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Saint Nicholas
4th-century Christian saint

Saint Nicholas of Myra (c. 270–343), an early Christian bishop of Greek descent from Patara in Anatolia (modern-day Turkey), became famous for miraculous acts and secret gift-giving that inspired the legend of Santa Claus. Renowned as the patron saint of sailors, children, and merchants, among others, he was bishop during the Roman Empire and reportedly attended the First Council of Nicaea. After his death, his remains were enshrined in St. Nicholas Church in Myra and later moved to the Basilica di San Nicola in Bari, Italy, with some relics taken to Venice. His life mixes history and legend, including tales of rescuing girls with dowries and calming storms at sea.

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Biographical sources

Very little is known about Saint Nicholas's historical life.1011 Any writings Nicholas himself may have produced have been lost and he is not mentioned by any contemporary chroniclers.12 This is not surprising,13 since Nicholas lived during a turbulent time in Roman history.14 The earliest mentions of Saint Nicholas indicate that, by the sixth century, his following was already well-established.15 Less than two hundred years after Saint Nicholas's probable death, the Eastern Roman Emperor Theodosius II (ruled 401–450) ordered the building of the Church of Saint Nicholas in Myra, which thereby preserves an early mention of his name.16 The Byzantine historian Procopius also mentions that the Emperor Justinian I (ruled 527–565) renovated churches in Constantinople dedicated to Saint Nicholas and Saint Priscus,1718 which may have originally been built as early as c. 490.19

Nicholas's name also occurs as "Nicholas of Myra of Lycia" on the tenth line of a list of attendees at the Council of Nicaea included by Theodore Lector in the Historiae Ecclesiasticae Tripartitae Epitome, written sometime between 510 and 515.2021 A single, offhand mention of Nicholas of Myra also occurs in the biography of another saint, Saint Nicholas of Sion, who apparently took the name "Nicholas" to honor him.2223 The Life of Saint Nicholas of Sion, written around 250 years after Nicholas of Myra's death, briefly mentions Nicholas of Sion visiting Nicholas's tomb to pay homage to him.242526 According to Jeremy Seal, the fact that Nicholas had a tomb that could be visited serves as the almost solitary definitive proof that he was a real historical figure.2728

In his treatise De statu animarum post mortem (written c. 583), the theologian Eustratius of Constantinople cites Saint Nicholas of Myra's miracle of the three generals as evidence that souls may work independent from the body.29 Eustratius credits a lost Life of Saint Nicholas as his source. Nearly all the sources Eustratius references date from the late fourth century to early fifth century, indicating the Life of Saint Nicholas to which he refers was probably written during this time period, shortly after Nicholas's death.3031 The earliest complete account of Nicholas's life that has survived to the present is a Life of Saint Nicholas, written in the early ninth century by Michael the Archimandrite (814–842), nearly 500 years after Nicholas's probable death.32

Despite its extremely late date, Michael the Archimandrite's Life of Saint Nicholas is believed to heavily rely on older written sources and oral traditions.3334 The identity and reliability of these sources, however, remains uncertain.35 Catholic historian D. L. Cann and medievalist Charles W. Jones both consider Michael the Archimandrite's Life the only account of Saint Nicholas that is likely to contain any historical truth.36 Jona Lendering, a Dutch historian of classical antiquity, notes that Michael the Archimandrite's Life does not contain a "conversion narrative", which was unusual for saints' lives of the period when it was written. He therefore argues that it is possible Michael the Archimandrite may have been relying on a source written before conversion narratives became popular, which would be a positive indication of that source's reliability.37 He notes that many of the stories recounted by Michael the Archimandrite closely resemble stories told about the first-century AD Neopythagorean philosopher Apollonius of Tyana in the Life of Apollonius of Tyana, an eight-volume biography of him written in the early third century by the Greek writer Philostratus. It was not unusual for Christian saints to adapt older stories of pagan cults. As Apollonius's hometown of Tyana was not far from Myra, Lendering contends that many popular stories about Apollonius may have become attached to Saint Nicholas.38

Life and legends

Family and background

Accounts of Saint Nicholas's life agree on the essence of his story, but modern historians disagree regarding how much of this story is actually rooted in historical fact.39 Traditionally, Nicholas was born in the city of Patara (Lycia et Pamphylia), a port on the Mediterranean Sea,40 in Asia Minor in the Roman Empire, to a wealthy family of Greek Christians.414243444546 According to some accounts, his parents were named Epiphanius (Ἐπιφάνιος, Epiphánios) and Johanna (Ἰωάννα, Iōánna),47 but, according to others, they were named Theophanes (Θεοφάνης, Theophánēs) and Nonna (Νόννα, Nónna).48 In some accounts, Nicholas's uncle was the bishop of the city of Myra, also in Lycia. Recognizing his nephew's calling, Nicholas's uncle ordained him as a priest.49

Generosity and travels

After his parents died from an epidemic, Nicholas is said to have distributed their wealth to the poor.5051 In his most famous exploit,52 which is first attested in Michael the Archimandrite's Life of Saint Nicholas, Nicholas heard of a devout man who had once been wealthy but had lost all of his money due to the "plotting and envy of Satan."5354 The man could not afford proper dowries for his three daughters.55565758 This meant that they would remain unmarried and probably, in absence of any other possible employment, be forced to become prostitutes.596061 Hearing of the girls' plight, Nicholas decided to help them, but, being too modest to help the family in public (or to save them the humiliation of accepting charity), he went to the house under the cover of night and threw a purse filled with gold coins through the window opening into the house.6263 The father immediately arranged a marriage for his first daughter, and after her wedding, Nicholas threw a second bag of gold through the same window late at night.646566

According to Michael the Archimandrite's account, after the second daughter was married, the father stayed awake for at least two "nights" and caught Saint Nicholas in the same act of charity toward the third daughter.676869 The father fell on his knees, thanking him, and Nicholas ordered him not to tell anyone about the gifts.707172 The scene of Nicholas's secret gift-giving is one of the most popular scenes in Christian devotional art, appearing in icons and frescoes from across Europe. Although depictions vary depending on time and place,73 Nicholas is often shown wearing a cowl while the daughters are typically shown in bed, dressed in their nightclothes. Many renderings contain a cypress tree or a cross-shaped cupola.74

The historicity of this incident is disputed.75 Adam C. English argues for a historical kernel to the legend, noting the story's early attestation as well as the fact that no similar stories were told about any other Christian saints.76 Jona Lendering, who also argues for the story's authenticity, notes that a similar story is told in Philostratus's Life of Apollonius of Tyana, in which Apollonius gives money to an impoverished father but posits that Michael the Archimandrite's account is markedly different.77 Philostratus does not mention the fate of the daughters and, in his story, Apollonius's generosity is purely motivated out of sympathy for the father; in Michael the Archimandrite's account, however, Saint Nicholas is instead expressly stated to be motivated by a desire to save the daughters from being sold into prostitution.78 He argues that this desire to help women is most characteristic of fourth-century Christianity, due to the prominent role women played in the early Christian movement, rather than Greco-Roman paganism or the Christianity of Michael the Archimandrite's time in the ninth century, by which point the position of women had drastically declined.79

Nicholas is also said to have visited the Holy Land. The ship he was on was nearly destroyed by a terrible storm but he rebuked the waves, causing the storm to subside. Thus, Nicholas became venerated as the patron saint of sailors and travelers.80

While in Palestine, Nicholas is said to have lived in a crypt near Bethlehem, where the Nativity of Jesus is believed to have taken place. Over the crypt where Nicholas is believed to have lived now stands the "Church of Saint Nicholas" in Beit Jala, a Christian town of which Nicholas is the Patron saint.8182

Bishop of Myra

After visiting the Holy Land, Nicholas returned to Myra. The bishop of Myra, who had succeeded Nicholas's uncle, had recently died83 and the priests in the city had decided that the first priest to enter the church that morning would be made bishop. Nicholas went to the church to pray84 and was therefore proclaimed the new bishop.858687 He is said to have been imprisoned and tortured during the Great Persecution under the Emperor Diocletian (ruled 284–305),8889 but was released under the orders of the Emperor Constantine the Great (ruled 306–337).90 This story sounds plausible, but is not attested in the earliest sources and is therefore unlikely to be historical.91

