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Turkish language
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<h2 id="classification">Classification</h2> <p class="note">Main article: <a href="/facts/Turkic_languages/RXqsmfgh">Turkic languages</a></p> <p>Turkish is a member of the <a href="/facts/Oghuz_languages/pvQk67uf">Oghuz</a> group of the <a href="/facts/Turkic_languages/RXqsmfgh">Turkic</a> family. Other members include <a href="/facts/Azerbaijani_language/RBrpdUk2">Azerbaijani</a>, spoken in <a href="/facts/Azerbaijan/Ho5joRTJ">Azerbaijan</a> and north-west <a href="/facts/Iran/24yukge8">Iran</a>, <a href="/facts/Gagauz_language/sjAx9TD1">Gagauz</a> of <a href="/facts/Gagauzia/SQmeCugj">Gagauzia</a>, <a href="/facts/Qashqai_language/oN5YUsvo">Qashqai</a> of south <a href="/facts/Iran/24yukge8">Iran</a> and the <a href="/facts/Turkmen_language/83a4zv7w">Turkmen</a> of <a href="/facts/Turkmenistan/YqJ4NvjU">Turkmenistan</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:4" href="#fn:4"><sup>4</sup></a> </p><p>Historically the <a href="/facts/Turkic_languages/RXqsmfgh">Turkic</a> family was seen as a branch of the larger <a href="/facts/Altaic_languages/H2SHcyP8">Altaic</a> family, including <a href="/facts/Japanese_language/EEv485a5">Japanese</a>, <a href="/facts/Korean_language/dmNnRxAA">Korean</a>, <a href="/facts/Mongolian_language/0Lxog7Md">Mongolian</a> and <a href="/facts/Tungusic_languages/rPplXA0f">Tungusic</a>, with various other language families proposed for inclusion by linguists.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5"><sup>5</sup></a> </p><p>Altaic theory has fallen out of favour since the 1960s, and a majority of linguists now consider Turkic languages to be unrelated to any other language family, though the Altaic hypothesis still has a small degree of support from individual linguists.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6"><sup>6</sup></a> The nineteenth-century <a href="/facts/Ural-Altaic/hIKPCYSP">Ural-Altaic</a> theory, which grouped Turkish with <a href="/facts/Finnish_language/lBuEIgs0">Finnish</a>, <a href="/facts/Hungarian_language/nt4g0ano">Hungarian</a> and <a href="/facts/Altaic_languages/H2SHcyP8">Altaic</a> languages, is considered even less plausible in light of Altaic's rejection.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7"><sup>7</sup></a> The theory was based mostly on the fact these languages share three features: <a href="/facts/Agglutination/pKEhqgRE">agglutination</a>, <a href="/facts/Vowel_harmony/oQfPrTWV">vowel harmony</a> and lack of grammatical gender.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8"><sup>8</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="history">History</h2> <p class="note">See also: <a href="/facts/Turkish_people/3Rg0k6vU">Turkish people</a> and <a href="/facts/Turkic_peoples/ocd7rpI3">Turkic peoples § History</a></p> <p>The earliest known <a href="/facts/Old_Turkic_language/EIq0WJ0q">Old Turkic inscriptions</a> are the three monumental <a href="/facts/Orkhon_inscriptions/0ECegseV">Orkhon inscriptions</a> found in modern <a href="/facts/Mongolia/ogQzUcQb">Mongolia</a>. Erected in honour of the prince <a href="/facts/Kul_Tigin/VB4vF1CU">Kul Tigin</a> and his brother Emperor <a href="/facts/Bilge_Khagan/1SIz7FjK">Bilge Khagan</a>, these date back to the <a href="/facts/Second_Turkic_Khaganate/gtj5ILDK">Second Turkic Khaganate</a> (dated 682–744 CE).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9"><sup>9</sup></a> After the discovery and excavation of these monuments and associated stone slabs by Russian archaeologists in the wider area surrounding the <a href="/facts/Orkhon_Valley/7D4u6aLa">Orkhon Valley</a> between 1889 and 1893, it became established that the language on the inscriptions was the <a href="/facts/Old_Turkic_language/EIq0WJ0q">Old Turkic language</a> written using the <a href="/facts/Old_Turkic_alphabet/nH03PeCs">Old Turkic alphabet</a>, which has also been referred to as "Turkic runes" or "runiform" due to a superficial similarity to the <a href="/facts/Germanic_languages/BxAJX3Kf">Germanic</a> <a href="/facts/Runic_alphabet/NxdzMS8E">runic alphabets</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10"><sup>10</sup></a> </p><p>With the <a href="/facts/Turkic_expansion/ocd7rpI3">Turkic expansion</a> during Early Middle Ages (c. 6th–11th centuries), peoples speaking Turkic languages spread across <a href="/facts/Central_Asia/rB8k0CyT">Central Asia</a>, covering a vast geographical region stretching from <a href="/facts/Siberia/oaCoPEjF">Siberia</a> all the way to <a href="/facts/Europe/DTAtrKfh">Europe</a> and the <a href="/facts/Mediterranean_Sea/Vr2pzVbM">Mediterranean</a>. The <a href="/facts/Seljuq_dynasty/68M4ryan">Seljuqs</a> of the <a href="/facts/Oghuz_Turks/3tDVfY8y">Oghuz Turks</a>, in particular, brought their language, <a href="/facts/Oghuz_languages/pvQk67uf">Oghuz</a>—the direct ancestor of today's Turkish language—into <a href="/facts/Anatolia/vMkrLrPr">Anatolia</a> during the 11th century.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11"><sup>11</sup></a> Also during the 11th century, an early linguist of the Turkic languages, <a href="/facts/Mahmud_al-Kashgari/7DSdh2Vl">Mahmud al-Kashgari</a> from the <a href="/facts/Kara-Khanid_Khanate/kPHB96mr">Kara-Khanid Khanate</a>, published the first comprehensive Turkic language dictionary and map of the geographical distribution of Turkic speakers in the <i><a href="/facts/D%25C4%25ABw%25C4%2581n_Lugh%25C4%2581t_al-Turk/r8QNvhl0">Dīwān Lughāt al-Turk</a></i> (ديوان لغات الترك).