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History

The Tai Tham script shows a strong similarity to the Mon script used by the Mon kingdom of Haripunjaya around the 13th century CE, in the present-day Lamphun Province of Northern Thailand. The oldest known document containing the Tai Tham script is dated to 1376 CE and was found in Sukhothai. The document is a bilingual inscription on a gold folio, containing one line of Pali written in the Tai Tham script, while the vernacular is written in the Siamese language, using the Sukhothai script. The Tai Tham script was adapted to write vernacular languages not later than the 15th century CE, most probably in Chiang Mai, in the Lan Na Kingdom.⁷ The script spread from Lan Na to surrounding areas such as modern day Laos, Isan, Shan State and Sipsong Panna. Numerous local variants developed, such as the Lue variant (Sipsong Panna), the Khuen variant (Shan State) and the Tham Lao variant (Laos and Isan). The variants differ only slightly in appearance, and the system of writing has remained the same.⁸ As the name suggests, the use of the Tham (Dharma) script in Lao was restricted to religious literature, either used to transcribe Pali, or religious treatises written in Lao intended solely for the clergy. Religious instructional materials and prayer books dedicated to the laity were written in Tai Noi instead. As a result, only a few people outside the temples were literate in the script. In Isan, evidence of the script includes two stone inscriptions, such as the one housed at Wat Tham Suwannakhuha in Nong Bua Lamphu, dated to 1564, and another from Wat Mahaphon in Maha Sarakham from the same period.⁹

Most of the script is recorded on palm-leaf manuscripts, many of which were destroyed during the 'Thaification' purges of the 1930s; contemporaneously this period of Thai nationalisation also ended its use as the primary written language in Northern Thailand.¹⁰ Although no longer in use in Isan, the alphabet is enjoying a resurgence in Northern Thailand, and is still used as the primary written script for the Tai Lü and Tai Khün languages spoken in the 'Golden Triangle' where Thailand, Laos, Burma and southern China meet. Its use is rather limited to the long-term monks in Laos and most materials published today are in the modern Lao script.¹¹

Characteristics

Although both the ancient forms of the Mon and Khmer script are different, they are both abugidas that descend from the Brahmic scripts introduced via contacts with South Indian traders, soldiers, merchants and Brahmans. As a Mon-derived script, Tai Tham has many similarities with the Burmese, Shan, and Mon writing systems and rounder letter forms compared to the angled letters of Khmer.¹² Letters can be stacked, sometimes with special subscript forms, similar to 'ຼ' which was used in Tai Noi and also in modern Lao as the subscript version of 'ຣ' /r/ or 'ລ' /l/ as in Lao: ຫຼວງພຼະບາງ/ຫລວງພຣະບາງ.¹³ Letters also are more circular or rounded than the typically angled style of Khmer.¹⁴ However, the Tai Tham script does not use the virama similar to other Eastern Indic scripts like Thai and Khmer, unlike Burmese and Mon.¹⁵

Consonants

There are 43 Tai Tham consonants. They are divided into three groups: categorized consonants (ᨻ᩠ᨿᩢᨬ᩠ᨩᨶᨶᩲᩅᩢᨣ᩠ᨣ᩼, payanjana nai wak), non-categorized consonants (ᨻ᩠ᨿᩢᨬ᩠ᨩᨶᩋᩅᩢᨣ᩠ᨣ᩼, payanjana awak), and additional consonants (ᨻ᩠ᨿᩢᨬ᩠ᨩᨶᨲᩮᩬᩥ᩵ᨾ, payanjana tueam). Categorized consonants and non-categorized consonants are those derived from Old Mon script used for Pali and Sanskrit languages. Similar to Devanagari, Pallava script, and Burmese script, categorized consonants are divided into 5 subgroups called wak (ᩅᩢᨣ᩠ᨣ᩼) i.e., wak ka (ᨠ), wak ja (ᨧ), wak rata (ᨭ), wak ta (ᨲ), and wak pa (ᨷ). The additional consonants are the consonants invented to write Tai sounds that are originally not found in Pali. In a dictionary, letter ᩂ and ᩄ are often put in the consonant list following the letter ᩁ and ᩃ respectively. However, they are a syllabary (also a vowel) and not a consonant letter.

Consonant chart

There are 25 categorized consonants, 10 non-categorized consonants, and 8 additional consonants. Similar to Khmer, Tai Tham also has a subjoined form called haang (ᩉᩣ᩠ᨦ), tua joeng (ᨲ᩠ᩅᩫᨩᩮᩥ᩠ᨦ), or tua hoy (ᨲ᩠ᩅᩫᩉᩬ᩠ᨿ᩶). In the Unicode input method, sakot sign (U1A60) (◌᩠) is used to trigger the subjoined forms.¹⁶¹⁷ The additional consonants are shown in yellow. These consonants have the characteristics of lacking the subjoined form. Similar to Thai script and Lao script, consonants in Tai Tham can be classified into high, mid, and low classes regarding to the tone rules.

