990). The Seeker's Handbook: The Complete Guide to Spiritual Pathfinding. New York: Harmony Books. p. 320. ISBN 978-0-517-57797-4. 978-0-517-57797-4 ↩

  220. Complementary, Alternative, or Integrative Health: What's In a Name? US Department of Health and Human Services. Public Health Service. National Institutes of Health. NIH Publication No. D347. Retrieved 31 July 2015. ↩

  221. Sources: Stein, T. R., Olivo, E. L., Grand, S. H., Namerow, P. B., Costa, J., and Oz, M. C., A pilot study to assess the effects of a guided imagery audiotape intervention on psychological outcomes in patients undergoing coronary artery bypass graft surgery. Holistic Nursing Practice, Vol. 24, No. 4, 2010, pp213-222. Morris, C., The use of self-service technologies in stress management: A pilot project. Master of Social Work Clinical Research Papers. Saint Catherine University, St. Paul, MN, 2012. Carter, E., Pre-packaged guided imagery for stress reduction: Initial results. Counseling, Psychotherapy, and Health, Vol. 2, No. 2, 2006, pp27-39. ↩

  222. Rose J. P. and Weis, J., Sound meditation in oncological rehabilitation: a pilot study of a receptive music therapy group using the monochord. Forschende Komplementarmedizin, Vol. 15, No. 6, 2006, pp335-343. ↩

  223. Grocke, D., and Wigram, T., Receptive methods in music therapy: Techniques and clinical applications for music therapy clinicians, educators, and students. London, England: Jessica Kingsley, 2007. ↩

  224. Astin, J.A., Shapiro, S.L., Eisenberg, D. M., and Forys, M.A., Mind-body medicine: State of the science, implications for practice. Journal of the American Board of Family Medicine, Vol. 16:, 2003, pp131–147. ↩

  225. Newham, P., Guided Meditation: Principles and Practice. London; Tigers Eye, 2005. ↩

  226. Newham, P., Music, and Meditation: The Therapeutics of Sound. London: Tigers Eye: 2014. ↩

  227. Astin, J.A., Shapiro, S.L., Eisenberg, D. M., and Forys, M.A., Mind-body medicine: State of the science, implications for practice. Journal of the American Board of Family Medicine, Vol. 16:, 2003, pp131–147. ↩

  228. Post-White J. 2002. Clinical indication for use of imagery in oncology practice. In Voice Massage, Scripts for Guided Imagery, Edwards D.M (Ed.). Oncology Nursing Society: Pittsburgh, PA. ↩

  229. Wallace KG. 1997. Analysis of recent literature concerning relaxation and imagery interventions for cancer pain. Cancer Nursing 20: 79–87. ↩

  230. Luebert K, Dahme B, Hasenbring M. 2001. The effectiveness of relaxation training in reducing treatment-related symptoms and improving emotional adjustment in acute non-surgical cancer treatment: A meta-analytical review. Psycho-Oncology, Vol. 10: pp490–502. ↩

  231. Sources: Unger, C. A., Busse, D., & Yim, I. S., The effect of guided relaxation on cortisol and affect: Stress reactivity as a moderator. Journal of Health Psychology, 2015, 1359105315595118. Weigensberg M.J., Lane C.J., Winners O., Wright T., Nguyen-Rodriguez S., Goran M.I., Spruijt-Metz, D. Acute effects of stress-reduction Interactive Guided Imagery (SM) on salivary cortisol in overweight Latino adolescents. Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, Vol. 15, No. 3, 2003, pp297-303. Varvogli, L., and Darviri, C., Stress Management Techniques: evidence-based procedures that reduce stress and promote health. Health Science Journal, Vol. 5, No. 2, 2011 pp74-89. Carter, E., Pre-packaged guided imagery for stress reduction: Initial results. Counseling, Psychotherapy, and Health, Vol. 2, No. 2, 2006, pp27-39. Wynd C. A., Relaxation imagery used for stress reduction in the prevention of smoking relapse. Journal of Advanced Nursing, Vol. 17, No. 3, 2006, pp294-302. Lin, M. F., Hsu, M. C., Chang, H. J., Hsu, Y. Y., Chou, M. H., and Crawford, P., Pivotal moments and changes in the Bonny Method of Guided Imagery and Music for patients with depression. Journal of Clinical Nursing, Vol. 19, Nos. 7‐8, 2010, pp1139-1148. Roffe, L., Schmidt, K., and Ernst, E., A systematic review of guided imagery as an adjuvant cancer therapy. Psycho-oncology, Vol. 14, No. 8, 2005, pp607-617. Holden-Lund C., Effects of relaxation with guided imagery on surgical stress and wound healing. Research in Nursing and Health, Vol. 11, No. 4, 2007, pp235-244. Stein, T. R., Olivo, E. L., Grand, S. H., Namerow, P. B., Costa, J., and Oz, M. C., A pilot study to assess the effects of a guided imagery audiotape intervention on psychological outcomes in patients undergoing coronary artery bypass graft surgery. Holistic Nursing Practice, Vol. 24, No. 4, 2010, pp213-222. Sahler O.J., Hunter, B.C., Liesveld J.L., The effect of using music therapy with relaxation imagery in the management of patients undergoing bone marrow transplantation: a pilot feasibility study. Alternative Therapies, Vol. 9, No. 6, 2003, pp70- 74. Kent, D., "Zenventures: Unwind your Imagination with Guided Meditation". Masters Thesis. Buffalo State University, New York, 2014. ↩

  232. Epstein G.N., Halper J.P., Barrett E.A., Birdsall, C., McGee, M., Baron K.P., Lowenstein S., A pilot study of mind-body changes in adults with asthma who practice mental imagery. alternative therapies. Volume 10, July/August 2004, pp66-71. ↩