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12"><sup>12</sup></a> </p> <h3>Ottoman Turkish</h3> <p class="note">Main article: <a href="/facts/Ottoman_Turkish/z17YMfhT">Ottoman Turkish</a></p> <p class="note">See also: <a href="/facts/Old_Anatolian_Turkish/eb6k4eEz">Old Anatolian Turkish</a></p> <p>Following the adoption of <a href="/facts/Islam/zDLbL45C">Islam</a> around the year 950 by the <a href="/facts/Kara-Khanid_Khanate/kPHB96mr">Kara-Khanid Khanate</a> and the <a href="/facts/Seljuq_dynasty/68M4ryan">Seljuq Turks</a>, who are both regarded as the ethnic and cultural ancestors of the <a href="/facts/Ottoman_Empire/6QvfTRsg">Ottomans</a>, the administrative language of these states acquired a large collection of loanwords from <a href="/facts/Arabic/A1e66hVV">Arabic</a> and <a href="/facts/Persian_language/jfUYbHbt">Persian</a>. <a href="/facts/Turkish_literature/SN1d65fv">Turkish literature</a> during the Ottoman period, particularly <a href="/facts/Ottoman_poetry/Yy9aYgMu">Divan poetry</a>, was heavily influenced by Persian, including the adoption of poetic meters and a great quantity of imported words. The literary and official language during the <a href="/facts/Ottoman_Empire/6QvfTRsg">Ottoman Empire</a> period (c. 1299–1922) is termed <a href="/facts/Ottoman_Turkish_language/z17YMfhT">Ottoman Turkish</a>, which was a mixture of Turkish, Persian, and Arabic that differed considerably and was largely unintelligible to the period's everyday Turkish. The everyday Turkish, known as <i>kaba Türkçe</i> or "vulgar Turkish", spoken by the less-educated lower and also rural members of society, contained a higher percentage of native vocabulary and served as basis for the modern Turkish language.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13"><sup>13</sup></a> </p><p>While visiting the region between <a href="/facts/Ad%25C4%25B1yaman/CXFrraSx">Adıyaman</a> and <a href="/facts/Adana/eHbqr771">Adana</a>, <a href="/facts/Evliya_%25C3%2587elebi/QUUyKc6Y">Evliya Çelebi</a> recorded the "Turkman language" and compared it with his own Turkish: </p> <table><tbody><tr><td colspan="8">Comparison of 17th-century Southern Anatolian Turkman, 17th-century elite, and modern standard Turkish dialects<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14"><sup>14</sup></a></td></tr><tr><th>Turkman language</th><th>Ottoman Turkish</th><th>Modern Turkish</th><th>English</th><th>Turkman language</th><th>Ottoman Turkish</th><th>Modern Turkish</th><th>English</th></tr><tr><td><i>yalvaç</i></td><td><i>peygamber</i></td><td><i>peygamber</i></td><td>prophet</td><td><i>fakı</i></td><td><i>imâm</i></td><td><i>imam</i></td><td><a href="/facts/Imam/RkKcu03m">imam</a></td></tr><tr><td><i>yüce Çalap</i></td><td><i>Âli Allah</i></td><td><i>yüce Allah</i></td><td>mighty God</td><td><i>eyne</i></td><td><i>câmi'</i></td><td><i>cami</i></td><td>mosque</td></tr><tr><td><i>mezgit</i></td><td><i>mescid</i></td><td><i>mescit</i></td><td>mosque</td><td><i>gümeç</i>, <i>lavâşa</i>, <i>pişi</i></td><td><i>ekmek</i></td><td><i>ekmek</i>, <i>lavaş</i>, <i>pişi</i></td><td>bread, <a href="/facts/Lavash/E5z6NdJd">lavash</a>, <a href="/facts/Boortsog/jPpnqxul">boortsog</a></td></tr><tr><td><i>kekremsi</i></td><td><i>şarâb</i></td><td><i>şarap</i></td><td>wine</td><td><i>Kancarıdaydın?</i></td><td><i>Nerede idin?</i></td><td><i>Neredeydin?</i></td><td>Where were you?</td></tr><tr><td><i>Kancarı yılıgan be?</i></td><td><i>Nereye gidersin bire?</i></td><td><i>Nereye gidersin bre?</i></td><td>Where are you going?</td><td><i>Muhıdı geyen mi?</i></td><td><i>Ferâce giyermisin?</i></td><td><i>Ferace giyer misin?</i></td><td>Will you wear <i>ferace</i>?</td></tr><tr><td><i>Bargım yavıncıdı.</i></td><td><i>Karnım ağrıdı.</i></td><td><i>Karnım ağrıdı.</i></td><td>My stomach hurt.</td><td><i>şarıkdı</i></td><td><i>şehirli oldu</i></td><td><i>Şehirli oldu.</i></td><td>He/She/It became urban.</td></tr></tbody></table> <h3>Language reform and modern Turkish</h3> <p class="note">Main article: <a href="/facts/Turkish_language_reform/C5X56Ijp">Turkish language reform</a></p> <p class="note">See also: <a href="/facts/Turkish_alphabet_reform/Skpn0bkK">Turkish alphabet reform</a> and <a href="/facts/Replacement_of_loanwords_in_Turkish/1bT4hM80">Replacement of loanwords in Turkish</a></p> <p>After the foundation of the modern state of <a href="/facts/Turkey/KIYAWAs0">Turkey</a> and the script reform, the <a href="/facts/Turkish_Language_Association/zPwLkuS3">Turkish Language Association</a> (TDK) was established in 1932 under the patronage of <a href="/facts/Mustafa_Kemal_Atat%25C3%25BCrk/RYKRRRst">Mustafa Kemal Atatürk</a>, with the aim of conducting research on Turkish. One of the tasks of the newly established association was to initiate a <a href="/facts/Language_reform/gsw7nhVy">language reform</a> to replace <a href="/facts/Loanword/PWGYczgY">loanwords</a> of Arabic and Persian origin with Turkish equivalents.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15"><sup>15</sup></a> By banning the usage of imported words in the press, the association succeeded in removing several hundred foreign words from the language. While most of the words introduced to the language by the TDK were newly derived from Turkic roots, it also opted for reviving Old Turkish words which had not been used for centuries.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16"><sup>16</sup></a> In 1935, the TDK published a bilingual <a href="/facts/Ottoman_Turkish/z17YMfhT">Ottoman-Turkish</a>/Pure Turkish dictionary that documents the results of the language reform.