Consonant digraph with Ha

Certain consonants in the low-class group lack their high-class counterpart. These consonants are sometimes called the single low-class consonants. Their high-class counterparts are created by the combination with letter high Ha (ᩉ) as a digraph, called Ha Nam (ᩉ ᨶᩣᩴ).⁴¹

Consonant cluster

Tai Tham has three medial letters to form a consonant cluster: medial La (◌ᩖ a.k.a La Noi), medial Ra (ᩕ a.k.a Rawong), and medial Wa. Consonant cluster with medial Wa is the only true consonant cluster where both consonants are pronounced as one phoneme. Consonant cluster with Medial La and Medial Ra are considered a false consonant cluster as they do not produce the same effect. They are the remnant of the Proto-Southwestern Tai initial consonant clusters that existed during the early development of Tai Tham before the 16th century.⁴⁶

Medial La

Medial La is a silent letter and not pronounced. For example, the word ᨸᩖᩦ and ᨸᩦ are both pronounced pi. Thus, it is considered a false consonant cluster. The use of Medial La is now preserved only for a semantic purpose.

Medial Ra (Rawong)

Consonant cluster with medial Ra can be divided into two groups: one with an initial consonant sound change and one without the sound change. In some cases, an additional phoneme /l/ may be added with the initial consonant pronounced as a half-syllable. Noting that the /l/ phoneme also carries the tone of the initial consonant. Thus, it is considered a false consonant cluster.

With sound change

Consonant cluster with medial Ra changes the sound of the voiceless plosive consonants /k/, /t/, and /p/ to the aspirated plosive consonants /kʰ/, /tʰ/, and /pʰ/, respectively.

Without sound change

Consonant cluster with medial Ra does not change the sound of /t͡ɕ/ and /s/, but an additional phoneme /l/ is often added.

Medial Wa

Consonant cluster with medial Wa is the only true consonant cluster where both consonants are pronounced as one phoneme.

Special letters

Vowels

Vowel characters come in two forms: as stand-alone letters for writing initial vowels or as diacritics that can be attached to all sides of the consonant letters. However, Lanna excels in terms of the number of diacritics used. Some vowel sounds can be written with a combination of as many as four diacritics: one on each side of the consonant.⁵¹⁵²

Independent vowels

Independent vowels are mainly reserved for writing Pali words, except for ᩐᩣ /ʔau/ which is used as a special vowel sign and not for Pali words.⁵³

Dependent vowels

Tone marks

Further information: Northern Thai language § Tones

Tone mark conjugation

There are six phonemic tones in the Chiang Mai dialect of Northern Thai: low-rising, low-falling, high-level with glottal stop, mid-level, high-falling, and high-rising. Tones in Chiang Mai dialect are very close to the standard Thai five tones systems and the equivalence can be drawn between the two. Lanna–Thai dictionaries often equate Chiang Mai tones with standard Thai tones, shown in a table below.

Tone mark conjugation system of Tai Tham highly correlates with the system used by Thai script. Despite the difference in tone quality between Northern Thai, Tai Khuen, Thai, and Lao; equivalent words in each language are, in large part, marked with the same (or equivalent) tone mark. For example, the word ᨣ᩶ᩤ (Northern Thai pronunciation: [kaː˦˥]; Khuen: [kaː˦˩]) which is equivalent to Thai ค้า (Thai pronunciation: [kʰaː˦˥]), and Lao ຄ້າ (Lao pronunciation: [kʰaː˥˨]) all has the same meaning "to trade" and is expressed with the same or equivalent tone mark mai tho/mai kho jang but is pronounced with different tones differed by the languages.

Tone mark conjugation in Tai Tham follows the same model used for Thai script. Consonants are divided into 3 classes: high, mid, low; with some degree of variation form Thai script due to the phonological differences between Northern Thai and standard Thai. Consonants in each class are combined with these tone marks to give a different tonal pattern.

Only two tone marks mai yo (᩵) and mai kho jang (᩶) are mainly used. Low class and High class consonants only have one tone per one tone mark. Hence, to achieve the 6 tones while using only 2 tone marks (and one case of no tone mark), they are conjugated as a couple of the same sound.⁹³

Mid class consonants ([ʔ], [b], [d], and [j]) do not have a couple for tone conjugation. Hence, different tones can be expressed with the same tone mark. Readers have to rely on the context in order to know the correct tone pronunciation. Therefore, to solve this ambiguity, three new tone marks: mai ko nuea (᩷), mai song nuea (᩸), and mai sam nuea (᩹) were invented for the mid class consonants in Khuen language. However, these three new tone marks aren't used in Lanna spelling convention and even in Khuen, they are rarely used. The use of these new three tone marks is also not standardized and may also differ between the dialects of Khuen language.⁹⁵

Moreover, similar to standard Thai, the tonal pattern for each consonant class also differs by vowel length and final consonant sounds, which can be divided into the "checked" and "unchecked" syllables. Checked syllables are a group of syllables with the obstruent coda sounds [p̚], [t̚], [k̚], and [ʔ] (short vowel with no final consonant actually ends with the glottal stop, but often omitted). The unchecked syllables are a group of syllables with the sonorant coda sound [m], [n], [ŋ], [j], and [w].