One of the earliest attested stories of Saint Nicholas is one in which he saves three innocent men from execution.9293 According to Michael the Archimandrite, three innocent men were condemned to death by the governor Eustathius. As they were about to be executed, Nicholas appeared, pushed the executioner's sword to the ground, released them from their chains, and angrily chastised a juror who had accepted a bribe.94 According to Jona Lendering, this story directly parallels an earlier story in Philostratus's Life of Apollonius of Tyana, in which Apollonius prevents the execution of a man falsely condemned of banditry.95 Michael the Archimandrite also tells another story in which the consul Ablabius accepted a bribe to put three famous generals to death, in spite of their actual innocence.96 Saint Nicholas appeared to Constantine and Ablabius in dreams, informing Constantine of the truth and frightening Ablabius into releasing the generals, for fear of Hell.97

Later versions of the story are more elaborate, interweaving the two stories together. According to one version, Emperor Constantine sent three of his most trusted generals, named Ursos, Nepotianos, and Herpylion, to put down a rebellion in Phrygia. However, a storm forced them to take refuge in Myra.98 Unbeknownst to the generals, who were in the harbor, their soldiers further inland were fighting with local merchants and engaging in looting and destruction. Nicholas confronted the generals for allowing their soldiers to misbehave and the generals brought an end to the looting.99 Immediately after the soldiers had returned to their ships, Nicholas heard word of the three innocent men about to be executed and the three generals aided him in stopping the execution. Eustathius attempted to flee on his horse but Nicholas stopped his horse and chastised him for his corruption.100 Eustathius, under the threat of being reported directly to the Emperor, repented of his corrupt ways.101 Afterward, the generals succeeded in ending the rebellion and were promoted by Constantine to even higher status.102 The generals' enemies, however, slandered them to the consul Ablabius, telling him that they had not really put down the revolt, but instead encouraged their own soldiers to join it. The generals' enemies also bribed Ablabius and he had the three generals imprisoned. Nicholas then made his dream appearances and the three generals were set free.103

Council of Nicaea

In 325, Nicholas is said to have attended the First Council of Nicaea,104105106 where he is said to have been a staunch opponent of Arianism and a devoted supporter of Trinitarianism,107 and one of the bishops who signed the Nicene Creed.108 Nicholas's attendance at the Council of Nicaea is attested early by Theodore the Lector's list of attendees, which records him as the 151st attendee.109110 However, he is conspicuously never mentioned by Athanasius of Alexandria, the foremost defender of Trinitarianism at the council, who knew all the notable bishops of the period,111 nor is he mentioned by the historian Eusebius, who was also present at the council.112 Adam C. English notes that lists of the attendees at Nicaea vary considerably, with shorter lists only including roughly 200 names, but longer lists including around 300. Saint Nicholas's name only appears on the longer lists, not the shorter ones.113 Nicholas's name appears on a total of three early lists, one of which, Theodore the Lector, is generally considered to be the most accurate. According to Jona Lendering, there are two main possibilities:

  1. Nicholas did not attend the Council of Nicaea, but someone at an early date was baffled that his name was not listed and so added him to the list.114 Many scholars tend to favor this explanation.115116
  2. Nicholas did attend the Council of Nicaea, but, at an early date, someone decided to remove his name from the list, apparently deciding that it was better if no one remembered he had been there.117

A later legend, first attested in the fourteenth century, over 1,000 years after Nicholas's death, holds that, during the Council of Nicaea, Nicholas lost his temper and slapped "a certain Arian" across the face. On account of this, Constantine revoked Nicholas's miter and pallium.118 Steven D. Greydanus concludes that, because of the story's late attestation, it "has no historical value."119 Jona Lendering, however, defends the veracity and historicity of the incident, arguing that, as it was embarrassing and reflects poorly on Nicholas's reputation, it is inexplicable why later hagiographers would have invented it.120 Later versions of the legend embellish it, making the heretic Arius himself121122 and having Nicholas punch him rather than merely slapping him with his open hand. In these versions of the story, Nicholas is also imprisoned,123124 but Christ and the Virgin Mary appear to him in his cell.125126 He tells them he is imprisoned "for loving you" and they free him from his chains and restore his vestments.127128 The scene of Nicholas slapping Arius is celebrated in Eastern Orthodox icons129 and episodes of Saint Nicholas at Nicaea are shown in a series of paintings from the 1660s in the Basilica di San Nicola in Bari.130

Other reputed miracles

One story tells how during a terrible famine, a malicious butcher lured three little children into his house, where he killed them, placing their remains in a barrel to cure, planning to sell them off as ham.131132 Nicholas, visiting the region to care for the hungry, saw through the butcher's lies and resurrected the pickled children by making the sign of the cross.133134 Jona Lendering opines that the story is "without any historical value".135 Adam C. English notes that the story of the resurrection of the pickled children is a late medieval addition to the legendary biography of Saint Nicholas and that it is not found in any of his earliest Lives.136 Although this story seems bizarre and horrifying to modern audiences, it was tremendously popular throughout the Late Middle Ages and the early modern period, and widely beloved by ordinary folk.137138139 It is depicted in stained glass windows, wood panel paintings, tapestries, and frescoes. Eventually, the scene became so widely reproduced that, rather than showing the whole scene, artists began to merely depict Saint Nicholas with three naked children and a wooden barrel at his feet.140

According to English, eventually, people who had forgotten or never learned the story began misinterpreting representations of it. That Saint Nicholas was shown with children led people to conclude he was the patron saint of children; meanwhile, the fact that he was shown with a barrel led people to conclude that he was the patron saint of brewers.141

According to another story, during a great famine that Myra experienced in 311–312, a ship was in the port at anchor, loaded with wheat for the emperor in Constantinople. Nicholas invited the sailors to unload a part of the wheat to help in the time of need. The sailors at first disliked the request, because the wheat had to be weighed accurately and delivered to the emperor. Only when Nicholas promised them that they would not suffer any loss for their consideration did the sailors agree. When they arrived later in the capital, they made a surprising find: the weight of the load had not changed, although the wheat removed in Myra was enough for two full years and could even be used for sowing.142

Relics

Gemile

It has long been traditionally assumed that Saint Nicholas was originally buried in his home town of Myra, where his relics are later known to have been kept,143144 but some recent archaeological evidence indicates that Saint Nicholas may have originally been entombed in a rock-cut church located at the highest point on the small Turkish island of Gemile, only twenty miles away from his birthplace of Patara. Nicholas's name is painted on part of the ruined building. In antiquity, the island was known as "Saint Nicholas Island"145 and today it is known in Turkish as Gemiler Adasi, meaning "Island of Boats", in reference to Saint Nicholas's traditional role as the patron saint of seafarers.146

The church was built in the fourth century, around the time of Nicholas's death,147 and is typical of saints' shrines from that time period. Nicholas was the only major saint associated with that part of Turkey. The church where historians believe he was originally entombed is at the western end of the great processional way.148

Myra

In the mid-7th century, Gemile was vulnerable to attack by Arab fleets, so Nicholas's remains appear to have been moved from the island to the city of Myra, where Nicholas had served as bishop for most of his life. Myra is located roughly 40 km (25 mi) east of Gemile and its location further inland made it safer from seafaring Arab forces.149

It is said that, in Myra, the relics of Saint Nicholas each year exuded a clear watery liquid which smelled like rose water, called manna, or myrrh, which was believed by the faithful to possess miraculous powers.150 As it was widely known that all Nicholas's relics were at Myra in their sealed sarcophagus, it was rare during this period for forgers of relics to claim to possess those belonging to Saint Nicholas.151

A solemn bronze statue of the saint by Russian sculptor Gregory Pototsky was donated by the Russian government in 2000, and was given a prominent place in the square fronting the medieval Church of St Nicholas. In 2005, mayor Süleyman Topçu had the statue replaced by a red-suited plastic Santa Claus statue, because he wanted an image more recognisable to foreign visitors. Protests from the Russian government against this were successful, and the bronze statue was returned (albeit without its original high pedestal) to a corner nearer the church.152