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17"><sup>17</sup></a> </p><p>Owing to this sudden change in the language, older and younger people in Turkey started to differ in their vocabularies. While the generations born before the 1940s tend to use the older terms of Arabic or Persian origin, the younger generations favor new expressions. It is considered particularly ironic that Atatürk himself, in <a href="/facts/Nutuk/Rb2cvMwX">his lengthy speech</a> to the new <a href="/facts/Grand_National_Assembly_of_Turkey/XMmKP5qd">Parliament</a> in 1927, used the formal style of Ottoman Turkish that had been common at the time amongst statesmen and the educated strata of society in the setting of formal speeches and documents. After the language reform, the Turkish education system discontinued the teaching of literary form of Ottoman Turkish and the speaking and writing ability of society atrophied to the point that, in later years, Turkish society would perceive the speech to be so alien to listeners that it had to be "translated" three times into modern Turkish: first in 1963, again in 1986, and most recently in 1995.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18"><sup>18</sup></a> </p><p>The past few decades have seen the continuing work of the TDK to coin new Turkish words to express new concepts and technologies as they enter the language, mostly from English. Many of these new words, particularly information technology terms, have received widespread acceptance. However, the TDK is occasionally criticized for coining words which sound contrived and artificial. Some earlier changes—such as <i><i>bölem</i></i> to replace <i><i>fırka</i></i>, "political party"—also failed to meet with popular approval (<i><i>fırka</i></i> has been replaced by the French loanword <i><i>parti</i></i>). Some words restored from Old Turkic have taken on specialized meanings; for example <i><i>betik</i></i> (originally meaning "book") is now used to mean "<a href="/facts/Scripting_language/8pF4ajBL">script</a>" in <a href="/facts/Computer_science/lN3pEyPz">computer science</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19"><sup>19</sup></a> </p><p>Some examples of modern Turkish words and the old loanwords are: </p> <table><tbody><tr><th>Ottoman Turkish</th><th>Modern Turkish</th><th>English translation</th><th>Comments</th></tr><tr><td><i>مثلث (<i>müselles</i>)</i></td><td><i><i>üçgen</i></i></td><td>triangle</td><td>Compound of the noun <i><i>üç</i></i> ("three") and the suffix <i><i>-gen</i></i></td></tr><tr><td><i>طیاره (<i>tayyare</i>)</i></td><td><i><i>uçak</i></i></td><td>aeroplane</td><td>Derived from the verb <i><i>uçmak</i></i> ("to fly"). The word was first proposed to mean "airport".</td></tr><tr><td><i>نسبت (<i>nispet</i>)</i></td><td><i><i>oran</i></i></td><td>ratio</td><td>The old word is still used in the language today together with the new one. The modern word is from the Old Turkic verb <i><i>or-</i></i> ("to cut").</td></tr><tr><td><i>شمال (<i>şimal</i>)</i></td><td><i><i>kuzey</i></i></td><td>north</td><td>Derived from the Old Turkic noun <i><i>kuz</i></i> ("cold and dark place", "shadow"). The word is restored from <a href="/facts/Middle_Turkic_languages/QMK5SN78">Middle Turkic</a> usage.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20"><sup>20</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td><i>تشرینِ اول (<i>teşrinievvel</i>)</i></td><td><i><i>ekim</i></i></td><td>October</td><td>The noun <i><i>ekim</i></i> means "sowing", referring to the planting of cereal seeds in autumn, which is widespread in Turkey</td></tr></tbody></table> <p class="note">For a more comprehensive list, see <a href="/facts/List_of_replaced_loanwords_in_Turkish/1bT4hM80">List of replaced loanwords in Turkish</a>.</p> <h2 id="geographic-distribution">Geographic distribution</h2> <p class="note">See also: <a href="/facts/Turkish_diaspora/lasf9JLp">Turkish diaspora</a></p> <p>Turkish is natively spoken by the <a href="/facts/Turkish_people/3Rg0k6vU">Turkish people</a> in Turkey and by the <a href="/facts/Turkish_diaspora/lasf9JLp">Turkish diaspora</a> in some 30 other countries. The Turkish language is mutually intelligible with <a href="/facts/Azerbaijani_language/RBrpdUk2">Azerbaijani</a>. In particular, Turkish-speaking minorities exist in countries that formerly (in whole or part) belonged to the <a href="/facts/Ottoman_Empire/6QvfTRsg">Ottoman Empire</a>, such as Iraq,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21"><sup>21</sup></a> Bulgaria, <a href="/facts/Cyprus/t9wL6lVK">Cyprus</a>, Greece (primarily in <a href="/facts/Western_Thrace/n8YHhHdC">Western Thrace</a>), the <a href="/facts/Republic_of_North_Macedonia/YpfcC5DA">Republic of North Macedonia</a>, Romania, and Serbia. More than two million Turkish speakers live in Germany; and there are significant Turkish-speaking communities in the United States, France, the Netherlands, Austria, Belgium, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22"><sup>22</sup></a> Due to the <a href="/facts/Cultural_assimilation/hwrCtR9q">cultural assimilation</a> of Turkish immigrants in host countries, not all ethnic members of the diaspora speak the language with native fluency.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23"><sup>23</sup></a> </p> <p>In 2005, 93% of the population of Turkey were native speakers of Turkish,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24"><sup>24</sup></a> about 67 million at the time, with <a href="/facts/Kurdish_languages/6LSckYAz">Kurdish languages</a> making up most of the remainder.