Hence, by combining the consonant classes and the system of checked–unchecked syllables, the full tone conjugation table can be constructed as shown below. Color codes are assigned in the table to each tone mark: cyan – no tone mark; yellow – mai yo (equi. Thai mai ek); pink – mai kho jang (equi. Thai mai tho). Low class and high class rows are paired together to show the system of the consonant couples.

Numerals

Lanna has two sets of numerals. The first set, Lek Nai Tham, is mainly used for liturgical purposes. The other set, Lek Hora, is used in general.

Relation with other scripts

Tai Tham is very similar in shape to Burmese script since both are derived from Old Mon script. New Tai Lue is a descendant of Tai Tham with its shape simplified and many consonants removed. Thai script looks distinctive from Tai Tham but covers all equivalent consonants including 8 additional consonants, as Thai is the closest sister language to the Northern Thai, Khuen, and Lue languages. A variation of Thai script (Sukhothai script) called Fakkham script was also used in Lan Na to write Northern Thai, Khuen, and Lue during the 14th century, influencing the development of the modern Tai Tham script.¹¹⁴¹¹⁵

Sanskrit and Pali

The Tai Tham script (like all Indic scripts) uses a number of modifications to write Pali and related languages (in particular, Sanskrit). When writing Pali, only 33 consonants and 12 vowels are used.

Pali consonants in Tai Tham script

Sanskrit consonants in Tai Tham script

Unicode block

Tai Tham script was added to the Unicode Standard in October, 2009 with the release of version 5.2.

Main article: Tai Tham (Unicode block)

The Unicode block for Tai Tham is U+1A20–U+1AAF:

Fonts

Supports for Tai Tham Unicode font in Microsoft Windows and Microsoft office are still limited¹¹⁶ causing the widespread use of non-Unicode fonts. Fonts published by the Royal Society of Thailand and Chiang Mai University are also non-Unicode due to this problem and to maximize the ability to transcribe and display the ancient Tai Tham text, which frequently contains various special ligatures and symbols not supported by Unicode.¹¹⁷¹¹⁸ Non-Unicode fonts often use a combination of Thai script and Latin Unicode ranges to resolves the incompatibility problem of Unicode Tai Tham in Microsoft office. However, these fonts may encounter a display problem when used on web browsers as the text can be encoded as an unintelligible Thai text instead. In recent years, many Tai Tham Unicode fonts have been developed for web display and communications via smart phones. Google's Noto Sans Tai Tham becomes the default font for Tai Tham on Mac OS and iOS.¹¹⁹ However, the current version of this font still fails to display Tai Tham text correctly. The table below gives a list of publicly available Tai Tham fonts.

Further reading

• Khamjan, Mala(มาลา คำจันทร์). Kham Mueang Dictionary(พจนานุกรมคำเมือง). Chiang Mai: bookworm, 2008. ISBN 978-974-8418-55-1.
• "Lanna script". Complete information from traditional sources. Sky Knowledge. Retrieved 2018-07-15.
• Owen, R. Wyn. 2017. A description and linguistic analysis of the Tai Khuen writing system. Journal of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society 10.1, 140–164.
• Trager, Ed. (2014). Hariphunchai Tai Tham Font Project.
• Wordingham, Richard. Lamphun glyphs (A page with specimen of the font Lamphun). Retrieved 15 May 2019.
• Alan Wood's Tai Tham test page

External links

• ISO/IEC 10646:2003/Amd.5:2008 Universal Multiple-Octet Coded Character Set (UCS) – Amendment 5: AMENDMENT 5: Tai Tham, Tai Viet, Avestan, Egyptian Hieroglyphs, CJK Unified Ideographs Extension C, and other characters

References

1. Jenny, Mathias (2021-08-23), Sidwell, Paul; Jenny, Mathias (eds.), "Writing systems of MSEA", The Languages and Linguistics of Mainland Southeast Asia: A comprehensive guide, De Gruyter Mouton, pp. 879–906, doi:10.1515/9783110558142-036, ISBN 978-3-11-055814-2, retrieved 2024-12-06 978-3-11-055814-2 ↩

2. Prongthura, Naiyana (1982). Dhamma script of Northern Thailand (อักษรธรรมลานนา) (Thesis) (in Thai). Bangkok: Silapakorn University. ↩

3. Prongthura, Naiyana (1982). Dhamma script of Northern Thailand (อักษรธรรมลานนา) (Thesis) (in Thai). Bangkok: Silapakorn University. ↩

4. Everson, Michael, Hosken, Martin, & Constable, Peter. (2007). Revised proposal for encoding the Lanna script in the BMP of the UCS. /wiki/Michael_Everson ↩