On 28 December 2009, the Turkish government announced that it would be formally requesting the return of Saint Nicholas's skeletal remains to Turkey from the Italian government.153154 Turkish authorities asserted that Nicholas himself desired to be buried at his episcopal town, and that his remains were illegally removed from his homeland. In 2017, an archaeological survey at St. Nicholas Church, Demre was reported to have found a temple below the modern church, with excavation work to be done that will allow researchers to determine whether it still holds Nicholas's body.155 A sarcophagus possibly holding his remains was found there in 2024.156

Bari

After the Battle of Manzikert in 1071, the Byzantine Empire temporarily lost control over most of Asia Minor to the invading Seljuk Turks, and so Greek Christians of Myra became subjects of the Turks.157158 At the same time the Catholic Church in the West had declared (in 1054 AD) that the Greek church, the official church of the Byzantine Empire, was in schism. Because of the many wars in the region, some Christians were concerned that access to the tomb might become difficult.159

Taking advantage of the confusion and the loss by the Greek Christian community of Myra of its Byzantine imperial protection, in the spring of 1087, Italian sailors from Bari in Apulia seized part of the remains of the saint from his burial church in Myra, over the objections of the Greek Orthodox monks in the church.160161162163

Adam C. English describes the removal of the relics from Myra as "essentially a holy robbery" and notes the thieves were not only afraid of being caught or chased after by the locals, but also the power of Saint Nicholas himself.164 Returning to Bari, they brought the remains with them and cared for them. The remains arrived on 9 May 1087.165166 Two years later, Pope Urban II inaugurated a new church, the Basilica di San Nicola, to Saint Nicholas in Bari. The Pope himself personally placed Nicholas's relics into the tomb beneath the altar of the new church.167 The removal of Saint Nicholas's relics from Myra and their arrival in Bari is reliably recorded by multiple chroniclers, including Orderic Vitalis168169 and 9 May continued to be celebrated every year by western Christians as the day of Nicholas's "translation".170 Eastern Orthodox Christians and the Turks have both long regarded the unauthorized removal of the relics from Myra as a blatant theft,171172 but the people of Bari have instead maintained that it was a rescue mission to save the bones from the Turkish invaders.173174 A legend, shown on the ceiling of the Basilica di San Nicola, holds that Nicholas once visited Bari and predicted that his bones would one day rest there.175

Prior to the translation of Nicholas's relics to Bari, his following had been known in western Europe, but it had not been extremely popular.176 In autumn of 1096, Norman and Frankish soldiers mustered in Bari in preparation for the First Crusade. Although the Crusaders generally favored warrior saints, which Saint Nicholas was not, the presence of his relics in Bari made him materially accessible.177 Nicholas's associations with aiding travelers and seafarers also made him a popular choice for veneration. Nicholas's veneration by Crusaders helped promote his following throughout western Europe.178

After the relics were brought to Bari, they continued to produce "myrrh", much to the joy of their new owners. Vials of myrrh from his relics have been taken all over the world for centuries, and can still be obtained from his church in Bari. Even up to the present day, a flask of manna is extracted from the tomb of Saint Nicholas every year on 6 December (the Saint's feast day) by the clergy of the basilica. The myrrh is collected from a sarcophagus which is located in the basilica vault and could be obtained in the shop nearby. The liquid gradually seeps out of the tomb, but it is unclear whether it originates from the body within the tomb, or from the marble itself; since the town of Bari is a harbour, and the tomb is below sea level, there have been several natural explanations proposed for the manna fluid, including the transfer of seawater to the tomb by capillary action.

In 1966, a vault in the crypt underneath the Basilica di San Nicola was dedicated as an Orthodox chapel with an iconostasis in commemoration of the recent lifting of the anathemas the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches had issued against each other during the Great Schism in 1054.179

In May 2017, following talks between Pope Francis and Russian Orthodox Patriarch Kirill, a portion of the relics of Saint Nicholas in Bari were sent on loan to Moscow. The relic was on display for veneration at Christ the Savior Cathedral before being taken to Saint Petersburg in mid-June prior to returning to Bari.180 More than a million people lined up in Moscow for a momentary glimpse of the gilded ark holding one of the saint's ribs.181

Venice

The sailors from Bari took only the main bones of Nicholas's skeleton, leaving all the minor fragments in the grave.182 The city of Venice had interest in obtaining the remaining fragments of his skeleton. In 1044, they dedicated the San Nicolò al Lido monastery basilica to him on the north end of the Lido di Venezia.183 According to a single chronicle written by an anonymous monk at this monastery, in 1100, a fleet of Venetian ships accompanied by Bishop Enrico Contarini sailed past Myra on their way to Palestine for the First Crusade. Bishop Enrico insisted for the fleet to turn back and set anchor in Myra.184 The Venetians took the remaining bones of Saint Nicholas, as well as those of several other bishops of Myra, from the church there, which was only guarded by four Orthodox monks, and brought them to Venice, where they deposited them in the San Nicolò al Lido.185 This tradition was lent credence in two scientific investigations of the relics in Bari and Venice, which confirmed that the relics in the two cities are anatomically compatible and may belong to the same person.186187188 It is said that someone dies every time the bones of Saint Nicholas in Venice are disturbed. The last time the bones were examined was in July 1992.189

Other locations

Because of Nicholas's skeleton's long confinement in Myra, after it was brought to Bari, the demand for pieces of it rose. Small bones quickly began to disperse across western Europe.190 The sailors who had transported the bones gave one tooth and two fragments chipped from Nicholas's sarcophagus to the Norman knight William Pantulf. Pantulf took these relics to his hometown of Noron in Normandy, where they were placed in the local Church of St. Peter in June 1092.191 In 1096, the duke of Apulia gave several bones of Saint Nicholas to the count of Flanders, which he then enshrined in the Abbey of Watten.192 According to legend, in 1101, Saint Nicholas appeared in a vision to a French clerk visiting the shrine at Bari and told him to take one of his bones with him to his hometown of Port, near Nancy. The clerk took a finger bone back with him to Port, where a chapel was built to Saint Nicholas.193 Port became an important center of devotion in the following of Nicholas and, in the fifteenth century, a church known as the Basilique Saint-Nicolas was built there dedicated to him.194 The town itself is now known as "Saint Nicolas de Port" in honor of Nicholas.195

The clergy at Bari strategically gave away samples of Nicholas's bones to promote the following and enhance its prestige. Many of these bones were initially kept in Constantinople,196 but, after the Sack of Constantinople in 1204 during the Fourth Crusade, these fragments were scattered across western Europe. A hand claimed to belong to Saint Nicholas was kept in the San Nicola in Carcere in Rome.197 This church, whose name means "Saint Nicholas in Chains", was built on the site of a former municipal prison. Stories quickly developed about Nicholas himself having been held in that prison.198 Mothers would come to the church to pray to Saint Nicholas for their jailed sons to be released and repentant criminals would place votive offerings in the church.199 As a result of this, Nicholas became the patron saint of prisoners and those falsely accused of crimes.200 An index finger claimed to belong to Saint Nicholas was kept in a chapel along the Ostian Way in Rome. Another finger was held in Ventimiglia in Liguria.201 Today, many churches in Europe, Russia, and the United States claim to possess small relics, such as a tooth or a finger bone.202203

An Irish tradition states that the relics of Saint Nicholas are also reputed to have been stolen from Myra by local Norman crusading knights in the twelfth century and buried near Thomastown, County Kilkenny, where a stone slab marks the reputed "Tomb of Saint Nicholas".204 According to the Irish antiquarian John Hunt, the tomb probably actually belongs to a local priest from Jerpoint Abbey.205

Russian Orthodox Church announced on 22 September 2024 that Holy Myrrhbearers Cathedral in Baku received a part of Nicholas' relic as a gift.206