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25"><sup>25</sup></a> </p><p><a href="/facts/Azerbaijani_language/RBrpdUk2">Azerbaijani language</a>, official in Azerbaijan, is <a href="/facts/Mutually_intelligible/h1SbX0wN">mutually intelligible</a> with Turkish and speakers of both languages can understand them without noticeable difficulty, especially when discussion comes on ordinary, daily language. Turkey has very good relations with Azerbaijan, with a multitude of Turkish companies and authorities investing there, while the influence of Turkey in the country is very high. The rising presence of this very similar language in Azerbaijan and the fact that many children use Turkish words instead of Azerbaijani words due to satellite TV has caused concern that the distinctive features of the language will be eroded. Many bookstores sell books in Turkish language along Azerbaijani language ones, with Agalar Mahmadov, a leading intellectual, voicing his concern that Turkish language has "already started to take over the national and natural dialects of Azerbaijan". However, the presence of Turkish as foreign language is not as high as Russian.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26"><sup>26</sup></a> In Uzbekistan, the second most populated Turkic country, a new TV channel <i>Foreign Languages TV</i> was established in 2022. This channel has been broadcasting Turkish lessons along with English, French, German and Russian lessons. </p> <h3>Official status</h3> <p>Turkish is the official language of <a href="/facts/Turkey/KIYAWAs0">Turkey</a> and is one of the official languages of <a href="/facts/Cyprus/t9wL6lVK">Cyprus</a>. Turkish has official status in 38 municipalities in <a href="/facts/Kosovo/lbyzI6UW">Kosovo</a>, including Mamusha,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27"><sup>27</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28"><sup>28</sup></a>, two in the <a href="/facts/Republic_of_North_Macedonia/YpfcC5DA">Republic of North Macedonia</a> and two in <a href="/facts/Iraq/pqYSFJw8">Iraq</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29"><sup>29</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30"><sup>30</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Cyprus/t9wL6lVK">Cyprus</a> has requested the <a href="/facts/European_Union/6GYcR8qM">European Union</a> to add Turkish as an official language, as it is one of the two official languages of the country.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31"><sup>31</sup></a> </p><p>In Turkey, the regulatory body for Turkish is the <a href="/facts/Turkish_Language_Association/zPwLkuS3">Turkish Language Association</a> (<i>Türk Dil Kurumu</i> or TDK), which was founded in 1932 under the name <i>Türk Dili Tetkik Cemiyeti</i> ("Society for Research on the Turkish Language"). The Turkish Language Association was influenced by the ideology of <a href="/facts/Linguistic_purism/zjL5N8PF">linguistic purism</a>: indeed one of its primary tasks was the replacement of loanwords and of foreign grammatical constructions with equivalents of Turkish origin.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32"><sup>32</sup></a> These changes, together with the adoption of the new <a href="/facts/Turkish_alphabet/Skpn0bkK">Turkish alphabet</a> in 1928, shaped the modern Turkish language spoken today. The TDK became an independent body in 1951, with the lifting of the requirement that it should be presided over by the Minister of Education. This status continued until August 1983, when it was again made into a governmental body in the <a href="/facts/Constitution_of_Turkey/278cuUPM">constitution of 1982</a>, following the military <a href="/facts/1980_Turkish_coup_d%2527%25C3%25A9tat/h1XJohFc">coup d'état of 1980</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33"><sup>33</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="dialects">Dialects</h2> <p class="note">Main article: <a href="/facts/Turkish_dialects/Je6cUT5o">Turkish dialects</a></p> <p>Modern Standard Turkish is based on the dialect of <a href="/facts/Istanbul/Xo1hzGWH">Istanbul</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34"><sup>34</sup></a> This Istanbul Turkish (<i>İstanbul Türkçesi</i>) constitutes the model of written and spoken Turkish, as recommended by <a href="/facts/Ziya_G%25C3%25B6kalp/QsY2Xwc7">Ziya Gökalp</a>, <a href="/facts/%25C3%2596mer_Seyfettin/6DrXLm3X">Ömer Seyfettin</a> and others.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35"><sup>35</sup></a> </p><p>Dialectal variation persists, in spite of the <a href="/facts/Dialect_levelling/VIeo0B5D">levelling influence</a> of the standard used in mass media and in the <a href="/facts/Education_in_Turkey/mwgkz2XX">Turkish education system</a> since the 1930s.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36"><sup>36</sup></a> Academic researchers from Turkey often refer to Turkish dialects as <i>ağız</i> or <i>şive</i>, leading to an ambiguity with the linguistic concept of <a href="/facts/Accent_(sociolinguistics)/ql49CBMh">accent</a>, which is also covered with these words. Several universities, as well as a dedicated work-group of the Turkish Language Association, carry out <a href="/facts/Project/7pXnTsmF">projects</a> investigating Turkish dialects. As of 2002 work continued on the compilation and publication of their research as a comprehensive dialect-<a href="/facts/Atlas/0P16fANt">atlas</a> of the Turkish language.