5. Prongthura, Naiyana (1982). Dhamma script of Northern Thailand (อักษรธรรมลานนา) (Thesis) (in Thai). Bangkok: Silapakorn University. ↩

6. Natnapang Burutphakdee (October 2004). Khon Muang Neu Kap Phasa Muang [Attitudes of Northern Thai Youth towards Kammuang and the Lanna Script] (PDF) (M.A. Thesis). Presented at 4th National Symposium on Graduate Research, Chiang Mai, Thailand, August 10–11, 2004. Asst. Prof. Dr. Kirk R. Person, adviser. Chiang Mai: Payap University. P. 7, digital image 30. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-05-05. Retrieved June 8, 2013. The reason why they called this language 'Kammuang' is because they used this language in the towns where they lived together, which were surrounded by mountainous areas where there were many hill tribe people. https://web.archive.org/web/20150505040726/http://ic.payap.ac.th/graduate/linguistics/theses/Natnapang_Thesis.pdf ↩

7. Hundius, Harald; Wharton, David (2010). "The Digital Library of Lao Manuscripts". Journal of Lao Studies. 2 (2). https://www.academia.edu/40578612 ↩

8. Iijima, Akiko (2009-03-31). "Preliminary Notes on "the Cultural Region of Tham Script Manuscripts"". Senri Ethnological Studies. 74. doi:10.15021/00002574. S2CID 160928923. https://doi.org/10.15021/00002574 ↩

9. ธวัช ปุณโณทก (Punnothek, T.) อักษรโบราณอีสาน: อักขรวิทยาอักษรตัวธรรมและไทยน้อย. กรุงเทพฯ: สยามเพรส แมเนจเม้นท์, ๒๕๔๐, ๕๔ ↩

10. McDaniel, J. (2005). Notes on the lao influence on northern thai buddhist literature. The literary heritage of Laos: Preservation, dissemination, and research perspectives. Vientiane, Laos: Lao National Archives. http://www.laomanuscripts.net/downloads/literaryheritageoflaos29_mcdaniel_en.pdf ↩

11. McDaniel, J. (2005). Notes on the lao influence on northern thai buddhist literature. The literary heritage of Laos: Preservation, dissemination, and research perspectives. Vientiane, Laos: Lao National Archives. http://www.laomanuscripts.net/downloads/literaryheritageoflaos29_mcdaniel_en.pdf ↩

12. McDaniel, J. (2005). Notes on the lao influence on northern thai buddhist literature. The literary heritage of Laos: Preservation, dissemination, and research perspectives. Vientiane, Laos: Lao National Archives. http://www.laomanuscripts.net/downloads/literaryheritageoflaos29_mcdaniel_en.pdf ↩

13. Jenny, Mathias (2021-08-23), Sidwell, Paul; Jenny, Mathias (eds.), "Writing systems of MSEA", The Languages and Linguistics of Mainland Southeast Asia: A comprehensive guide, De Gruyter Mouton, pp. 879–906, doi:10.1515/9783110558142-036, ISBN 978-3-11-055814-2, retrieved 2024-12-06 978-3-11-055814-2 ↩

14. ธวัช ปุณโณทก (Punnothek, T.) อักษรโบราณอีสาน: อักขรวิทยาอักษรตัวธรรมและไทยน้อย. กรุงเทพฯ: สยามเพรส แมเนจเม้นท์, ๒๕๔๐, ๕๔ ↩

15. Jenny, Mathias (2021-08-23), Sidwell, Paul; Jenny, Mathias (eds.), "Writing systems of MSEA", The Languages and Linguistics of Mainland Southeast Asia: A comprehensive guide, De Gruyter Mouton, pp. 879–906, doi:10.1515/9783110558142-036, ISBN 978-3-11-055814-2, retrieved 2024-12-06 978-3-11-055814-2 ↩

16. Everson, Michael, Hosken, Martin, & Constable, Peter. (2007). Revised proposal for encoding the Lanna script in the BMP of the UCS. /wiki/Michael_Everson ↩

17. Chew, P., Saengboon, P., & Wordingham, R. (2015). "Tai Tham: A Hybrid Script that Challenges Current Encoding Models". Presented at the Internationalization and Unicode Conference (IUC 39). https://unicodeconference.org/39/presentations/S3-T3-Chew.pdf ↩

18. Added consonant invented for Tai sound, as an extension to the original chategorized Pali 'vagga' consonants. These consonants have the characteristics of lacking the subjoined form. ↩

19. Added consonant invented for Tai sound, as an extension to the original chategorized Pali 'vagga' consonants. These consonants have the characteristics of lacking the subjoined form. ↩

20. Added consonant invented for Tai sound, as an extension to the original chategorized Pali 'vagga' consonants. These consonants have the characteristics of lacking the subjoined form. ↩