  233. Sources: Menzies V., Taylor A.G., Bourguignon C., Effects of guided imagery on outcomes of pain, functional status, and self-efficacy in persons diagnosed with fibromyalgia. Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, Vol. 12, No. 1, 2006, pp23-30. Kwekkeboom, K. L., Kneip, J., and Pearson, L., A pilot study to predict success with guided imagery for cancer pain. Pain Management Nursing, Vol. 4, No. 3, 2003, pp112-123. Antall G.F., Kresevic D. The use of guided imagery to manage pain in an elderly orthopedic population. Orthopaedic Nursing, Vol. 23, No. 5, September/October 2004, pp335-340 ↩

  234. Sources: Ong, J. C., Manber, R., Segal, Z., Xia, Y., Shapiro, S., and Wyatt, J. K., A randomized controlled trial of mindfulness meditation for chronic insomnia. Sleep, Vol. 37, No. 9, 2014, p1553. Singh, A., and Modi, R., Meditation and positive mental health. Indian Journal of Positive Psychology, Vol. 3, No. 3, 2012, p273. Molen, Y., Santos, G., Carvalho, L., Prado, L., and Prado, G., Pre-sleep worry decreases by adding reading and guided imagery to insomnia treatment. Sleep Medicine, Vol. 14, 2013, e210-e211. ↩

  235. Awalt, R. M., Reilly, P. M., and Shopshire, M. S., The angry patient: an intervention for managing anger in substance abuse treatment. Journal of psychoactive drugs, Vol. 29, No. 4, 1997, 353-358. ↩

  236. Sources: Lang, T. J., Blackwell, S. E., Harmer, C., Davison, P., & Holmes, E. A., Cognitive bias modification using mental imagery for depression: Developing a novel computerized intervention to change negative thinking styles. European Journal of Personality, Vol. 26, 2012, pp145–157. Teasdale, J. D., Emotion and two kinds of meaning: Cognitive therapy and applied cognitive science. Behaviour Research and Therapy, Vol. 31, No. 4, 1993, pp339-354. Birnbaum, L., & Birnbaum, A., In search of inner wisdom: guided mindfulness meditation in the context of suicide. The Scientific World Journal, Vol. 4, 2004, pp216-227. ↩

  237. Sources: Manyande, A., Berg, S., Gettins, D., Stanford, S. C., Mazhero, S., Marks, D. F., and Salmon, P., Preoperative rehearsal of active coping imagery influences subjective and hormonal responses to abdominal surgery. Psychosomatic Medicine, Vol. 57, No. 2, 1995, pp177-182. Hockenberry, M. H., Guided imagery as a coping measure for children with cancer. Journal of Pediatric Oncology Nursing, Vol. 6, No. 2, 1989, pp29-29. ↩

  238. Sources: Esplen, M. J. and Hodnett, E., A Pilot Study Investigating Student Musicians' Experiences of Guided Imagery as a Technique to Manage Performance Anxiety. Medical Problems of Performing Artists, Vol. 14, No. 3, 1999, pp127-132. Feltz, D. L., and Riessinger, C. A., Effects of in vivo emotive imagery and performance feedback on self-efficacy and muscular endurance. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, Vol. 12, No. 2, 1990, pp132-143. Sanders, C. W., Sadoski, M., Bramson, R., Wiprud, R., and Van Walsum, K., Comparing the effects of physical practice and mental imagery rehearsal on learning basic surgical skills by medical students. American journal of obstetrics and gynecology, Vol. 191, No. 5, 2004, pp1811-1814. ↩

  239. Hanh, Thich Nhat. The blooming of a lotus: Guided meditation for achieving the miracle of mindfulness. Beacon Press, 2009. ↩

  240. LeónPizarro C., Gich I., Barthe E., Rovirosa A., Farrús B., Casas F., Verger E., Biete A., Craven Bartle J., Sierra J., Arcusa A., A randomized trial of the effect of training in relaxation and guided imagery techniques in improving psychological and quality-of-life indices for gynecologic and breast brachytherapy patients. Psycho-oncology, Vol. 16, No. 11, 2007, pp971-979. ↩

  241. Goyal, M.; Singh, S.; Sibinga, E. M.; Gould, N. F.; Rowland-Seymour, A.; Sharma, R.; Berger, Z.; Sleicher, D.; Maron, D. D.; Shihab, H. M.; Ranasinghe, P. D.; Linn, S.; Saha, S.; Bass, E. B.; Haythornthwaite, J. A. (2014). "Meditation Programs for Psychological Stress and Well-being: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis". JAMA Internal Medicine. 174 (3): 357–368. doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2013.13018. ISSN 2168-6106. PMC 4142584. PMID 24395196. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4142584 ↩

  242. Fox, Kieran C.R.; Nijeboer, Savannah; Dixon, Matthew L.; Floman, James L.; Ellamil, Melissa; Rumak, Samuel P.; Sedlmeier, Peter; Christoff, Kalina (2014). "Is meditation associated with altered brain structure? A systematic review and meta-analysis of morphometric neuroimaging in meditation practitioners". Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews. 43: 48–73. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2014.03.016. PMID 24705269. S2CID 207090878. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  243. Goyal, M.; Singh, S.; Sibinga, E. M.; Gould, N. F.; Rowland-Seymour, A.; Sharma, R.; Berger, Z.; Sleicher, D.; Maron, D. D.; Shihab, H. M.; Ranasinghe, P. D.; Linn, S.; Saha, S.; Bass, E. B.; Haythornthwaite, J. A. (2014). "Meditation Programs for Psychological Stress and Well-being: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis". JAMA Internal Medicine. 174 (3): 357–368. doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2013.13018. ISSN 2168-6106. PMC 4142584. PMID 24395196. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4142584 ↩