Scientific analysis

Whereas the devotional importance of relics and the economics associated with pilgrimages caused the remains of most saints to be divided up and spread over numerous churches in several countries, Saint Nicholas is unusual in that most of his bones have been preserved in one spot: his grave crypt in Bari. Even with the allegedly continuing miracle of the manna, the archdiocese of Bari has allowed for one scientific survey of the bones.207 In the late 1950s, while the crypt was undergoing much-needed restoration, the bones were removed from it for the first time since their interment in 1089. A special Pontiffical Commission permitted Luigi Martino, a professor of human anatomy at the University of Bari, to examine the bones under the commission's supervision.208 Martino took thousands of measurements, detailed scientific drawings, photographs, and x-rays.209 These examinations revealed the saint to have died at over seventy years of age and to have been of average height and slender-to-average build. He also suffered from severe chronic arthritis in his spine and pelvis.210

In 2004, at the University of Manchester, researchers Caroline Wilkinson and Fraco Introna reconstructed the saint's face based on Martino's examination.211 The review of the data revealed that the historical Saint Nicholas was 5 ft 6 in (1.68 m) in height and had a broken nose, which had partially healed, revealing that the injury had been suffered ante mortem.212213 The broken nose appeared to conform with hagiographical reports that Saint Nicholas had been beaten and tortured during the Diocletianic Persecution.214 The facial reconstruction was produced by Caroline Wilkinson at the University of Manchester and was shown on a BBC2 TV program The Real Face of Santa.215216 In 2014, the Face Lab at Liverpool John Moores University produced an updated reconstruction of Saint Nicholas's face.217

In 2017, two researchers from Oxford University, Professor Tom Higham and Doctor Georges Kazan, radiocarbon dated a fragment of a pelvis claimed to belong to Saint Nicholas. The fragment originally came from a church in Lyon, France218219220 and, at the time of testing, was in the possession of Father Dennis O'Neill, a priest from St Martha of Bethany Church in Illinois.221222223 The results of the radiocarbon dating confirmed that the pelvis dates to the fourth century AD, around the same time that Saint Nicholas would have died, and is not a medieval forgery.224225226 The bone was one of the oldest the Oxford team had ever examined.

According to Professor Higham, most of the relics the team has examined turn out to be too recent to have actually belonged to the saint to whom they are attributed, but he states, "This bone fragment, in contrast, suggests that we could possibly be looking at remains from St Nicholas himself."227 Kazan believes the pelvis fragment may come from the same individual as the skeleton divided between the churches in Bari and Venice,228229230 since the bone they tested comes from the left pubis, and the only pelvis bone in the collection at Bari is the left ilium.231 In the absence of DNA testing, however, it is not yet possible to know for certain whether the pelvis is from the same man.232233

Veneration and celebrations

Further information: Saint Nicholas Day

Among Greeks and Italians, Saint Nicholas is a favorite of sailors, fishermen, ships and sailing. As a result, and over time, he has become the patron saint of several cities which maintain harbours. In centuries of Greek folklore, Nicholas was seen as "The Lord of the Sea", often described by modern Greek scholars as a kind of Christianized version of Poseidon. In modern Greece, he is still easily among the most recognizable saints and 6 December finds many cities celebrating their patron saint. He is also the patron saint of all of Greece and particularly of the Hellenic Navy.234

In the Eastern Orthodox Church, Saint Nicholas's memory is celebrated on almost every Thursday of the year (together with the Apostles) with special hymns to him which are found in the liturgical book known as the Octoechos.235 Soon after the transfer of Saint Nicholas's relics from Myra to Bari, an East Slavic version of his Life and an account of the transfer of his relics were written by a contemporary to this event.236

Devotional akathists and canons have been composed in his honour, and are frequently chanted by the faithful as they ask for his intercession. He is mentioned in the Liturgy of Preparation during the Divine Liturgy (Eastern Orthodox Eucharist) and during the All-Night Vigil. Many Orthodox churches will have his icon, even if they are not named after him. In Oriental Orthodoxy, the Coptic Church observes the Departure of St. Nicholas on 10 Kiahk, or 10 Taḫśaś in Ethiopia, which corresponds to the Julian Calendar's 6 December and Gregorian Calendar's 19 December.237238

Nicholas had a reputation for secret gift-giving, such as putting coins in the shoes of those who left them out for him, a practice celebrated on his feast day, 6 December. For those who still observe the Julian calendar the celebration currently takes place thirteen days later than it happens in the Gregorian calendar and Revised Julian calendar.239

In Serbia, the most common Slava (annual ceremony and veneration of a Serbian family's patron saint) is Saint Nicholas' day celebrated on 19 December.

In Monaco, the Cathedral of Our Lady Immaculate was built from 1874 on the site of St Nicholas's church, founded in 1252. A children's Mass is still held on 6 December in the cathedral.

In late medieval England, on Saint Nicholas Day parishes held Christmastide "boy bishop" celebrations. As part of this celebration, youths performed the functions of priests and bishops, and exercised rule over their elders. Today, Saint Nicholas is still celebrated as a great gift-giver in several Western European and Central European countries. In medieval times, Christian nuns in Belgium and France began to deposit baskets of food and clothes anonymously at the doorsteps of the needy, which gave rise to the practice of gift giving on Saint Nicholas Day.240 According to another source, on 6 December every sailor or ex-sailor of the Low Countries (which at that time was virtually all of the male population) would descend to the harbour towns to participate in a church celebration for their patron saint. On the way back they would stop at one of the various Nicholas fairs to buy some hard-to-come-by goods, gifts for their loved ones and invariably some little presents for their children. While the real gifts would only be presented at Christmas, the little presents for the children were given right away, courtesy of Saint Nicholas. This and his miracle of him resurrecting the three butchered children made Saint Nicholas a patron saint of children and later students as well.241 The custom of giving gifts on Saint Nicholas Day is popular in various parts of Christendom, with a popular tradition including children placing their shoes in the foyer for Saint Nicholas to deliver presents therein.242

Santa Claus evolved from Dutch traditions regarding Saint Nicholas (Sinterklaas). When the Dutch established the colony of New Amsterdam, they brought the legend and traditions of Sinterklaas with them.243 Howard G. Hageman, of New Brunswick Theological Seminary, maintains that the tradition of celebrating Sinterklaas in New York existed in the early settlements of the Hudson Valley, although by the early nineteenth century had fallen by the way.244 St. Nicholas Avenue and St. Nicholas Terrace, streets in the Harlem neighborhood of Manhattan, New York City, an area originally settled by Dutch farmers, were named for St. Nicholas of Myra. The name later was taken for nearby St. Nicholas Park, located at the intersection of St. Nicholas Avenue and 127th Street.245

Nicholas is honored in the calendar of saints of the Lutheran Churches, as well as in Church of England and in the Episcopal Church on 6 December.246247248

Eastern Orthodox Feast Days for Saint Nicholas of Myra in Lycia

  • 9 May – Translation of the relics of Saint Nicholas the Wonderworker from Myra to Bari, in 1087.249
  • 10 May – Passage of the relics (sojourn) in 1087 of Saint Nicholas the Wonderworker through the island of Zakynthos, while on their way to Bari.250
  • 20 May – Arrival of the relics in Bari.251252
  • 29 July – Nativity of Saint Nicholas the Wonderworker.253
  • Movable holiday on the Sunday between 16 and 22 August – Synaxis of All Saints of Lefkados.254
  • 22 September – Synaxis of All Saints of Tula (commemoration of the protection of Tula from the invasion of the Crimean Khan Devlet Giray in 1552).255
  • 6 December – Commemoration of his death.256

Iconography

Saint Nicholas is a popular subject portrayed on Eastern Orthodox icons, particularly Russian and Serbian ones. He is depicted as an Orthodox bishop, wearing the omophorion and holding a Gospel Book. Sometimes he is depicted wearing the Eastern Orthodox mitre, sometimes he is bareheaded. Iconographically, Nicholas is depicted as an elderly man with a short, full, white, fluffy beard and balding head. In commemoration of the miracle attributed to him by tradition at the Council of Nicaea, he is sometimes depicted with Christ over his left shoulder holding out a Gospel Book to him and the Theotokos over his right shoulder holding the omophorion. Because of his patronage of mariners, occasionally Saint Nicholas will be shown standing in a boat or rescuing drowning sailors; Medieval Chants and Polyphony, image on the cover of the Book of Hours of Duke of Berry, 1410.257