21. In Tai Lue language ↩

22. Influence from Thai, Pali, and Sanskrit languages. ↩

23. Influence from Thai, Pali, and Sanskrit languages. ↩

24. When used to write Tai words. ↩

25. When used to write Pali-Sanskrit derived words. ↩

26. When used to write Pali-Sanskrit derived words. ↩

27. The Lanna Dictionary (in Thai). Chiang Mai: Chiang Mai Rajabhat University. 2007. pp. 305–314. ISBN 9789747793567. 9789747793567 ↩

28. Rungruangsri, Udom (2004). พจนานุกรมล้านนา-ไทย ฉบับแม่ฟ้าหลวง (in Thai) (Revised ed.). Chiang Mai: Chiang Mai University. ISBN 9789746851756. 9789746851756 ↩

29. Rungruangsri, Udom (2004). พจนานุกรมล้านนา-ไทย ฉบับแม่ฟ้าหลวง (in Thai) (Revised ed.). Chiang Mai: Chiang Mai University. ISBN 9789746851756. 9789746851756 ↩

30. The Lanna Dictionary (in Thai). Chiang Mai: Chiang Mai Rajabhat University. 2007. pp. 305–314. ISBN 9789747793567. 9789747793567 ↩

31. Added consonant invented for Tai sound, as an extension to the original chategorized Pali 'vagga' consonants. These consonants have the characteristics of lacking the subjoined form. ↩

32. Used only for Tai words, not for Pali. ↩

33. Added consonant invented for Tai sound, as an extension to the original chategorized Pali 'vagga' consonants. These consonants have the characteristics of lacking the subjoined form. ↩

34. Added consonant invented for Tai sound, as an extension to the original chategorized Pali 'vagga' consonants. These consonants have the characteristics of lacking the subjoined form. ↩

35. In Tai Lue language ↩

36. Added consonant invented for Tai sound, as an extension to the original chategorized Pali 'vagga' consonants. These consonants have the characteristics of lacking the subjoined form. ↩

37. Often transliterated as 'r' to preserve the semantics for Thai and Pali-Sanskrit words. ↩

38. Influence from Thai, Pali, and Sanskrit languages. ↩

39. Influence from Thai, Pali, and Sanskrit languages. ↩

40. Added consonant invented for Tai sound, as an extension to the original chategorized Pali 'vagga' consonants. These consonants have the characteristics of lacking the subjoined form. ↩

41. Bunkhit Watcharasāt (2005). Phāsā Mư̄ang Lānnā (in Thai). Chīang Mai: Thārāthō̜ng Kānphim. p. 20. ISBN 978-974-85472-0-6. 978-974-85472-0-6 ↩

42. In Tai Lue language ↩

43. Often transliterated as 'r' to preserve the semantics for Thai and Pali-Sanskrit words, as well as the historical pronunciation (circa. 16th century or before). ↩

44. For contemporary texts, it represents the influence from Thai, Pali, and Sanskrit languages. For old manuscripts, it represents the historical pronunciation circa. 16th century or before. ↩

45. For contemporary texts, it represents the influence from Thai, Pali, and Sanskrit languages. For old manuscripts, it represents the historical pronunciation circa. 16th century or before. ↩

46. Tangsiriwattanakul, Shinnakrit (4 Oct 2024) [27 Feb 2024]. "From Proto-Southwestern Tai to Modern Lanna Tai: Implications From the 16th-Century Phonology". Manusya: Journal of Humanities. 26. doi:10.1163/26659077-26010011.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link) http://www.manusya.journals.chula.ac.th/articles/from-proto-southwestern-tai-to-modern-lanna-tai-implications-from-the-16th-century-phonology/ ↩

47. วิเชียรเขียว, อรุณรัตน์ (1996). พจนานุกรมศัพท์ล้านนาเฉพาะคำที่ปรากฏในใบลาน (in Thai). เชียงใหม่: สุริวงศ์บุ๊คเซนเตอร์. p. 440. ISBN 9747047772. 9747047772 ↩

48. พจนานุกรมภาษาล้านนา ᨻᨧᨶᩣᨶᩩᨠᩕᩫ᩠ᨾᨽᩣᩇᩣᩃ᩶ᩣ᩠ᨶᨶᩣ (2nd ed.). เชียงใหม่: สถาบันภาษา ศิลปะและวัฒนธรรม มหาวิทยาลัยราชภัฏเชียงใหม่. 2007. p. 106. ISBN 9789747793567. 9789747793567 ↩

49. วิเชียรเขียว, อรุณรัตน์ (1996). พจนานุกรมศัพท์ล้านนาเฉพาะคำที่ปรากฏในใบลาน (in Thai). เชียงใหม่: สุริวงศ์บุ๊คเซนเตอร์. p. 201. ISBN 9747047772. 9747047772 ↩

50. วิเชียรเขียว, อรุณรัตน์ (1996). พจนานุกรมศัพท์ล้านนาเฉพาะคำที่ปรากฏในใบลาน (in Thai). เชียงใหม่: สุริวงศ์บุ๊คเซนเตอร์. p. 225. ISBN 9747047772. 9747047772 ↩