  244. Van Dam, Nicholas T.; van Vugt, Marieke K.; Vago, David R.; Schmalzl, Laura; Saron, Clifford D.; Olendzki, Andrew; Meissner, Ted; Lazar, Sara W.; Kerr, Catherine E.; Gorchov, Jolie; Fox, Kieran C. R.; Field, Brent A.; Britton, Willoughby B.; Brefczynski-Lewis, Julie A.; Meyer, David E. (January 2018). "Mind the Hype: A Critical Evaluation and Prescriptive Agenda for Research on Mindfulness and Meditation". Perspectives on Psychological Science. 13 (1): 36–61. doi:10.1177/1745691617709589. PMC 5758421. PMID 29016274. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5758421 ↩

  245. Stetka, Bret (7 December 2017). "Where's the Proof that Mindfulness Really Works?". Scientific American Mind. 29 (1): 20–23. doi:10.1038/scientificamericanmind0118-20. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  246. Van Dam, Nicholas T.; van Vugt, Marieke K.; Vago, David R.; Schmalzl, Laura; Saron, Clifford D.; Olendzki, Andrew; Meissner, Ted; Lazar, Sara W.; Gorchov, Jolie; Fox, Kieran C.R.; Field, Brent A.; Britton, Willoughby B.; Brefczynski-Lewis, Julie A.; Meyer, David E. (10 October 2017). "Reiterated Concerns and Further Challenges for Mindfulness and Meditation Research: A Reply to Davidson and Dahl". Perspectives on Psychological Science. 13 (1): 66–69. doi:10.1177/1745691617727529. PMC 5817993. PMID 29016240. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5817993 ↩

  247. Holen, Are (2016). "The Science of Meditation". In Eifring, Halvor (ed.). Asian Traditions of Meditation. University of Hawaiʻi Press. p. 233. ISBN 978-0-8248-7667-8. Archived from the original on 17 March 2023. Retrieved 2 July 2021. 978-0-8248-7667-8 ↩

  248. Barušs, Imants (1996). Authentic Knowing: The Convergence of Science and Spiritual Aspiration. West Lafayette, Indiana: Purdue University Press. p. 66. ISBN 978-1-55753-084-4. Archived from the original on 17 March 2023. Retrieved 2 July 2021. 978-1-55753-084-4 ↩

  249. Benson & Klipper 2000, pp. 66–72. - Benson, Herbert; Klipper, Miriam Z. (2000) [1972]. The Relaxation Response. Harper. ISBN 0-380-81595-8. ↩

  250. Blackmore, Susan (14 September 2017). Consciousness: a Very Short Introduction (2nd ed.). New York, NY, United States of America: Oxford University Press. p. 115. ISBN 978-0-19-879473-8. Archived from the original on 17 March 2023. Retrieved 2 July 2021. 978-0-19-879473-8 ↩

  251. Goyal, M.; Singh, S.; Sibinga, E. M.; Gould, N. F.; Rowland-Seymour, A.; Sharma, R.; Berger, Z.; Sleicher, D.; Maron, D. D.; Shihab, H. M.; Ranasinghe, P. D.; Linn, S.; Saha, S.; Bass, E. B.; Haythornthwaite, J. A. (2014). "Meditation Programs for Psychological Stress and Well-being: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis". JAMA Internal Medicine. 174 (3): 357–368. doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2013.13018. ISSN 2168-6106. PMC 4142584. PMID 24395196. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4142584 ↩

  252. Goyal, M.; Singh, S.; Sibinga, E. M.; Gould, N. F.; Rowland-Seymour, A.; Sharma, R.; Berger, Z.; Sleicher, D.; Maron, D. D.; Shihab, H. M.; Ranasinghe, P. D.; Linn, S.; Saha, S.; Bass, E. B.; Haythornthwaite, J. A. (2014). "Meditation Programs for Psychological Stress and Well-being: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis". JAMA Internal Medicine. 174 (3): 357–368. doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2013.13018. ISSN 2168-6106. PMC 4142584. PMID 24395196. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4142584 ↩

  253. Luberto, Christina M.; Shinday, Nina; Song, Rhayun; Philpotts, Lisa L.; Park, Elyse R.; Fricchione, Gregory L.; Yeh, Gloria Y. (2017). "A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of the Effects of Meditation on Empathy, Compassion, and Prosocial Behaviors". Mindfulness. 9 (3): 708–24. doi:10.1007/s12671-017-0841-8. PMC 6081743. PMID 30100929. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6081743 ↩

  254. Kreplin, Ute; Farias, Miguel; Brazil, Inti A. (5 February 2018). "The limited prosocial effects of meditation: A systematic review and meta-analysis". Scientific Reports. 8 (1): 2403. Bibcode:2018NatSR...8.2403K. doi:10.1038/s41598-018-20299-z. PMC 5799363. PMID 29402955. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5799363 ↩

  255. Southwick, S.M., & Charney, D.S. (2012). Resilience: The Science of Mastering Life's Greatest Challenges. Cambridge University Press. ↩

  256. Maciocia, Giovanni (2009). The Psyche in Chinese Medicine, Treatment of Emotional and Mental Disharmonies with Acupuncture and Chinese Herbs. Elsevier Health Sciences. ISBN 9780702047770. 9780702047770 ↩

  257. Lee, Sing (1 December 1996). "Cultures in psychiatric nosology: The CCMD-2-R and International Classification of Mental Disorders". Culture, Medicine and Psychiatry. 20 (4): 421–472. doi:10.1007/BF00117087. ISSN 1573-076X. PMID 8989986. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00117087 ↩

  258. unknown (26 May 2017). "Does meditation carry a risk of harmful side effects?". nhs.uk. Archived from the original on 3 January 2021. Retrieved 7 May 2018. https://web.archive.org/web/20210103073652/https://www.nhs.uk/news/lifestyle-and-exercise/does-meditation-carry-a-risk-of-harmful-side-effects/ ↩