In depictions of Saint Nicholas from Bari, he is usually shown as dark-skinned, probably to emphasize his foreign origin.258 The emphasis on his foreignness may have been intended to enhance Bari's reputation by displaying that it had attracted the patronage of a saint from a far-off country.259 In Roman Catholic iconography, Saint Nicholas is depicted as a bishop, wearing the insignia of this dignity: a bishop's vestments, a mitre and a crozier. The episode with the three dowries is commemorated by showing him holding in his hand either three purses, three coins or three balls of gold. Depending on whether he is depicted as patron saint of children or sailors, his images will be completed by a background showing ships, children or three figures climbing out of a wooden barrel (the three slaughtered children he resurrected).260

In a strange twist, the three gold balls referring to the dowry affair are sometimes metaphorically interpreted as being oranges or other fruits. As in the Low Countries in medieval times oranges most frequently came from Spain, this led to the belief that the Saint lives in Spain and comes to visit every winter bringing them oranges, other 'wintry' fruits and tales of magical creatures.261

Music

In 1948, Benjamin Britten completed a cantata, Saint Nicolas on a text by Eric Crozier which covers the saint's legendary life in a dramatic sequence of events. A tenor soloist appears as Saint Nicolas, with a mixed choir, boys singers, strings, piano duet, organ and percussion.262

See also

  • Saints portal

Notes

Sources

Further reading

  • Asano, Kazoo, ed. (2010). The Island of St. Nicholas. Excavation and Research of Gemiler Island Area, Lycia, Turkey. Osaka: Osaka University Press.
  • Wheeler, Joe L. & Rosenthal, Jim (2006). St. Nicholas: A Closer Look at Christmas. Nashville, TN: Nelson Reference & Electronic. ISBN 9781418504076.

References

  1. Greek: Ἅγιος Νικόλαος, Hágios Nikólaos; Latin: Sanctus Nicolaus /wiki/Greek_language ↩

  2. "Who is St. Nicholas?". St. Nicholas Center. Archived from the original on 10 October 2010. Retrieved 7 December 2010. https://web.archive.org/web/20101010104847/http://www.stnicholascenter.org/Brix?pageID=38 ↩

  3. "St. Nicholas". Orthodox America. Archived from the original on 7 September 2011. Retrieved 7 December 2010. https://web.archive.org/web/20110907060906/http://www.roca.org/OA/5/5m.htm ↩

  4. The date of his birth and the year of his death are disputed,[5] but 6 December has long been established as the traditional date of his death.[5] Jeremy Seal remarks, "As vampires shun daylight, so saints are distinguished from ordinary mortals by the anniversaries they keep. The date of their death rather than their birth is commemorated."[6] ↩

  5. Lloyd, John; Mitchinson, John (December 2008). The book of general ignorance (Noticeably stouter ed.). Faber and Faber. p. 318. ISBN 978-0-571-24692-2. 978-0-571-24692-2 ↩

  6. Cunningham, Lawrence (2005). A brief history of saints. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 33. ISBN 978-1-4051-1402-8. The fourth-century Saint Nikolaos of Myra, Greek Anatolia (in present-day Turkey) spread to Europe through the port city of Bari in southern Italy... Devotion to the saint in the Low countries became blended with Nordic folktales, transforming this early Greek Orthodox Bishop into that Christmas icon, Santa Claus. 978-1-4051-1402-8 ↩

  7. Νικόλαος ὁ Θαυματουργός, Nikólaos ho Thaumaturgós ↩

  8. Collins, Ace (2009). Stories Behind Men of Faith. Zondervan. p. 121. ISBN 9780310564560. Archived from the original on 11 September 2015. Retrieved 28 November 2015. Nicholas was born in the Greek city of Patara around 270 AD. The son of a businessman named Theophanes and his wife, Nonna, the child's earliest years were spent in Myra… As a port on the Mediterranean Sea, in the middle of the sea lanes that linked Egypt, Greece and Rome, Myra was a destination for traders, fishermen, and merchant sailors. Spawned by the spirit of both the city's Greek heritage and the ruling Roman government, cultural endeavours such as art, drama, and music were mainstays of everyday life. 9780310564560 ↩

  9. English, Adam C. (2012). The Saint Who Would Be Santa Claus: The True Life and Trials of Nicholas of Myra. Waco, TX: Baylor University Press. pp. 57–63. ISBN 978-1-60258-636-9. 978-1-60258-636-9 ↩

  10. Wheeler 2010, pp. vii–x. - Wheeler, Joe L. (2010), Saint Nicholas, Nashville, Tennessee: Thomas Nelson, ISBN 978-1-59555-115-3 https://books.google.com/books?id=g8ds_Q9PZbwC&q=Saint+Nicholas+of+Myra+real+person ↩

  11. Seal 2005, pp. 14–15. - Seal, Jeremy (2005), Nicholas: The Epic Journey from Saint to Santa Claus, New York City, New York and London, England: Bloomsbury, ISBN 978-1-58234-419-5 https://books.google.com/books?id=gKhkokCFlhwC&q=Saint+Nicholas+of+Myra+Jeremy+Seal ↩

  12. Seal 2005, p. 14. - Seal, Jeremy (2005), Nicholas: The Epic Journey from Saint to Santa Claus, New York City, New York and London, England: Bloomsbury, ISBN 978-1-58234-419-5 https://books.google.com/books?id=gKhkokCFlhwC&q=Saint+Nicholas+of+Myra+Jeremy+Seal ↩

  13. Wheeler 2010, pp. vii–viii. - Wheeler, Joe L. (2010), Saint Nicholas, Nashville, Tennessee: Thomas Nelson, ISBN 978-1-59555-115-3 https://books.google.com/books?id=g8ds_Q9PZbwC&q=Saint+Nicholas+of+Myra+real+person ↩

  14. Wheeler 2010, pp. vii–viii. - Wheeler, Joe L. (2010), Saint Nicholas, Nashville, Tennessee: Thomas Nelson, ISBN 978-1-59555-115-3 https://books.google.com/books?id=g8ds_Q9PZbwC&q=Saint+Nicholas+of+Myra+real+person ↩

  15. Blacker, Burgess & Ogden 2013, p. 250. - Blacker, Jean; Burgess, Glyn S.; Ogden, Amy V. (2013), "The Life of St Nicholas: Introduction", Wace: The Hagiographical Works: The Conception Nostre Dame and the Lives of St Margaret and St Nicholas, Leiden, The Netherlands and Boston, Massachusetts: Brill, ISBN 978-90-04-24768-0 https://books.google.com/books?id=f__hjbhMw1IC&q=Nicholas+of+Myra+Council+of+Nicaea&pg=PA250 ↩

  16. Wheeler 2010, p. ix. - Wheeler, Joe L. (2010), Saint Nicholas, Nashville, Tennessee: Thomas Nelson, ISBN 978-1-59555-115-3 https://books.google.com/books?id=g8ds_Q9PZbwC&q=Saint+Nicholas+of+Myra+real+person ↩

  17. Blacker, Burgess & Ogden 2013, p. 251. - Blacker, Jean; Burgess, Glyn S.; Ogden, Amy V. (2013), "The Life of St Nicholas: Introduction", Wace: The Hagiographical Works: The Conception Nostre Dame and the Lives of St Margaret and St Nicholas, Leiden, The Netherlands and Boston, Massachusetts: Brill, ISBN 978-90-04-24768-0 https://books.google.com/books?id=f__hjbhMw1IC&q=Nicholas+of+Myra+Council+of+Nicaea&pg=PA250 ↩

  18. Wheeler 2010, p. ix. - Wheeler, Joe L. (2010), Saint Nicholas, Nashville, Tennessee: Thomas Nelson, ISBN 978-1-59555-115-3 https://books.google.com/books?id=g8ds_Q9PZbwC&q=Saint+Nicholas+of+Myra+real+person ↩

  19. Blacker, Burgess & Ogden 2013, p. 251. - Blacker, Jean; Burgess, Glyn S.; Ogden, Amy V. (2013), "The Life of St Nicholas: Introduction", Wace: The Hagiographical Works: The Conception Nostre Dame and the Lives of St Margaret and St Nicholas, Leiden, The Netherlands and Boston, Massachusetts: Brill, ISBN 978-90-04-24768-0 https://books.google.com/books?id=f__hjbhMw1IC&q=Nicholas+of+Myra+Council+of+Nicaea&pg=PA250 ↩