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37"><sup>37</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38"><sup>38</sup></a> Although the Ottoman alphabet, being slightly more phonetically ambiguous than the Latin script, encoded for many of the dialectal variations between Turkish dialects, the modern Latin script fails to do this. Examples of this are the presence of the nasal velar sound [ŋ] in certain eastern dialects of Turkish which was represented by the Ottoman letter /ڭ/ but that was merged into /n/ in the Latin script. Additionally are letters such as /خ/, /ق/, /غ/ which make the sounds [ɣ], [q], and [x], respectively in certain eastern dialects but that are merged into [g], [k], and [h] in western dialects and are therefore defectively represented in the Latin alphabet for speakers of eastern dialects. </p> <p>Some <a href="/facts/Immigration_to_Turkey/3NajyuCz">immigrants to Turkey</a> from <a href="/facts/Rumelia/Y0GBIVMz">Rumelia</a> speak <a href="/facts/Rumelian_Turkish/Wfd027gs">Rumelian Turkish</a>, which includes the distinct dialects of <a href="/facts/Ludogorie/VyjLgzKn">Ludogorie</a>, Dinler, and Adakale, which show the influence of the theorized <a href="/facts/Balkan_sprachbund/JagUX4uz">Balkan sprachbund</a>. <i>Kıbrıs Türkçesi</i> is the name for <a href="/facts/Cypriot_Turkish/PlDmGybl">Cypriot Turkish</a> and is spoken by the <a href="/facts/Turkish_Cypriots/YsjRM95z">Turkish Cypriots</a>. <i>Edirne</i> is the dialect of <a href="/facts/Edirne/Yv0IwFUQ">Edirne</a>. <i>Ege</i> is spoken in the <a href="/facts/Aegean_Sea/Vx4Gg5CT">Aegean</a> region, with its usage extending to <a href="/facts/Antalya/pVSkzcaY">Antalya</a>. The nomadic <a href="/facts/Y%25C3%25B6r%25C3%25BCks/dRGEVUAL">Yörüks</a> of the <a href="/facts/Mediterranean_Region%2c_Turkey/WsIDvYMv">Mediterranean Region</a> of Turkey also have their own dialect of Turkish.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39"><sup>39</sup></a> This group is not to be confused with the Yuruk nomads of Macedonia, Greece, and European Turkey, who speak <a href="/facts/Balkan_Gagauz_Turkish/Wfd027gs">Balkan Gagauz Turkish</a>. </p><p>The <a href="/facts/Meskhetian_Turks/A3Qf3LqX">Meskhetian Turks</a> who live in Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan and Russia as well as in several Central Asian countries, also speak an Eastern Anatolian dialect of Turkish, originating in the areas of Kars, Ardahan, Artvin, Diyarbakir and Erzurum and sharing similarities with <a href="/facts/Azerbaijani_language/RBrpdUk2">Azerbaijani</a>, the language of Azerbaijan.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40"><sup>40</sup></a> </p><p>The <a href="/facts/Central_Anatolia_Region/9dQVayMU">Central Anatolia Region</a> speaks <i>Orta Anadolu</i>. <i>Karadeniz</i>, spoken in the Eastern <a href="/facts/Black_Sea_Region/glEpUYvp">Black Sea Region</a> and represented primarily by the <a href="/facts/Trabzon/HPXD6dnm">Trabzon</a> dialect, exhibits <a href="/facts/Stratum_(linguistics)/L73fjNSr">substratum</a> influence from <a href="/facts/Greek_language/pzDd6eIz">Greek</a> in <a href="/facts/Phonology/qWAsvnok">phonology</a> and <a href="/facts/Syntax/6PxSV98p">syntax</a>;<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:41" href="#fn:41"><sup>41</sup></a> it is also known as <i>Laz dialect</i> (not to be confused with the <a href="/facts/Laz_language/dAetT4V9">Laz language</a>). <i>Kastamonu</i> is spoken in <a href="/facts/Kastamonu/H7UtsqvI">Kastamonu</a> and its surrounding areas. <a href="/facts/Karamanli_Turkish/PVSqwu5t">Karamanli Turkish</a> is spoken in Greece, where it is called Kαραμανλήδικα. It is the literary standard for the <a href="/facts/Karamanlides/0tbGHGjd">Karamanlides</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:42" href="#fn:42"><sup>42</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="phonology">Phonology</h2> <p class="note">Main article: <a href="/facts/Turkish_phonology/bm1otksF">Turkish phonology</a></p> <p class="note">See <a href="/facts/Turkish_alphabet/Skpn0bkK">Turkish alphabet</a> for a pronunciation guide</p> <h3>Consonants</h3> Consonant phonemes of Standard Turkish<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:43" href="#fn:43"><sup>43</sup></a><table><tbody><tr><th colspan="2"></th><th><a href="/facts/Labial_consonant/bv4MqTMf">Labial</a></th><th><a href="/facts/Dental_consonant/Yraaz9Nm">Dental</a>/<a href="/facts/Alveolar_consonant/B6VkW2EX">Alveolar</a></th><th><a href="/facts/Postalveolar_consonant/YUo5nJly">Post-alveolar</a></th><th><a href="/facts/Palatal_consonant/KLcKyXE8">Palatal</a></th><th><a href="/facts/Velar_consonant/blWClp79">Velar</a></th><th><a href="/facts/Glottal_consonant/rMdEdLxH">Glottal</a></th></tr><tr><th colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Nasal_consonant/m6D3cVhe">Nasal</a></th><td><a href="/facts/Voiced_bilabial_nasal/1pd7NK2x">m</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Voiced_dental_nasal/0CEs8314">n</a></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><th rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/Stop_consonant/okC9pztc">Stop</a></th><th><a href="/facts/Voicelessness/575TtTUn">voiceless</a></th><td><a href="/facts/Voiceless_bilabial_plosive/w4M9Igp6">p</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Voiceless_dental_plosive/1GaDe2Vy">t</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Voiceless_postalveolar_affricate/14FYMJvN">t͡ʃ</a></td><td>(<a href="/facts/Voiceless_palatal_plosive/nBqIqUIS">c</a>)</td><td><a href="/facts/Voiceless_velar_plosive/dDppVb6e">k</a></td><td></td></tr><tr><th><a href="/facts/Voice_(phonetics)/VdqrEGQ3">voiced</a></th><td><a