  259. Lindahl, Fisher & Cooper (2017). - Lindahl, J.R.; Fisher, N.E.; Cooper, D.J. (2017). "The varieties of contemplative experience: A mixed-methods study of meditation-related challenges in Western Buddhists". PLOS ONE. 12 (5): e0176239. Bibcode:2017PLoSO..1276239L. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0176239. PMC 5443484. PMID 28542181. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5443484 ↩

  260. Schlosser et al. (2019). - Schlosser, Marco; Sparby, Terje; Vörös, Sebastjan; Jones, Rebecca; Marchant, Natalie L. (2019). "Unpleasant meditation-related experiences in regular meditators: Prevalence, predictors, and conceptual considerations". PLOS ONE. 14 (5): e0216643. Bibcode:2019PLoSO..1416643S. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0216643. PMC 6508707. PMID 31071152. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6508707 ↩

  261. Schlosser et al. (2019). - Schlosser, Marco; Sparby, Terje; Vörös, Sebastjan; Jones, Rebecca; Marchant, Natalie L. (2019). "Unpleasant meditation-related experiences in regular meditators: Prevalence, predictors, and conceptual considerations". PLOS ONE. 14 (5): e0216643. Bibcode:2019PLoSO..1416643S. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0216643. PMC 6508707. PMID 31071152. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6508707 ↩

  262. Lee, Sing (1 December 1996). "Cultures in psychiatric nosology: The CCMD-2-R and International Classification of Mental Disorders". Culture, Medicine and Psychiatry. 20 (4): 421–472. doi:10.1007/BF00117087. ISSN 1573-076X. PMID 8989986. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00117087 ↩

  263. Lindahl, Fisher & Cooper (2017). - Lindahl, J.R.; Fisher, N.E.; Cooper, D.J. (2017). "The varieties of contemplative experience: A mixed-methods study of meditation-related challenges in Western Buddhists". PLOS ONE. 12 (5): e0176239. Bibcode:2017PLoSO..1276239L. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0176239. PMC 5443484. PMID 28542181. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5443484 ↩

  264. Lindahl, Fisher & Cooper (2017). - Lindahl, J.R.; Fisher, N.E.; Cooper, D.J. (2017). "The varieties of contemplative experience: A mixed-methods study of meditation-related challenges in Western Buddhists". PLOS ONE. 12 (5): e0176239. Bibcode:2017PLoSO..1276239L. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0176239. PMC 5443484. PMID 28542181. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5443484 ↩

  265. unknown (26 May 2017). "Does meditation carry a risk of harmful side effects?". nhs.uk. Archived from the original on 3 January 2021. Retrieved 7 May 2018. https://web.archive.org/web/20210103073652/https://www.nhs.uk/news/lifestyle-and-exercise/does-meditation-carry-a-risk-of-harmful-side-effects/ ↩

  266. Itai Ivtzan (2016). "Dangers of Meditation". Psychology Today. Archived from the original on 17 March 2023. Retrieved 7 May 2018. https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/mindfulness-wellbeing/201603/dangers-meditation ↩

  267. Miguel Farias (2015). "Meditation is touted as a cure for mental instability but can it actually be bad for you?". www.independent.co.uk. Archived from the original on 8 May 2018. Retrieved 8 May 2018. https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/health-and-families/features/meditation-is-touted-as-a-cure-for-mental-instability-but-can-it-actually-be-bad-for-you-10268291.html?amp ↩

  268. Farias et al. (2020). - Farias, M.; Maraldi, E.; Wallenkampf, K. C.; Lucchetti, G. (2020). "Adverse events in meditation practices and meditation-based therapies: a systematic review". Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica. 142 (5): 374–393. doi:10.1111/acps.13225. PMID 32820538. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/acps.13225 ↩

  269. Farias et al. (2020). - Farias, M.; Maraldi, E.; Wallenkampf, K. C.; Lucchetti, G. (2020). "Adverse events in meditation practices and meditation-based therapies: a systematic review". Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica. 142 (5): 374–393. doi:10.1111/acps.13225. PMID 32820538. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/acps.13225 ↩

  270. Schlosser et al. (2019). - Schlosser, Marco; Sparby, Terje; Vörös, Sebastjan; Jones, Rebecca; Marchant, Natalie L. (2019). "Unpleasant meditation-related experiences in regular meditators: Prevalence, predictors, and conceptual considerations". PLOS ONE. 14 (5): e0216643. Bibcode:2019PLoSO..1416643S. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0216643. PMC 6508707. PMID 31071152. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6508707 ↩

  271. Farias et al. (2020). - Farias, M.; Maraldi, E.; Wallenkampf, K. C.; Lucchetti, G. (2020). "Adverse events in meditation practices and meditation-based therapies: a systematic review". Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica. 142 (5): 374–393. doi:10.1111/acps.13225. PMID 32820538. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/acps.13225 ↩

  272. Goud (2022). - Goud, S. S. (2022). "A Double-Edged Sword-A Case Report of Psychosis Associated with Excessive Unguided Meditation". Case Reports in Psychiatry. 2022 (2661824). doi:10.1155/2022/2661824. PMC 9617715. PMID 36316997. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9617715 ↩

  273. Yadav, J.; Bhardwaj, A.; Jangid, P.; Singh, P.; Gupta, R. (2023). "Meditation-A Slippery Slope for Psychosis: A Case Series With Review of Evidence". The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease. 211 (8): 634–638. doi:10.1097/NMD.0000000000001656. PMID 37505896. https://journals.lww.com/jonmd/abstract/2023/08000/meditation_a_slippery_slope_for_psychosis__a_case.12.aspx ↩

  274. Schlosser et al. (2019). - Schlosser, Marco; Sparby, Terje; Vörös, Sebastjan; Jones, Rebecca; Marchant, Natalie L. (2019). "Unpleasant meditation-related experiences in regular meditators: Prevalence, predictors, and conceptual considerations". PLOS ONE. 14 (5): e0216643. Bibcode:2019PLoSO..1416643S. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0216643. PMC 6508707. PMID 31071152. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6508707 ↩