  20. Wheeler 2010, p. ix. - Wheeler, Joe L. (2010), Saint Nicholas, Nashville, Tennessee: Thomas Nelson, ISBN 978-1-59555-115-3 https://books.google.com/books?id=g8ds_Q9PZbwC&q=Saint+Nicholas+of+Myra+real+person ↩

  21. Blacker, Burgess & Ogden 2013, p. 250. - Blacker, Jean; Burgess, Glyn S.; Ogden, Amy V. (2013), "The Life of St Nicholas: Introduction", Wace: The Hagiographical Works: The Conception Nostre Dame and the Lives of St Margaret and St Nicholas, Leiden, The Netherlands and Boston, Massachusetts: Brill, ISBN 978-90-04-24768-0 https://books.google.com/books?id=f__hjbhMw1IC&q=Nicholas+of+Myra+Council+of+Nicaea&pg=PA250 ↩

  22. Seal 2005, pp. 14–15. - Seal, Jeremy (2005), Nicholas: The Epic Journey from Saint to Santa Claus, New York City, New York and London, England: Bloomsbury, ISBN 978-1-58234-419-5 https://books.google.com/books?id=gKhkokCFlhwC&q=Saint+Nicholas+of+Myra+Jeremy+Seal ↩

  23. Wheeler 2010, p. x. - Wheeler, Joe L. (2010), Saint Nicholas, Nashville, Tennessee: Thomas Nelson, ISBN 978-1-59555-115-3 https://books.google.com/books?id=g8ds_Q9PZbwC&q=Saint+Nicholas+of+Myra+real+person ↩

  24. Seal 2005, pp. 14–15. - Seal, Jeremy (2005), Nicholas: The Epic Journey from Saint to Santa Claus, New York City, New York and London, England: Bloomsbury, ISBN 978-1-58234-419-5 https://books.google.com/books?id=gKhkokCFlhwC&q=Saint+Nicholas+of+Myra+Jeremy+Seal ↩

  25. Wheeler 2010, p. x. - Wheeler, Joe L. (2010), Saint Nicholas, Nashville, Tennessee: Thomas Nelson, ISBN 978-1-59555-115-3 https://books.google.com/books?id=g8ds_Q9PZbwC&q=Saint+Nicholas+of+Myra+real+person ↩

  26. Blacker, Burgess & Ogden 2013, p. 250. - Blacker, Jean; Burgess, Glyn S.; Ogden, Amy V. (2013), "The Life of St Nicholas: Introduction", Wace: The Hagiographical Works: The Conception Nostre Dame and the Lives of St Margaret and St Nicholas, Leiden, The Netherlands and Boston, Massachusetts: Brill, ISBN 978-90-04-24768-0 https://books.google.com/books?id=f__hjbhMw1IC&q=Nicholas+of+Myra+Council+of+Nicaea&pg=PA250 ↩

  27. Seal 2005, p. 15. - Seal, Jeremy (2005), Nicholas: The Epic Journey from Saint to Santa Claus, New York City, New York and London, England: Bloomsbury, ISBN 978-1-58234-419-5 https://books.google.com/books?id=gKhkokCFlhwC&q=Saint+Nicholas+of+Myra+Jeremy+Seal ↩

  28. Wheeler 2010, p. x. - Wheeler, Joe L. (2010), Saint Nicholas, Nashville, Tennessee: Thomas Nelson, ISBN 978-1-59555-115-3 https://books.google.com/books?id=g8ds_Q9PZbwC&q=Saint+Nicholas+of+Myra+real+person ↩

  29. Blacker, Burgess & Ogden 2013, p. 251. - Blacker, Jean; Burgess, Glyn S.; Ogden, Amy V. (2013), "The Life of St Nicholas: Introduction", Wace: The Hagiographical Works: The Conception Nostre Dame and the Lives of St Margaret and St Nicholas, Leiden, The Netherlands and Boston, Massachusetts: Brill, ISBN 978-90-04-24768-0 https://books.google.com/books?id=f__hjbhMw1IC&q=Nicholas+of+Myra+Council+of+Nicaea&pg=PA250 ↩

  30. Blacker, Burgess & Ogden 2013, p. 251. - Blacker, Jean; Burgess, Glyn S.; Ogden, Amy V. (2013), "The Life of St Nicholas: Introduction", Wace: The Hagiographical Works: The Conception Nostre Dame and the Lives of St Margaret and St Nicholas, Leiden, The Netherlands and Boston, Massachusetts: Brill, ISBN 978-90-04-24768-0 https://books.google.com/books?id=f__hjbhMw1IC&q=Nicholas+of+Myra+Council+of+Nicaea&pg=PA250 ↩

  31. Cioffari, Gerardo (1987). "San Nicola nelle fonti letterarie dal V all'VIII secolo". San Nicola: Splendori d'arte d'Oriente e d'Occidente S. Nicola nella critica storia: 44–45. ↩

  32. Wheeler 2010, p. xi. - Wheeler, Joe L. (2010), Saint Nicholas, Nashville, Tennessee: Thomas Nelson, ISBN 978-1-59555-115-3 https://books.google.com/books?id=g8ds_Q9PZbwC&q=Saint+Nicholas+of+Myra+real+person ↩

  33. Introduction to Michael the Archimandrite's Life of Saint Nicholas Archived 3 July 2018 at the Wayback Machine http://www.stnicholascenter.org/pages/michael-the-archimandrite/ ↩

  34. Lendering 2006, p. Nicholas of Myra. - Lendering, Jona (2006), "Nicholas of Myra", Livius.org https://www.livius.org/articles/person/nicholas-of-myra/ ↩

  35. Lendering 2006, p. Nicholas of Myra. - Lendering, Jona (2006), "Nicholas of Myra", Livius.org https://www.livius.org/articles/person/nicholas-of-myra/ ↩

  36. Wheeler 2010, p. xi. - Wheeler, Joe L. (2010), Saint Nicholas, Nashville, Tennessee: Thomas Nelson, ISBN 978-1-59555-115-3 https://books.google.com/books?id=g8ds_Q9PZbwC&q=Saint+Nicholas+of+Myra+real+person ↩

  37. Lendering 2006, p. Nicholas of Myra. - Lendering, Jona (2006), "Nicholas of Myra", Livius.org https://www.livius.org/articles/person/nicholas-of-myra/ ↩

  38. Lendering 2006, p. Nicholas of Myra. - Lendering, Jona (2006), "Nicholas of Myra", Livius.org https://www.livius.org/articles/person/nicholas-of-myra/ ↩

  39. Blacker, Burgess & Ogden 2013, p. 249. - Blacker, Jean; Burgess, Glyn S.; Ogden, Amy V. (2013), "The Life of St Nicholas: Introduction", Wace: The Hagiographical Works: The Conception Nostre Dame and the Lives of St Margaret and St Nicholas, Leiden, The Netherlands and Boston, Massachusetts: Brill, ISBN 978-90-04-24768-0 https://books.google.com/books?id=f__hjbhMw1IC&q=Nicholas+of+Myra+Council+of+Nicaea&pg=PA250 ↩

  40. Collins, Ace (2009). Stories Behind Men of Faith. Zondervan. p. 121. ISBN 9780310564560. Archived from the original on 11 September 2015. Retrieved 28 November 2015. Nicholas was born in the Greek city of Patara around 270 AD. The son of a businessman named Theophanes and his wife, Nonna, the child's earliest years were spent in Myra… As a port on the Mediterranean Sea, in the middle of the sea lanes that linked Egypt, Greece and Rome, Myra was a destination for traders, fishermen, and merchant sailors. Spawned by the spirit of both the city's Greek heritage and the ruling Roman government, cultural endeavours such as art, drama, and music were mainstays of everyday life. 9780310564560 ↩

  41. Blacker, Burgess & Ogden 2013, p. 249. - Blacker, Jean; Burgess, Glyn S.; Ogden, Amy V. (2013), "The Life of St Nicholas: Introduction", Wace: The Hagiographical Works: The Conception Nostre Dame and the Lives of St Margaret and St Nicholas, Leiden, The Netherlands and Boston, Massachusetts: Brill, ISBN 978-90-04-24768-0 https://books.google.com/books?id=f__hjbhMw1IC&q=Nicholas+of+Myra+Council+of+Nicaea&pg=PA250 ↩