href="/facts/Voiced_bilabial_plosive/6ReC9arR">b</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Voiced_dental_plosive/A6hNvmCp">d</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Voiced_postalveolar_affricate/o7oYJUqz">d͡ʒ</a></td><td>(<a href="/facts/Voiced_palatal_plosive/otrWQbpW">ɟ</a>)</td><td><a href="/facts/Voiced_velar_plosive/f6udTvfQ">ɡ</a></td><td></td></tr><tr><th rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/Fricative_consonant/1FQuuhfX">Fricative</a></th><th><a href="/facts/Voicelessness/575TtTUn">voiceless</a></th><td><a href="/facts/Voiceless_labiodental_fricative/dUkN8guL">f</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Voiceless_dental_sibilant_fricative/WLKtEYDe">s</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Voiceless_postalveolar_fricative/enUwqS2w">ʃ</a></td><td></td><td></td><td><a href="/facts/Voiceless_glottal_fricative/lfRB7CPW">h</a></td></tr><tr><th><a href="/facts/Voice_(phonetics)/VdqrEGQ3">voiced</a></th><td rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/Voiced_labiodental_fricative/v9lESng4">v</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Voiced_dental_sibilant_fricative/TtHwyzp6">z</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Voiced_postalveolar_fricative/Tb8XpRoS">ʒ</a></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Approximant_consonant/SXrlw7zY">Approximant</a></th><td>(<a href="/facts/Velarized_dental_lateral_approximant/dgbHhqeK">ɫ</a>)</td><td><a href="/facts/Voiced_postalveolar_lateral_approximant/dgbHhqeK">l</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Voiced_palatal_approximant/v0NVCbUh">j</a></td><td>(<a href="/facts/Voiced_velar_approximant/FuQu6RVl">ɰ</a>)</td><td></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Tap_consonant/5SFjKYlX">Tap</a></th><td></td><td><a href="/facts/Voiced_dental_and_alveolar_taps_and_flaps/EvQ781EU">ɾ</a></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>At least one source claims Turkish consonants are laryngeally-specified three-way fortis-lenis (aspirated/neutral/voiced) like Armenian, although only syllable-finally.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:44" href="#fn:44"><sup>44</sup></a> </p><p>The phoneme that is usually referred to as <i>yumuşak g</i> ("soft g"), written ⟨ğ⟩ in Turkish <a href="/facts/Orthography/sJPhCpsU">orthography</a>, represents a vowel sequence or a rather weak bilabial approximant between rounded vowels, a weak palatal approximant between unrounded front vowels, and a vowel sequence elsewhere. It never occurs at the beginning of a word or a syllable, but always follows a vowel. When word-final or preceding another consonant, it lengthens the preceding vowel.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:45" href="#fn:45"><sup>45</sup></a> </p><p>In native Turkic words, the sounds [c], [ɟ], and [l] are mainly in <a href="/facts/Complementary_distribution/QgboUxaF">complementary distribution</a> with [k], [ɡ], and [ɫ]; the former set occurs adjacent to front vowels and the latter adjacent to back vowels. The distribution of these <a href="/facts/Phoneme/EXGHlJ7a">phonemes</a> is often unpredictable, however, in foreign borrowings and proper nouns. In such words, [c], [ɟ], and [l] often occur with back vowels:<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:46" href="#fn:46"><sup>46</sup></a>: 93–4, 6 some examples are given below. However, there are <a href="/facts/Minimal_pair/KGTdjE94">minimal pairs</a> that distinguish between these sounds, such as kar [kɑɾ] "snow" vs kâr [cɑɾ] "profit". </p> <h4>Consonant devoicing</h4> <p class="note">Main article: <a href="/facts/Final-obstruent_devoicing/IKphdbIF">Final-obstruent devoicing</a></p> <p>Turkish orthography reflects <a href="/facts/Final-obstruent_devoicing/IKphdbIF">final-obstruent devoicing</a>, a form of <a href="/facts/Consonant_mutation/8nkhym6h">consonant mutation</a> whereby a voiced obstruent, such as /b d dʒ ɡ/, is devoiced to [p t tʃ k] at the end of a word or before a consonant, but retains its voicing before a vowel. In loan words, the voiced equivalent of /k/ is /g/; in native words, it is /ğ/.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:47" href="#fn:47"><sup>47</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:48" href="#fn:48"><sup>48</sup></a> </p> Obstruent devoicing in nouns<table><tbody><tr><th>Underlying consonant</th><th>Devoiced form</th><th>Underlying form</th><th>Dictionary form</th><th>Dative case /1sg present</th><th>Meaning</th></tr><tr><td>b</td><td>p</td><td><i>*kitab</i></td><td><i>kitap</i></td><td><i>kitaba</i></td><td>book (loan)</td></tr><tr><td>c</td><td>ç</td><td><i>*uc</i></td><td><i>uç</i></td><td><i>uca</i></td><td>tip</td></tr><tr><td>d</td><td>t</td><td><i>*bud</i></td><td><i>but</i></td><td><i>buda</i></td><td>thigh</td></tr><tr><td>g</td><td>k</td><td><i>*reng</i></td><td><i>renk</i></td><td><i>renge</i></td><td>color (loan)</td></tr><tr><td>ğ</td><td>k</td><td><i>*ekmeğ</i></td><td><i>ekmek</i></td><td><i>ekmeğe</i></td><td>bread</td></tr></tbody></table> <p>This is analogous to languages such as <a href="/facts/German_language/oWaQIDA8">German</a> and <a href="/facts/Russian_language/ETXrTgHV">Russian</a>, but in the case of Turkish it only applies, as the above examples demonstrate, to stops and affricates, not to fricatives. The spelling is usually made to match the sound. However, in a few cases, such as <i>ad</i> 'name' (dative <i>ada</i>), the underlying form is retained in the spelling (cf. <i>at</i> 'horse', dative <i>ata</i>). Other exceptions are <i>od</i> 'fire' vs. <i>ot</i> 'herb', <i>sac</i> 'sheet metal', <i>saç</i> 'hair'. Most loanwords, such as <i>kitap</i> above, are spelled as pronounced, but a few such as <i>hac</i> 'hajj', <i>şad</i> 'happy', and <i>yad</i> 'strange' or 'stranger' also show their underlying forms. </p><p>Native nouns of two or more syllables that end in /k/ in dictionary form are nearly all /ğ/ in underlying form. However, most verbs and monosyllabic nouns are underlyingly /k/.