  275. Chan-Ob & Boonyanaruthee (1999). - Chan-Ob, T; Boonyanaruthee, V (1999). "Meditation in association with psychosis". Journal of the Medical Association of Thailand. 82 (9). Chotmaihet Thangphaet: 925–30. ISSN 0125-2208. PMID 10561951. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/12739139 ↩

  276. Chan-Ob & Boonyanaruthee (1999). - Chan-Ob, T; Boonyanaruthee, V (1999). "Meditation in association with psychosis". Journal of the Medical Association of Thailand. 82 (9). Chotmaihet Thangphaet: 925–30. ISSN 0125-2208. PMID 10561951. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/12739139 ↩

  277. Goud (2022). - Goud, S. S. (2022). "A Double-Edged Sword-A Case Report of Psychosis Associated with Excessive Unguided Meditation". Case Reports in Psychiatry. 2022 (2661824). doi:10.1155/2022/2661824. PMC 9617715. PMID 36316997. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9617715 ↩

  278. Farias et al. (2020). - Farias, M.; Maraldi, E.; Wallenkampf, K. C.; Lucchetti, G. (2020). "Adverse events in meditation practices and meditation-based therapies: a systematic review". Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica. 142 (5): 374–393. doi:10.1111/acps.13225. PMID 32820538. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/acps.13225 ↩

  279. Farias et al. (2020). - Farias, M.; Maraldi, E.; Wallenkampf, K. C.; Lucchetti, G. (2020). "Adverse events in meditation practices and meditation-based therapies: a systematic review". Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica. 142 (5): 374–393. doi:10.1111/acps.13225. PMID 32820538. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/acps.13225 ↩

  280. Goud (2022). - Goud, S. S. (2022). "A Double-Edged Sword-A Case Report of Psychosis Associated with Excessive Unguided Meditation". Case Reports in Psychiatry. 2022 (2661824). doi:10.1155/2022/2661824. PMC 9617715. PMID 36316997. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9617715 ↩

  281. Farias et al. (2020), p. 388. - Farias, M.; Maraldi, E.; Wallenkampf, K. C.; Lucchetti, G. (2020). "Adverse events in meditation practices and meditation-based therapies: a systematic review". Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica. 142 (5): 374–393. doi:10.1111/acps.13225. PMID 32820538. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/acps.13225 ↩

  282. Farias et al. (2020). - Farias, M.; Maraldi, E.; Wallenkampf, K. C.; Lucchetti, G. (2020). "Adverse events in meditation practices and meditation-based therapies: a systematic review". Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica. 142 (5): 374–393. doi:10.1111/acps.13225. PMID 32820538. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/acps.13225 ↩

  283. Schlosser et al. (2019). - Schlosser, Marco; Sparby, Terje; Vörös, Sebastjan; Jones, Rebecca; Marchant, Natalie L. (2019). "Unpleasant meditation-related experiences in regular meditators: Prevalence, predictors, and conceptual considerations". PLOS ONE. 14 (5): e0216643. Bibcode:2019PLoSO..1416643S. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0216643. PMC 6508707. PMID 31071152. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6508707 ↩

  284. Schlosser et al. (2019). - Schlosser, Marco; Sparby, Terje; Vörös, Sebastjan; Jones, Rebecca; Marchant, Natalie L. (2019). "Unpleasant meditation-related experiences in regular meditators: Prevalence, predictors, and conceptual considerations". PLOS ONE. 14 (5): e0216643. Bibcode:2019PLoSO..1416643S. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0216643. PMC 6508707. PMID 31071152. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6508707 ↩

  285. Farias et al. (2020), p. 388. - Farias, M.; Maraldi, E.; Wallenkampf, K. C.; Lucchetti, G. (2020). "Adverse events in meditation practices and meditation-based therapies: a systematic review". Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica. 142 (5): 374–393. doi:10.1111/acps.13225. PMID 32820538. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/acps.13225 ↩

  286. Schlosser et al. (2019). - Schlosser, Marco; Sparby, Terje; Vörös, Sebastjan; Jones, Rebecca; Marchant, Natalie L. (2019). "Unpleasant meditation-related experiences in regular meditators: Prevalence, predictors, and conceptual considerations". PLOS ONE. 14 (5): e0216643. Bibcode:2019PLoSO..1416643S. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0216643. PMC 6508707. PMID 31071152. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6508707 ↩

  287. Schlosser et al. (2019). - Schlosser, Marco; Sparby, Terje; Vörös, Sebastjan; Jones, Rebecca; Marchant, Natalie L. (2019). "Unpleasant meditation-related experiences in regular meditators: Prevalence, predictors, and conceptual considerations". PLOS ONE. 14 (5): e0216643. Bibcode:2019PLoSO..1416643S. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0216643. PMC 6508707. PMID 31071152. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6508707 ↩

  288. Schlosser et al. (2019). - Schlosser, Marco; Sparby, Terje; Vörös, Sebastjan; Jones, Rebecca; Marchant, Natalie L. (2019). "Unpleasant meditation-related experiences in regular meditators: Prevalence, predictors, and conceptual considerations". PLOS ONE. 14 (5): e0216643. Bibcode:2019PLoSO..1416643S. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0216643. PMC 6508707. PMID 31071152. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6508707 ↩

  289. Vörös (2016), p. 69. - Vörös, Sebastjan (2016). "Sitting with the Demons – Mindfulness, Suffering, and Existential Transformation". Asian Studies. 4 (2): 59–83. doi:10.4312/as.2016.4.2.59-83. https://doi.org/10.4312%2Fas.2016.4.2.59-83 ↩