51. Everson, Michael; Hosken, Martin; Constable, Peter (March 21, 2007). "Lanna Unicode: A Proposal" (PDF). Retrieved May 4, 2015. http://std.dkuug.dk/jtc1/sc2/wg2/docs/n3207.pdf ↩

52. Burutphakdee, Natnapang (October 2004). "Khon Muang Neu Kap Phasa Muang: Attitudes of Northern Thai Youth towards Kammuang and the Lanna Script" (PDF). SIL International. pp. 32–61. Archived from the original (PDF) on May 5, 2015. https://web.archive.org/web/20150505040726/http://ic.payap.ac.th/graduate/linguistics/theses/Natnapang_Thesis.pdf ↩

53. Watcharasastr, Boonkid (2005). แบบเรียนภาษาเมืองล้านนา ᨷᩯ᩠ᨷᩁ᩠ᨿᩁᨽᩣᩇᩣᨾᩮᩬᩨᨦᩃ᩶ᩣ᩠ᨶᨶᩣ (in Thai). Chiang Mai: Thara Thong Publishing. p. 24. ISBN 9748547205. 9748547205 ↩

54. นาคสุข, ยุทธพร (4 August 2020). "อักษรธรรมล้านนาที่ประดิษฐ์ขึ้นเพิ่มเติมเพื่อใช้เขียนภาษาสันสกฤต" [The Inventive Dhamma Lanna Script for Writing in Sanskrit]. Humanities & Social Sciences. 37: 297–344. ↩

55. นาคสุข, ยุทธพร (4 August 2020). "อักษรธรรมล้านนาที่ประดิษฐ์ขึ้นเพิ่มเติมเพื่อใช้เขียนภาษาสันสกฤต" [The Inventive Dhamma Lanna Script for Writing in Sanskrit]. Humanities & Social Sciences. 37: 297–344. ↩

56. นาคสุข, ยุทธพร (4 August 2020). "อักษรธรรมล้านนาที่ประดิษฐ์ขึ้นเพิ่มเติมเพื่อใช้เขียนภาษาสันสกฤต" [The Inventive Dhamma Lanna Script for Writing in Sanskrit]. Humanities & Social Sciences. 37: 297–344. ↩

57. Short vowels are followed by a glottal stop /ʔ/ if they are followed by another consonant. /wiki/Glottal_stop ↩

58. Hypothetical spelling for demonstrating the consonant and vowel positions. ↩

59. Hypothetical spelling for demonstrating the consonant and vowel positions. ↩

60. Symbol ◌ᩤ may be used instead for narrow consonants such as ᨣ ᨧ ᨵ ᨰ ᨴ ᨷ ᩅ to increase legibility. ↩

61. Symbol ◌ᩤ may be used instead for narrow consonants such as ᨣ ᨧ ᨵ ᨰ ᨴ ᨷ ᩅ to increase legibility. ↩

62. Only used for Pali words. ↩

63. Used in Khuen and Lue spelling conventions. ↩

64. According to the Unicode encoding order, subjoined ya ◌᩠ᨿ in the case of mai kia ᨠ᩠ᨿᩮ is considered as a part of vowel cluster and classed as a medial ya which precedes vowels; therefore, the encoding order of mai kia is ᨠ + ᩠ᨿ + ᩮ. However, in the case of mai kai in Pali-Sanskrit form like ᨠᩱ᩠ᨿ, the subjoined ya ◌᩠ᨿ is considered as a final consonant because it is derived from the Pali-Sanskrit phoneme kaya. Thus, the encoding order is ᨠ + ᩱ + ᩠ᨿ ↩

65. Only shows the diphthongs with special diacritic symbols. ↩

66. Symbol ◌ᩤ may be used instead for narrow consonants such as ᨣ ᨧ ᨵ ᨰ ᨴ ᨷ ᩅ to increase legibility. ↩

67. Used in Lanna spelling convention, called Mai Kao Ho Nueng (ᨾᩱ᩶ᨠᩮᩢᩣᩉᩬᩴ᩵ᩉ᩠ᨶᩧ᩶ᨦ) ↩

68. Called Mai Kao Ju Ji (ᨾᩱ᩶ᨠᩮᩢᩣᨧᩪ᩶ᨧᩦ᩶) ↩

69. According to the Unicode encoding order, subjoined ya ◌᩠ᨿ in the case of mai kia ᨠ᩠ᨿᩮ is considered as a part of vowel cluster and classed as a medial ya which precedes vowels; therefore, the encoding order of mai kia is ᨠ + ᩠ᨿ + ᩮ. However, in the case of mai kai in Pali-Sanskrit form like ᨠᩱ᩠ᨿ, the subjoined ya ◌᩠ᨿ is considered as a final consonant because it is derived from the Pali-Sanskrit phoneme kaya. Thus, the encoding order is ᨠ + ᩱ + ᩠ᨿ ↩