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:49" href="#fn:49"><sup>49</sup></a>: 10 </p> <h3>Vowels</h3> <p>The vowels of the Turkish language are, in their alphabetical order, ⟨a⟩, ⟨e⟩, ⟨ı⟩, ⟨i⟩, ⟨o⟩, ⟨ö⟩, ⟨u⟩, ⟨ü⟩.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:50" href="#fn:50"><sup>50</sup></a> The Turkish vowel system can be considered as being three-dimensional, where vowels are characterised by how and where they are articulated focusing on three key features: <a href="/facts/Vowel/BNhCeFtH">front and back</a>, <a href="/facts/Roundedness/2NImak2G">rounded and unrounded</a> and <a href="/facts/Vowel/BNhCeFtH">vowel height</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:51" href="#fn:51"><sup>51</sup></a> Vowels are classified [±back], [±round] and [±high].<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:52" href="#fn:52"><sup>52</sup></a> </p><p>The only <a href="/facts/Diphthong/K8tWRvsx">diphthongs</a> in the language are found in <a href="/facts/Loanword/PWGYczgY">loanwords</a> and may be categorised as falling diphthongs usually analyzed as a sequence of /j/ and a vowel.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:53" href="#fn:53"><sup>53</sup></a> </p> <h4>Vowel harmony</h4> <p class="note">Further information: <a href="/facts/Vowel_harmony/oQfPrTWV">Vowel harmony</a></p> <table><tbody><tr><th rowspan="2">Turkish Vowel Harmony</th><th colspan="4">Front Vowels</th><th colspan="4">Back Vowels</th></tr><tr><th colspan="2">Unrounded</th><th colspan="2">Rounded</th><th colspan="2">Unrounded</th><th colspan="2">Rounded</th></tr><tr><th>Vowel</th><td>e /<a href="/facts/Open-mid_front_unrounded_vowel/aDRvwE46">ɛ</a>/</td><td>i /<a href="/facts/Close_front_unrounded_vowel/rSUdlCPU">i</a>/</td><td>ü /<a href="/facts/Close_front_rounded_vowel/fAyNrUxL">y</a>/</td><td>ö /<a href="/facts/Open-mid_front_rounded_vowel/AK5Dq8Vl">œ</a>/</td><td>a /<a href="/facts/Open_back_unrounded_vowel/znr1wT5C">ɑ</a>/</td><td>ı /<a href="/facts/Close_back_unrounded_vowel/vlG9cpwT">ɯ</a>/</td><td>u /<a href="/facts/Close_back_rounded_vowel/gqlQLfse">u</a>/</td><td>o /<a href="/facts/Open-mid_back_rounded_vowel/yMNUClGt">ɔ</a>/</td></tr><tr><th>Twofold (Backness)</th><td colspan="4">e</td><td colspan="4">a</td></tr><tr><th>Fourfold (Backness + Rounding)</th><td colspan="2">i</td><td colspan="2">ü</td><td colspan="2">ı</td><td colspan="2">u</td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The principle of vowel harmony, which permeates Turkish word-formation and suffixation, is due to the natural human tendency towards economy of muscular effort.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:54" href="#fn:54"><sup>54</sup></a> This principle is expressed in Turkish through three rules: </p> <ol><li>If the first vowel of a word is a back vowel, any subsequent vowel is also a back vowel; if the first is a front vowel, any subsequent vowel is also a front vowel.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:55" href="#fn:55"><sup>55</sup></a></li> <li>If the first vowel is unrounded, so too are subsequent vowels.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:56" href="#fn:56"><sup>56</sup></a></li> <li>If the first vowel is rounded, subsequent vowels are either rounded and close or unrounded and open.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:57" href="#fn:57"><sup>57</sup></a></li></ol> <p>The second and third rules minimize muscular effort during speech. More specifically, they are related to the phenomenon of labial assimilation:<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:58" href="#fn:58"><sup>58</sup></a> if the lips are rounded (a process that requires muscular effort) for the first vowel they may stay rounded for subsequent vowels.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:59" href="#fn:59"><sup>59</sup></a> If they are unrounded for the first vowel, the speaker does not make the additional muscular effort to round them subsequently.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:60" href="#fn:60"><sup>60</sup></a> </p><p>Grammatical <a href="/facts/Affix/MKeAIE7e">affixes</a> have "a chameleon-like quality",<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:61" href="#fn:61"><sup>61</sup></a>: 21 and obey one of the following patterns of vowel harmony: </p> <ul><li>twofold (<i>-e/-a</i>):<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:62" href="#fn:62"><sup>62</sup></a> In his more recent works Lewis prefers to omit the superscripts, on the grounds that "there is no need for this once the principle has been grasped" (Lewis [2001]).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:63" href="#fn:63"><sup>63</sup></a>: 18 the <a href="/facts/Locative_case/h9KCqqhq">locative case</a> suffix, for example, is <i>-de</i> after front vowels and <i>-da</i> after back vowels. The notation <i>-de</i>² is a convenient shorthand for this pattern.</li> <li>fourfold (<i>-i/-ı/-ü/-u</i>): the <a href="/facts/Genitive_case/nMXh3StK">genitive case</a> suffix, for example, is <i>-in</i> or <i>-ın</i> after unrounded vowels (front or back respectively); and <i>-ün</i> or <i>-un</i> after the corresponding rounded vowels. In this case, the shorthand notation <i>-in</i>4 is used.