  290. Salguero (2023). - Salguero, C. Pierce (2023). ""Meditation Sickness" in Medieval Chinese Buddhism and the Contemporary West" (PDF). Journal of Buddhist Ethics. 30 (2): 169–211. ISSN 1076-9005. Archived (PDF) from the original on 3 June 2024. Retrieved 14 February 2024. https://blogs.dickinson.edu/buddhistethics/files/2023/08/Salguero-Finalized-ms-for-publication47.pdf ↩

  291. Salguero (2023). - Salguero, C. Pierce (2023). ""Meditation Sickness" in Medieval Chinese Buddhism and the Contemporary West" (PDF). Journal of Buddhist Ethics. 30 (2): 169–211. ISSN 1076-9005. Archived (PDF) from the original on 3 June 2024. Retrieved 14 February 2024. https://blogs.dickinson.edu/buddhistethics/files/2023/08/Salguero-Finalized-ms-for-publication47.pdf ↩

  292. Vörös (2016), p. 69. - Vörös, Sebastjan (2016). "Sitting with the Demons – Mindfulness, Suffering, and Existential Transformation". Asian Studies. 4 (2): 59–83. doi:10.4312/as.2016.4.2.59-83. https://doi.org/10.4312%2Fas.2016.4.2.59-83 ↩

  293. unknown (26 May 2017). "Does meditation carry a risk of harmful side effects?". nhs.uk. Archived from the original on 3 January 2021. Retrieved 7 May 2018. https://web.archive.org/web/20210103073652/https://www.nhs.uk/news/lifestyle-and-exercise/does-meditation-carry-a-risk-of-harmful-side-effects/ ↩

  294. Salguero (2023). - Salguero, C. Pierce (2023). ""Meditation Sickness" in Medieval Chinese Buddhism and the Contemporary West" (PDF). Journal of Buddhist Ethics. 30 (2): 169–211. ISSN 1076-9005. Archived (PDF) from the original on 3 June 2024. Retrieved 14 February 2024. https://blogs.dickinson.edu/buddhistethics/files/2023/08/Salguero-Finalized-ms-for-publication47.pdf ↩

  295. Salguero (2023), p. 180. - Salguero, C. Pierce (2023). ""Meditation Sickness" in Medieval Chinese Buddhism and the Contemporary West" (PDF). Journal of Buddhist Ethics. 30 (2): 169–211. ISSN 1076-9005. Archived (PDF) from the original on 3 June 2024. Retrieved 14 February 2024. https://blogs.dickinson.edu/buddhistethics/files/2023/08/Salguero-Finalized-ms-for-publication47.pdf ↩

  296. Farias, M; Wikholm, C (2016). "Has the science of mindfulness lost its mind?". BJPsych Bulletin. 40 (6): 329–332. doi:10.1192/pb.bp.116.053686. PMC 5353526. PMID 28377813. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5353526 ↩

  297. The Buddha Pill: Can Meditation Change You? by M. Farias and C. Wikholm, 2019 ISBN 978-1-78028-718-8 /wiki/ISBN_(identifier) ↩

  298. Mindlessness: The Corruption of Mindfulness in a Culture of Narcissism by T. Joiner, 2017 ISBN 0-19-020062-6 /wiki/ISBN_(identifier) ↩

  299. McMindfulness: How Mindfulness Became the New Capitalist Spirituality by R. Purser, 2019 ISBN 1-912248-31-X /wiki/ISBN_(identifier) ↩

  300. Hafenbrack, A. C.; LaPalme, M. L.; Solal, I. (2022). "Mindfulness meditation reduces guilt and prosocial reparation". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 123 (1): 28–54. doi:10.1037/pspa0000298. PMID 34941333. https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2Fpspa0000298 ↩

  301. Poulin, M. J.; Ministero, L. M.; Gabriel, S.; Morrison, C. D.; Naidu, E. (2021). "Minding Your Own Business? Mindfulness Decreases Prosocial Behavior for People With Independent Self-Construals". Psychological Science. 32 (11): 1699–1708. doi:10.1177/09567976211015184. PMID 34705576. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/09567976211015184 ↩

  302. "How mindfulness can make you a darker person". bbc.com. 3 March 2022. Retrieved 9 July 2024. https://www.bbc.com/worklife/article/20220302-how-mindfulness-can-make-you-a-darker-person ↩

  303. C. G. Jung, "Yoga and the West" (1936), Collected Works v.11. ↩

  304. C. G. Jung, "Forward to Suzuki's An Introduction to Zen Buddhism", (1939), Collected Works v.11. /wiki/D._T._Suzuki ↩

  305. C. G. Jung, "The psychology of eastern meditation" (1943), Collected Works v.11. ↩

  306. V. Walter Odajnyk, Gathering the Light. A psychology of meditation (Shambhala 1993), pp. 18-21. /wiki/V._Walter_Odajnyk ↩

  307. Erich Fromm, Zen Buddhism and psychoanalysis (1960). ↩

  308. Harrington, Anne; Dunne, John D. (2015). "When mindfulness is therapy: Ethical qualms, historical perspectives". American Psychologist. 70 (7): 621–631. doi:10.1037/a0039460. PMID 26436312. S2CID 43129186. Archived from the original on 20 February 2021. Retrieved 3 June 2017. http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:25757884 ↩

  309. Goyal, M.; Singh, S.; Sibinga, E. M.; Gould, N. F.; Rowland-Seymour, A.; Sharma, R.; Berger, Z.; Sleicher, D.; Maron, D. D.; Shihab, H. M.; Ranasinghe, P. D.; Linn, S.; Saha, S.; Bass, E. B.; Haythornthwaite, J. A. (2014). "Meditation Programs for Psychological Stress and Well-being: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis". JAMA Internal Medicine. 174 (3): 357–368. doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2013.13018. ISSN 2168-6106. PMC 4142584. PMID 24395196. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4142584 ↩