  42. Domenico, Roy Palmer (2002). The regions of Italy: a reference guide to history and culture. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 21. ISBN 0-313-30733-4. Saint Nicholas (Bishop of Myra) replaced Sabino as the patron saint of the city… A Greek from what is now Turkey, he lived in the early fourth century. 0-313-30733-4 ↩

  43. Burman, Edward (1991). Emperor to emperor: Italy before the Renaissance. Constable. p. 126. ISBN 0-09-469490-7. For although he is the patron saint of Russia, and the model for a northern invention such as Santa Claus, Nicholas of Myra was a Greek. 0-09-469490-7 ↩

  44. Ingram, W. Scott; Ingram, Asher, Scott; Robert (2004). Greek Immigrants. Infobase Publishing. p. 24. ISBN 9780816056897. The original Santa Claus, Saint Nicholas, was a Greek born in Asia Minor (now modern Turkey) in the fourth century. He was very religious from an early age and devoted his life to Christianity.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) 9780816056897 ↩

  45. Lanzi, Gioia (2004). Saints and their symbols: recognizing saints in art and in popular images. Liturgical Press. p. 111. ISBN 0-8146-2970-9. Nicholas was born around 270 AD in Patara on the coast of what is now western Turkey. 0-8146-2970-9 ↩

  46. Collins, Ace (2009). Stories Behind Men of Faith. Zondervan. p. 121. ISBN 9780310564560. Archived from the original on 11 September 2015. Retrieved 28 November 2015. Nicholas was born in the Greek city of Patara around 270 AD. The son of a businessman named Theophanes and his wife, Nonna, the child's earliest years were spent in Myra… As a port on the Mediterranean Sea, in the middle of the sea lanes that linked Egypt, Greece and Rome, Myra was a destination for traders, fishermen, and merchant sailors. Spawned by the spirit of both the city's Greek heritage and the ruling Roman government, cultural endeavours such as art, drama, and music were mainstays of everyday life. 9780310564560 ↩

  47. Lanzi, Gioia (2004). Saints and their symbols: recognizing saints in art and in popular images. Liturgical Press. p. 111. ISBN 0-8146-2970-9. Nicholas was born around 270 AD in Patara on the coast of what is now western Turkey; his parents were Epiphanius and Joanna. 0-8146-2970-9 ↩

  48. Collins, Ace (2009). Stories Behind Men of Faith. Zondervan. p. 121. ISBN 9780310564560. Archived from the original on 11 September 2015. Retrieved 28 November 2015. Nicholas was born in the Greek city of Patara around 270 AD. The son of a businessman named Theophanes and his wife, Nonna, the child's earliest years were spent in Myra… As a port on the Mediterranean Sea, in the middle of the sea lanes that linked Egypt, Greece and Rome, Myra was a destination for traders, fishermen, and merchant sailors. Spawned by the spirit of both the city's Greek heritage and the ruling Roman government, cultural endeavours such as art, drama, and music were mainstays of everyday life. 9780310564560 ↩

  49. Ferguson 1976, p. 136. - Ferguson, George (1976) [1954], "St. Nicholas of Myra or Bari", Signs and Symbols in Christian Art, Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, pp. 135–136 ↩

  50. Lendering 2006, p. Nicholas of Myra. - Lendering, Jona (2006), "Nicholas of Myra", Livius.org https://www.livius.org/articles/person/nicholas-of-myra/ ↩

  51. Ferguson 1976, p. 136. - Ferguson, George (1976) [1954], "St. Nicholas of Myra or Bari", Signs and Symbols in Christian Art, Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, pp. 135–136 ↩

  52. Bennett, William J. (2009). The True Saint Nicholas: Why He Matters to Christmas. Howard Books. pp. 14–17. ISBN 978-1-4165-6746-2. 978-1-4165-6746-2 ↩

  53. Lendering 2006, p. Nicholas of Myra. - Lendering, Jona (2006), "Nicholas of Myra", Livius.org https://www.livius.org/articles/person/nicholas-of-myra/ ↩

  54. Michael the Archimandrite, Life of Saint Nicholas Archived 3 July 2018 at the Wayback Machine Chapters 10–11 http://www.stnicholascenter.org/pages/michael-the-archimandrite/ ↩

  55. Michael the Archimandrite, Life of Saint Nicholas Archived 3 July 2018 at the Wayback Machine Chapters 10–11 http://www.stnicholascenter.org/pages/michael-the-archimandrite/ ↩

  56. Lendering 2006, p. Nicholas of Myra. - Lendering, Jona (2006), "Nicholas of Myra", Livius.org https://www.livius.org/articles/person/nicholas-of-myra/ ↩

  57. Ferguson 1976, p. 136. - Ferguson, George (1976) [1954], "St. Nicholas of Myra or Bari", Signs and Symbols in Christian Art, Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, pp. 135–136 ↩

  58. Joe L. Wheeler and Jona Lendering both note that the legends of Saint Nicholas are filled with sets of three, which may be symbolic for Nicholas's vehement defense of the Holy Trinity.[33][23] /wiki/Holy_Trinity ↩

  59. Lendering 2006, p. Nicholas of Myra. - Lendering, Jona (2006), "Nicholas of Myra", Livius.org https://www.livius.org/articles/person/nicholas-of-myra/ ↩

  60. Ferguson 1976, p. 136. - Ferguson, George (1976) [1954], "St. Nicholas of Myra or Bari", Signs and Symbols in Christian Art, Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, pp. 135–136 ↩

  61. Michael the Archimandrite, Life of Saint Nicholas Archived 3 July 2018 at the Wayback Machine Chapters 10–11 http://www.stnicholascenter.org/pages/michael-the-archimandrite/ ↩

  62. Lendering 2006, p. Nicholas of Myra. - Lendering, Jona (2006), "Nicholas of Myra", Livius.org https://www.livius.org/articles/person/nicholas-of-myra/ ↩

  63. Ferguson 1976, p. 136. - Ferguson, George (1976) [1954], "St. Nicholas of Myra or Bari", Signs and Symbols in Christian Art, Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, pp. 135–136 ↩

  64. Lendering 2006, p. Nicholas of Myra. - Lendering, Jona (2006), "Nicholas of Myra", Livius.org https://www.livius.org/articles/person/nicholas-of-myra/ ↩

  65. Ferguson 1976, p. 136. - Ferguson, George (1976) [1954], "St. Nicholas of Myra or Bari", Signs and Symbols in Christian Art, Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, pp. 135–136 ↩

  66. Michael the Archimandrite, Life of Saint Nicholas Archived 3 July 2018 at the Wayback Machine (Chapters 12–18) http://www.stnicholascenter.org/pages/michael-the-archimandrite/ ↩

  67. Lendering 2006, p. Nicholas of Myra. - Lendering, Jona (2006), "Nicholas of Myra", Livius.org https://www.livius.org/articles/person/nicholas-of-myra/ ↩

  68. Ferguson 1976, p. 136. - Ferguson, George (1976) [1954], "St. Nicholas of Myra or Bari", Signs and Symbols in Christian Art, Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, pp. 135–136 ↩

  69. Michael the Archimandrite, Life of Saint Nicholas Archived 3 July 2018 at the Wayback Machine (Chapters 16–18) http://www.stnicholascenter.org/pages/michael-the-archimandrite/ ↩

  70. Lendering 2006, p. Nicholas of Myra. - Lendering, Jona (2006), "Nicholas of Myra", Livius.org https://www.livius.org/articles/person/nicholas-of-myra/ ↩

  71. Ferguson 1976, p. 136. - Ferguson, George (1976) [1954], "St. Nicholas of Myra or Bari", Signs and Symbols in Christian Art, Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, pp. 135–136 ↩

  72. Michael the Archimandrite, Life of Saint Nicholas Archived 3 July 2018 at the Wayback Machine (Chapters 16–18) http://www.stnicholascenter.org/pages/michael-the-archimandrite/ ↩