70. Watcharasastr, Boonkid (2005). แบบเรียนภาษาเมืองล้านนา (in Thai). Chiang Mai: Thara Thong Publishing. p. 178. ISBN 9748547205. 9748547205 ↩

71. Rungruangsri, Udom (2004). พจนานุกรมล้านนา-ไทย ฉบับแม่ฟ้าหลวง (in Thai) (Revised ed.). Chiang Mai: Chiang Mai University. ISBN 9789746851756. 9789746851756 ↩

72. Used in Khuen and Lue spelling conventions. ↩

73. Only used for Pali words. ↩

74. Only used for Pali words. ↩

75. Symbol ◌ᩤ may be used instead for narrow consonants such as ᨣ ᨧ ᨵ ᨰ ᨴ ᨷ ᩅ to increase legibility. ↩

76. Rungruangsri, Udom (2004). พจนานุกรมล้านนา-ไทย ฉบับแม่ฟ้าหลวง (in Thai) (Revised ed.). Chiang Mai: Chiang Mai University. ISBN 9789746851756. 9789746851756 ↩

77. Rungruangsri, Udom (2004). พจนานุกรมล้านนา-ไทย ฉบับแม่ฟ้าหลวง (in Thai) (Revised ed.). Chiang Mai: Chiang Mai University. ISBN 9789746851756. 9789746851756 ↩

78. Rungruangsri, Udom (2004). พจนานุกรมล้านนา-ไทย ฉบับแม่ฟ้าหลวง (in Thai) (Revised ed.). Chiang Mai: Chiang Mai University. ISBN 9789746851756. 9789746851756 ↩

79. Owen, R. Wyn (2017). "A description and linguistic analysis of the Tai Khuen writing system". Journal of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society. 10 (1): 140–164. hdl:10524/52403. https://evols.library.manoa.hawaii.edu/handle/10524/52403 ↩

80. Owen, R. Wyn (2017). "A description and linguistic analysis of the Tai Khuen writing system". Journal of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society. 10 (1): 140–164. hdl:10524/52403. https://evols.library.manoa.hawaii.edu/handle/10524/52403 ↩

81. Buddhism Summer Curriculum Level 1 Book 2. Vol. 2. Bangkok: Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University Press. 2010. Retrieved 3 August 2022. http://www.kengtung.org/e-books/ ↩

82. Owen, R. Wyn (2017). "A description and linguistic analysis of the Tai Khuen writing system". Journal of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society. 10 (1): 140–164. hdl:10524/52403. https://evols.library.manoa.hawaii.edu/handle/10524/52403 ↩

83. Buddhism Summer Curriculum Level 1 Book 2. Vol. 2. Bangkok: Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University Press. 2010. Retrieved 3 August 2022. http://www.kengtung.org/e-books/ ↩

84. Owen, R. Wyn (2017). "A description and linguistic analysis of the Tai Khuen writing system". Journal of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society. 10 (1): 140–164. hdl:10524/52403. https://evols.library.manoa.hawaii.edu/handle/10524/52403 ↩

85. Buddhism Summer Curriculum Level 1 Book 2. Vol. 2. Bangkok: Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University Press. 2010. Retrieved 3 August 2022. http://www.kengtung.org/e-books/ ↩

86. Owen, R. Wyn (2017). "A description and linguistic analysis of the Tai Khuen writing system". Journal of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society. 10 (1): 140–164. hdl:10524/52403. https://evols.library.manoa.hawaii.edu/handle/10524/52403 ↩

87. Owen, R. Wyn (2017). "A description and linguistic analysis of the Tai Khuen writing system". Journal of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society. 10 (1): 140–164. hdl:10524/52403. https://evols.library.manoa.hawaii.edu/handle/10524/52403 ↩

88. Owen, R. Wyn (2017). "A description and linguistic analysis of the Tai Khuen writing system". Journal of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society. 10 (1): 140–164. hdl:10524/52403. https://evols.library.manoa.hawaii.edu/handle/10524/52403 ↩

89. The Lanna Dictionary. Chiang Mai: Chiang Mai Rajabhat University. 2007. pp. ต. ISBN 9789747793567. 9789747793567 ↩

90. The Lanna Dictionary. Chiang Mai: Chiang Mai Rajabhat University. 2007. pp. ต. ISBN 9789747793567. 9789747793567 ↩

91. Name frequently given by grammar books. ↩

92. Name frequently given by grammar books. ↩

93. Watcharasastr, Boonkid (2005). แบบเรียนภาษาเมืองล้านนา (in Thai). Chiang Mai: Thara Thong Publishing. ISBN 9748547205. 9748547205 ↩

94. Pali derived words. ↩

95. Owen, R. Wyn (2017). "A description and linguistic analysis of the Tai Khuen writing system". Journal of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society. 10 (1): 140–164. hdl:10524/52403. https://evols.library.manoa.hawaii.edu/handle/10524/52403 ↩