  310. Strauss, Clara; Cavanagh, Kate; Oliver, Annie; Pettman, Danelle (24 April 2014). "Mindfulness-Based Interventions for People Diagnosed with a Current Episode of an Anxiety or Depressive Disorder: A Meta-Analysis of Randomised Controlled Trials". PLOS ONE. 9 (4): e96110. Bibcode:2014PLoSO...996110S. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0096110. PMC 3999148. PMID 24763812. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3999148 ↩

  311. Khoury, Bassam; Sharma, Manoj; Rush, Sarah E.; Fournier, Claude (June 2015). "Mindfulness-based stress reduction for healthy individuals: A meta-analysis". Journal of Psychosomatic Research. 78 (6): 519–528. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychores.2015.03.009. PMID 25818837. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  312. Pascoe, Michaela C.; Thompson, David R.; Ski, Chantal F. (July 2020). "Meditation and Endocrine Health and Wellbeing". Trends in Endocrinology and Metabolism. 31 (7): 469–477. doi:10.1016/j.tem.2020.01.012. ISSN 1879-3061. PMID 32037024. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32037024/ ↩

  313. Stetka, Bret (7 December 2017). "Where's the Proof that Mindfulness Really Works?". Scientific American Mind. 29 (1): 20–23. doi:10.1038/scientificamericanmind0118-20. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  314. Chiesa, Alberto; Serretti, Alessandro (16 April 2014). "Are Mindfulness-Based Interventions Effective for Substance Use Disorders? A Systematic Review of the Evidence". Substance Use & Misuse. 49 (5): 492–512. doi:10.3109/10826084.2013.770027. PMID 23461667. S2CID 34990668. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  315. "Meditation and Mindfulness: What You Need To Know". NCCIH. Archived from the original on 14 March 2024. Retrieved 14 March 2024. https://www.nccih.nih.gov/health/meditation-and-mindfulness-what-you-need-to-know ↩

  316. Goyal, Madhav; Singh, Sonal; Sibinga, Erica M. S.; Gould, Neda F.; Rowland-Seymour, Anastasia; Sharma, Ritu; Berger, Zackary; Sleicher, Dana; Maron, David D.; Shihab, Hasan M.; Ranasinghe, Padmini D.; Linn, Shauna; Saha, Shonali; Bass, Eric B.; Haythornthwaite, Jennifer A. (1 March 2014). "Meditation Programs for Psychological Stress and Well-being: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis". JAMA Internal Medicine. 174 (3): 357–368. doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2013.13018. PMC 4142584. PMID 24395196. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4142584 ↩

  317. Levine, Glenn N.; Lange, Richard A.; Bairey-Merz, C. Noel; Davidson, Richard J.; Jamerson, Kenneth; Mehta, Puja K.; Michos, Erin D.; Norris, Keith; Ray, Indranill Basu; Saban, Karen L.; Shah, Tina; Stein, Richard; Smith, Sidney C.; American Heart Association Council on Clinical Cardiology; Council on Cardiovascular and Stroke Nursing; Council on Hypertension (11 October 2017). "Meditation and Cardiovascular Risk Reduction: A Scientific Statement From the American Heart Association". Journal of the American Heart Association. 6 (10). doi:10.1161/JAHA.117.002218. PMC 5721815. PMID 28963100. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5721815 ↩

  318. Wells, Rebecca Erwin; Beuthin, Justin; Granetzke, Laura (February 2019). "Complementary and Integrative Medicine for Episodic Migraine: an Update of Evidence from the Last 3 Years". Current Pain and Headache Reports. 23 (2): 10. doi:10.1007/s11916-019-0750-8. ISSN 1531-3433. PMC 6559232. PMID 30790138. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6559232 ↩

  319. "Meditation: In depth". National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health, US National Institutes of Health. 1 April 2016. Archived from the original on 3 October 2020. Retrieved 22 August 2019. http://nccih.nih.gov/health/meditation/overview.htm ↩

  320. Shaner, Lynne; Kelly, Lisa; Rockwell, Donna; Curtis, Devorah (2016). "Calm Abiding". Journal of Humanistic Psychology. 57: 98. doi:10.1177/0022167815594556. S2CID 148410605. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  321. "Meditation: In depth". National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health, US National Institutes of Health. 1 April 2016. Archived from the original on 3 October 2020. Retrieved 22 August 2019. http://nccih.nih.gov/health/meditation/overview.htm ↩

  322. Gard, Tim; Hölzel, Britta K.; Lazar, Sara W. (January 2014). "The potential effects of meditation on age-related cognitive decline: a systematic review: Effects of meditation on cognition in aging". Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 1307 (1): 89–103. Bibcode:2014NYASA1307...89G. doi:10.1111/nyas.12348. PMC 4024457. PMID 24571182. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4024457 ↩

  323. Gallegos, Autumn M.; Crean, Hugh F.; Pigeon, Wilfred R.; Heffner, Kathi L. (December 2017). "Meditation and yoga for posttraumatic stress disorder: A meta-analytic review of randomized controlled trials". Clinical Psychology Review. 58: 115–124. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2017.10.004. PMC 5939561. PMID 29100863. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5939561 ↩

  324. Bisson, Jonathan I; Roberts, Neil P; Andrew, Martin; Cooper, Rosalind; Lewis, Catrin (13 December 2013). "Psychological therapies for chronic post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in adults". Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2013 (12): CD003388. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD003388.pub4. PMC 6991463. PMID 24338345. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6991463 ↩

  325. Colgan, Dana Dharmakaya; Christopher, Michael; Michael, Paul; Wahbeh, Helané (1 April 2016). "The Body Scan and Mindful Breathing Among Veterans with PTSD: Type of Intervention Moderates the Relationship Between Changes in Mindfulness and Post-treatment Depression". Mindfulness. 7 (2): 372–383. doi:10.1007/s12671-015-0453-0. ISSN 1868-8535. PMC 7451147. PMID 32863982. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7451147 ↩