  73. Seal 2005, p. 1. - Seal, Jeremy (2005), Nicholas: The Epic Journey from Saint to Santa Claus, New York City, New York and London, England: Bloomsbury, ISBN 978-1-58234-419-5 https://books.google.com/books?id=gKhkokCFlhwC&q=Saint+Nicholas+of+Myra+Jeremy+Seal ↩

  74. Seal 2005, p. 1. - Seal, Jeremy (2005), Nicholas: The Epic Journey from Saint to Santa Claus, New York City, New York and London, England: Bloomsbury, ISBN 978-1-58234-419-5 https://books.google.com/books?id=gKhkokCFlhwC&q=Saint+Nicholas+of+Myra+Jeremy+Seal ↩

  75. Lendering 2006, p. Nicholas of Myra. - Lendering, Jona (2006), "Nicholas of Myra", Livius.org https://www.livius.org/articles/person/nicholas-of-myra/ ↩

  76. English & Crumm 2012. - English, Adam C.; Crumm, David (2 December 2012), "Adam English digging back into the real St. Nicholas", ReadTheSpirit online magazine http://www.readthespirit.com/explore/adam-english-digging-back-to-the-real-st-nicholas/ ↩

  77. Lendering 2006, p. Nicholas of Myra. - Lendering, Jona (2006), "Nicholas of Myra", Livius.org https://www.livius.org/articles/person/nicholas-of-myra/ ↩

  78. Lendering 2006, p. Nicholas of Myra. - Lendering, Jona (2006), "Nicholas of Myra", Livius.org https://www.livius.org/articles/person/nicholas-of-myra/ ↩

  79. Lendering 2006, p. Nicholas of Myra. - Lendering, Jona (2006), "Nicholas of Myra", Livius.org https://www.livius.org/articles/person/nicholas-of-myra/ ↩

  80. Ferguson 1976, p. 136. - Ferguson, George (1976) [1954], "St. Nicholas of Myra or Bari", Signs and Symbols in Christian Art, Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, pp. 135–136 ↩

  81. "Stories from Beit Jala". St. Nicholas Center. Retrieved 26 August 2023. https://www.stnicholascenter.org/who-is-st-nicholas/stories-legends/modern-miracles/miracles-palestine/beit-jala-stories ↩

  82. "Church of Saint Nicholas – Beit Jala". https://visitpalestine.ps/where-to-go/listing/bethlehem/sites-attractions-bethlehem/christian-sites-bethlehem/st-nicholas-church-beit-jala/ ↩

  83. Ferguson 1976, p. 136. - Ferguson, George (1976) [1954], "St. Nicholas of Myra or Bari", Signs and Symbols in Christian Art, Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, pp. 135–136 ↩

  84. Ferguson 1976, p. 136. - Ferguson, George (1976) [1954], "St. Nicholas of Myra or Bari", Signs and Symbols in Christian Art, Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, pp. 135–136 ↩

  85. Blacker, Burgess & Ogden 2013, p. 249. - Blacker, Jean; Burgess, Glyn S.; Ogden, Amy V. (2013), "The Life of St Nicholas: Introduction", Wace: The Hagiographical Works: The Conception Nostre Dame and the Lives of St Margaret and St Nicholas, Leiden, The Netherlands and Boston, Massachusetts: Brill, ISBN 978-90-04-24768-0 https://books.google.com/books?id=f__hjbhMw1IC&q=Nicholas+of+Myra+Council+of+Nicaea&pg=PA250 ↩

  86. Ferguson 1976, p. 136. - Ferguson, George (1976) [1954], "St. Nicholas of Myra or Bari", Signs and Symbols in Christian Art, Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, pp. 135–136 ↩

  87. Faber, Paul (2006). Sinterklaas overseas: the adventures of a globetrotting saint. KIT Publishers. p. 7. ISBN 9789068324372. The historical figure that served as model for the Dutch Sinterklaas was born around 270 AD in the port of Patara in the Greek province of Lycia in Asia Minor (present-day Turkey). His Greek name Nikolaos means something along the lines of "victor of the people". 9789068324372 ↩

  88. Blacker, Burgess & Ogden 2013, pp. 249–250. - Blacker, Jean; Burgess, Glyn S.; Ogden, Amy V. (2013), "The Life of St Nicholas: Introduction", Wace: The Hagiographical Works: The Conception Nostre Dame and the Lives of St Margaret and St Nicholas, Leiden, The Netherlands and Boston, Massachusetts: Brill, ISBN 978-90-04-24768-0 https://books.google.com/books?id=f__hjbhMw1IC&q=Nicholas+of+Myra+Council+of+Nicaea&pg=PA250 ↩

  89. Wilkinson 2018, p. 163. - Wilkinson, Caroline (2018), "Archaeological Facial Depiction for People from the Past with Facial Differences", in Skinner, Patricia; Cock, Emily (eds.), Approaching Facial Difference: Past and Present, London, England: Bloomsbury Academic, ISBN 978-1-3500-2830-2 https://books.google.com/books?id=oU5NDwAAQBAJ&q=Saint+Nicholas+imprisonment&pg=PA163 ↩

  90. Blacker, Burgess & Ogden 2013, p. 250. - Blacker, Jean; Burgess, Glyn S.; Ogden, Amy V. (2013), "The Life of St Nicholas: Introduction", Wace: The Hagiographical Works: The Conception Nostre Dame and the Lives of St Margaret and St Nicholas, Leiden, The Netherlands and Boston, Massachusetts: Brill, ISBN 978-90-04-24768-0 https://books.google.com/books?id=f__hjbhMw1IC&q=Nicholas+of+Myra+Council+of+Nicaea&pg=PA250 ↩

  91. Lendering 2006, p. Medieval Saint. - Lendering, Jona (2006), "Nicholas of Myra", Livius.org https://www.livius.org/articles/person/nicholas-of-myra/ ↩

  92. Wheeler 2010, p. 38. - Wheeler, Joe L. (2010), Saint Nicholas, Nashville, Tennessee: Thomas Nelson, ISBN 978-1-59555-115-3 https://books.google.com/books?id=g8ds_Q9PZbwC&q=Saint+Nicholas+of+Myra+real+person ↩

  93. Michael the Archimandrite, Life of Saint Nicholas Archived 3 July 2018 at the Wayback Machine (Chapter 31) http://www.stnicholascenter.org/pages/michael-the-archimandrite/ ↩

  94. Michael the Archimandrite, Life of Saint Nicholas Archived 3 July 2018 at the Wayback Machine (Chapter 31) http://www.stnicholascenter.org/pages/michael-the-archimandrite/ ↩

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  96. Michael the Archimandrite, Life of Saint Nicholas Archived 3 July 2018 at the Wayback Machine (Chapter 33) http://www.stnicholascenter.org/pages/michael-the-archimandrite/ ↩

  97. Michael the Archimandrite, Life of Saint Nicholas Archived 3 July 2018 at the Wayback Machine (Chapter 33) http://www.stnicholascenter.org/pages/michael-the-archimandrite/ ↩

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  104. Blacker, Burgess & Ogden 2013, p. 250. - Blacker, Jean; Burgess, Glyn S.; Ogden, Amy V. (2013), "The Life of St Nicholas: Introduction", Wace: The Hagiographical Works: The Conception Nostre Dame and the Lives of St Margaret and St Nicholas, Leiden, The Netherlands and Boston, Massachusetts: Brill, ISBN 978-90-04-24768-0 https://books.google.com/books?id=f__hjbhMw1IC&q=Nicholas+of+Myra+Council+of+Nicaea&pg=PA250 ↩

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  106. Wheeler & Rosenthal, "St Nicholas: A Closer Look at Christmas", (Chapter 1), Nelson Reference & Electronic, 2005 ↩

  107. Federer, William J. (2002). There Really Is a Santa Claus – History of St. Nicholas & Christmas Holiday Traditions. Amerisearch, Inc. p. 26. ISBN 978-0965355742. 978-0965355742 ↩

  108. Davis, Leo Donald (1990). The First Seven Ecumenical Councils (325–787) Their History and Theology. Liturgical Press. p. 58. ISBN 0-8146-5616-1. 0-8146-5616-1 ↩

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