96. Not exist in standard Thai, but often approximated as the special falling tone (โทพิเศษ) in many grammar books and the academic circle in Thailand. ↩

97. Secondary form for mid class consonants. This form is less frequently found, and not listed in some grammar book. However, there are dictionary records of words in this form, especially the word start with ᩋ /ʔ/. ↩

98. Sunthornsing, Charee. "พจนานุกรมภาษาล้านนา-ไทย ฉบับมรดกล้านนา". มรดกล้านนา. Retrieved 27 December 2022. https://moradoklanna.com/dict/?s=อุ้ย ↩

99. Sunthornsing, Charee. "พจนานุกรมภาษาล้านนา-ไทย ฉบับมรดกล้านนา". มรดกล้านนา. Retrieved 27 December 2022. https://moradoklanna.com/dict/?s=อุ้ย ↩

100. Secondary form for mid class consonants. This form is less frequently found, and not listed in some grammar book. However, there are dictionary records of words in this form, especially the word start with ᩋ /ʔ/. ↩

101. The Lanna Dictionary. Chiang Mai: Chiang Mai Rajabhat University. 2007. p. 625. ISBN 9789747793567. 9789747793567 ↩

102. Secondary form for mid class consonants. This form is less frequently found, and not listed in some grammar book. However, there are dictionary records of words in this form, especially the word start with ᩋ /ʔ/. ↩

103. Sunthornsing, Charee. "พจนานุกรมภาษาล้านนา-ไทย ฉบับมรดกล้านนา". มรดกล้านนา. Retrieved 27 December 2022. https://moradoklanna.com/dict/?s=อุ๋ย ↩

104. Some linguists consider this class as separated tones group. ↩

105. Secondary form for mid class consonants. This form is less frequently found, and not listed in some grammar book. However, there are dictionary records of words in this form, especially the word start with ᩋ /ʔ/. ↩

106. Mostly the borrow words from Thai and English. ↩

107. "รายงานสัมมนา แนวทางการเขียนศัพท์วิชาการด้วยอักษรธรรมล้านนา" [Seminar report: guidelines for writing technical terms using Lanna script.] (PDF). The Center for the Promotion of Arts and Culture, Chiang Mai University. 17 January 2004. p. 44. Retrieved 6 August 2022. https://art-culture.cmu.ac.th/public/download/lanna-font-technique.pdf ↩

108. Secondary form for mid class consonants. This form is less frequently found, and not listed in some grammar book. However, there are dictionary records of words in this form, especially the word start with ᩋ /ʔ/. ↩

109. The Lanna Dictionary. Chiang Mai: Chiang Mai Rajabhat University. 2007. p. 628. ISBN 9789747793567. 9789747793567 ↩

110. Secondary form for mid class consonants. This form is less frequently found, and not listed in some grammar book. However, there are dictionary records of words in this form, especially the word start with ᩋ /ʔ/. ↩

111. The Lanna Dictionary. Chiang Mai: Chiang Mai Rajabhat University. 2007. p. 612. ISBN 9789747793567. 9789747793567 ↩

112. Secondary form for mid class consonants. This form is less frequently found, and not listed in some grammar book. However, there are dictionary records of words in this form, especially the word start with ᩋ /ʔ/. ↩

113. The Lanna Dictionary. Chiang Mai: Chiang Mai Rajabhat University. 2007. p. 624. ISBN 9789747793567. 9789747793567 ↩

114. Vimonkasam, Kannika (1981). Fakkham script found in Northern Thai inscriptions (อักษรฝักขามที่พบในศิลาจารึกภาคเหนือ) (Thesis) (in Thai). Bangkok: Silapakorn University. ↩

115. Prongthura, Naiyana (1982). Dhamma script of Northern Thailand (อักษรธรรมลานนา) (Thesis) (in Thai). Bangkok: Silapakorn University. ↩

116. "Creating and supporting OpenType fonts for the Universal Shaping Engine". Microsoft technical documentation. 16 June 2022. Retrieved 5 August 2022. https://docs.microsoft.com/en-us/typography/script-development/use ↩

117. "Lanna Fonts (ฟอนต์ล้านนา)". The Center for the Promotion of Arts and Culture, Chiang Mai University. Retrieved 5 August 2022. https://art-culture.cmu.ac.th/Lanna/font ↩

118. "Six fonts for ancient scripts (ชุดแบบอักษรหรือฟอนต์อักษรโบราณ ๖ ชุด)". The Royal Society of Thailand. Retrieved 5 August 2022. https://www.orst.go.th/iwfm_table.asp?a=36&i=0040002104011001%2F65CRO0017088 ↩

119. "System Fonts". Apple Developer. Retrieved 5 August 2022. https://developer.apple.com/fonts/system-fonts/#document ↩

120. Not supported by Microsoft Office. ↩

121. Using Thai Unicode block, suitable for Microsoft Office. ↩