  326. Brewer, Judson (2014). "Mindfulness in the Military". American Journal of Psychiatry. 171 (8): 803–806. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2014.14040501. ISSN 0002-953X. PMID 25082484. https://dx.doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2014.14040501 ↩

  327. Gong, Hong; Ni, Chen-Xu; Liu, Yun-Zi; Zhang, Yi; Su, Wen-Jun; Lian, Yong-Jie; Peng, Wei; Jiang, Chun-Lei (October 2016). "Mindfulness meditation for insomnia: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials". Journal of Psychosomatic Research. 89: 1–6. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychores.2016.07.016. PMID 27663102. Archived from the original on 21 January 2022. Retrieved 15 October 2021. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0022399916303579 ↩

  328. Gong, Hong; Ni, Chen-Xu; Liu, Yun-Zi; Zhang, Yi; Su, Wen-Jun; Lian, Yong-Jie; Peng, Wei; Jiang, Chun-Lei (October 2016). "Mindfulness meditation for insomnia: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials". Journal of Psychosomatic Research. 89: 1–6. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychores.2016.07.016. PMID 27663102. Archived from the original on 21 January 2022. Retrieved 15 October 2021. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0022399916303579 ↩

  329. Karakas, Fahri (2009). "Spirituality and Performance in Organizations: A Literature Review". Journal of Business Ethics. 94: 89. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.466.9171. doi:10.1007/s10551-009-0251-5. S2CID 145612370. /wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier) ↩

  330. "The mind business". Financial Times. 24 August 2012. Archived from the original on 10 December 2022. Retrieved 21 November 2016. https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/https://www.ft.com/content/d9cb7940-ebea-11e1-985a-00144feab49a ↩

  331. "Why Google, Target, and General Mills Are Investing in Mindfulness". Harvard Business Review. Archived from the original on 21 November 2016. Retrieved 21 November 2016. https://hbr.org/2015/12/why-google-target-and-general-mills-are-investing-in-mindfulness ↩

  332. "Why Google, Target, and General Mills Are Investing in Mindfulness". Harvard Business Review. Archived from the original on 21 November 2016. Retrieved 21 November 2016. https://hbr.org/2015/12/why-google-target-and-general-mills-are-investing-in-mindfulness ↩

  333. "Why Google, Target, and General Mills Are Investing in Mindfulness". Harvard Business Review. Archived from the original on 21 November 2016. Retrieved 21 November 2016. https://hbr.org/2015/12/why-google-target-and-general-mills-are-investing-in-mindfulness ↩

  334. Richtel, Matt (5 April 2019). "The Latest in Military Strategy: Mindfulness". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 4 February 2024. Retrieved 4 February 2024. https://www.nytimes.com/2019/04/05/health/military-mindfulness-training.html ↩

  335. Waters, Lea; Barsky, Adam; Ridd, Amanda; Allen, Kelly (1 March 2015). "Contemplative Education: A Systematic, Evidence-Based Review of the effect of Meditation Interventions in Schools". Educational Psychology Review. 27 (1): 103–134. doi:10.1007/s10648-014-9258-2. ISSN 1573-336X. S2CID 254473829. https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10648-014-9258-2 ↩

  336. Šouláková, Barbora; Kasal, Alexandr; Butzer, Bethany; Winkler, Petr (1 June 2019). "Meta-Review on the Effectiveness of Classroom-Based Psychological Interventions Aimed at Improving Student Mental Health and Well-Being, and Preventing Mental Illness". The Journal of Primary Prevention. 40 (3): 255–278. doi:10.1007/s10935-019-00552-5. ISSN 1573-6547. PMID 31140100. S2CID 167218809. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  337. Van Gordon, William; Shonin, Edo; Sumich, Alex; Sundin, Eva C.; Griffiths, Mark D. (1 August 2014). "Meditation Awareness Training (MAT) for Psychological Well-Being in a Sub-Clinical Sample of University Students: A Controlled Pilot Study". Mindfulness. 5 (4): 381–391. doi:10.1007/s12671-012-0191-5. ISSN 1868-8535. S2CID 255785448. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  338. Torné-Ruiz, Alba; Reguant, Mercedes; Roca, Judith (1 January 2023). "Mindfulness for stress and anxiety management in nursing students in a clinical simulation: A quasi-experimental study". Nurse Education in Practice. 66: 103533. doi:10.1016/j.nepr.2022.103533. hdl:10459.1/84982. ISSN 1471-5953. PMID 36516640. S2CID 254389266. Archived from the original on 16 April 2023. Retrieved 16 April 2023. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1471595322002475 ↩

  339. Benson & Klipper 2000. - Benson, Herbert; Klipper, Miriam Z. (2000) [1972]. The Relaxation Response. Harper. ISBN 0-380-81595-8. ↩

  340. Patricia Carrington (1977). Freedom in meditation. Anchor Press. ISBN 978-0-385-11392-2. 978-0-385-11392-2 ↩

  341. Lagopoulos, Jim; Xu, Jian; Rasmussen, Inge-Andre; Vik, Alexandra; Malhi, Gin S.; Eliassen, Carl Fredrik; Arntsen, Ingrid Edith; Sæther, Jardar G; Saether, JG; Hollup, Stig Arvid; Holen, Are; Davanger, Svend; Ellingsen, Øyvind (2009). "Increased Theta and Alpha EEG Activity During Nondirective Meditation". Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine. 15 (11): 1187–92. doi:10.1089/acm.2009.0113. PMID 19922249. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  342. Rubin, Jeffrey B. (2001). "A New View of Meditation". Journal of Religion and Health. 40 (1): 121–28. doi:10.1023/a:1012542524848. S2CID 32980899. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  343. Brandmeyer, Tracy; Delorme, Arnaud (2013). "Meditation and neurofeedback". Frontiers in Psychology. 4: 688. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00688. ISSN 1664-1078. PMC 3791377. PMID 24109463. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3791377 ↩