</li></ul> <p>Practically, the twofold pattern (also referred to as the e-type vowel harmony) means that in the environment where the vowel in the word stem is formed in the front of the mouth, the suffix will take the e-form, while if it is formed in the back it will take the a-form. The fourfold pattern (also called the i-type) accounts for rounding as well as for front/back.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:64" href="#fn:64"><sup>64</sup></a> The following examples, based on the <a href="/facts/Turkish_copula/AGQersFn">copula</a> <i>-dir</i>4 ("[it] is"), illustrate the principles of i-type vowel harmony in practice: <i>Türkiye'dir</i> ("it is Turkey"),<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:65" href="#fn:65"><sup>65</sup></a> <i>kapıdır</i> ("it is the door"), but <i>gündür</i> ("it is the day"), <i>paltodur</i> ("it is the coat").<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:66" href="#fn:66"><sup>66</sup></a> </p> <h5>Exceptions to vowel harmony</h5> <p>These are four word-classes that are exceptions to the rules of vowel harmony: </p> <ol><li>Native, non-compound words, e.g. <i><i>dahi</i></i> "also", <i><i>ela</i></i> "light brown", <i><i>elma</i></i> "apple", <i><i>hangi</i></i> "which", <i><i>hani</i></i> "where", <i><i>inanmak</i></i> "to believe", <i><i>kardeş</i></i> "sibling", <i><i>şişman</i></i> "fat", <i><i>anne</i></i> "mother"</li> <li>Native compound words, e.g. <i><i>bugün</i></i> "today", <i><i>dedikodu</i></i> "gossip", <i><i>haydi</i></i> "come on"</li> <li>Foreign words, e.g. <i><i>ferman</i></i> (< Farsi <i>فرماندهی</i> "command"), <i><i>mikrop</i></i> (< French <i><i>microbe</i></i> "microbe"), <i><i>piskopos</i></i> (< Greek <i>επίσκοπος</i> "bishop")</li> <li>Invariable suffixes: –daş (denoting common attachment to the concept expressed by the noun), –yor (denoting the present tense in the third person), –ane (turning adjectives or nouns into adverbs), –ken (meaning "while being"), –leyin (meaning "in/at/during"), <i>–imtırak</i> (weakening an adjective of color or taste in a way similar to the English suffix –ish as in blueish), –ki (making a pronoun or adjective out of an adverb or a noun in the locative case), –gil (meaning "the house or family of"), –gen (referring to the name of plane figures)</li></ol> <table><tbody><tr><th scope="col">Invariable suffix</th><th scope="col">Turkish example</th><th scope="col">Meaning in English</th><th scope="col">Remarks</th></tr><tr><td>–daş</td><td><i><i>meslektaş</i></i></td><td>"colleague"</td><td>From <i><i>meslek</i></i> "profession."</td></tr><tr><td>–yor</td><td><i><i>geliyor</i></i></td><td>"he/she/it is coming"</td><td>From <i><i>gel–</i></i> "to come."</td></tr><tr><td>–ane</td><td><i><i>şahane</i></i></td><td>"regal"</td><td>From <i><i>şah</i>,</i> "king."</td></tr><tr><td>–ken</td><td><i><i>uyurken</i></i></td><td>"while sleeping"</td><td>From <i><i>uyu–</i>,</i> "to sleep."</td></tr><tr><td>–leyin</td><td><i><i>sabahleyin</i></i></td><td>"in the morning"</td><td>From <i><i>sabah</i>,</i> "morning."</td></tr><tr><td>–imtırak</td><td><i><i>ekşimtırak</i></i></td><td>"sourish"</td><td>From <i><i>ekşi</i>,</i> "sour."</td></tr><tr><td>–ki</td><td><i><i>ormandaki</i></i></td><td>"(that) in the forest"</td><td>From <i><i>orman</i>,</i> "forest."</td></tr><tr><td>–gil</td><td><i><i>annemgiller</i></i></td><td>"my mother's family"</td><td>From <i><i>annem</i>,</i> "my mother."</td></tr><tr><td>–gen</td><td><i><i>altıgen</i></i></td><td>"hexagon"</td><td>From <i><i>altı</i>,</i> "six."</td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The road sign in the photograph above illustrates several of these features: </p> <ul><li>a native compound which does not obey vowel harmony: <i>Orta+köy</i> ("middle village"—a place name)</li> <li>a loanword also violating vowel harmony: <i>viyadük</i> (< French <i>viaduc</i> "viaduct")</li> <li>the possessive suffix<i>-i</i>4 harmonizing with the final vowel (and softening the <i>k</i> by consonant <a href="/facts/Alternation_(linguistics)/QjBg6et8">alternation</a>): <i>viyadüğü</i></li></ul> <p>The rules of vowel harmony may vary by regional dialect. The dialect of Turkish spoken in the <a href="/facts/Trabzon/HPXD6dnm">Trabzon</a> region of northeastern Turkey follows the reduced vowel harmony of <a href="/facts/Old_Anatolian_Turkish/eb6k4eEz">Old Anatolian Turkish</a>, with the additional complication of two missing vowels (ü and ı), thus there is no <a href="/facts/Palatal_harmony/gjJ1vXPr">palatal harmony</a>. It is likely that <i>elün</i> meant "your hand" in Old Anatolian. While the 2nd person singular possessive would vary between back and front vowel, -ün or -un, as in <i>elün</i> for "your hand" and <i>kitabun</i> for "your book", the lack of ü vowel in the Trabzon dialect means -un would be used in both of these cases — <i>elun</i> and <i>kitabun</i>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:67" href="#fn:67"><sup>67</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="word-accent">Word-accent</h2> <p class="note">Further information: <a href="/facts/Turkish_phonology/bm1otksF">Turkish phonology § Word-accent</a></p> <p>With the exceptions stated below, Turkish words are oxytone (accented on the last syllable). </p> <h3>Exceptions to word-accent rules</h3> <ol><li>Place-names are not oxytone:<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:68" href="#fn:68"><sup>68</sup></a> <i><i>Anádolu</i></i> (Anatolia), <i><i>İstánbul</i></i>. Most place names are accented on their first syllable as in <i><i>Páris</i>.</i> This holds true when place names are spelled the same way as common nouns, which are oxytone: <i><i>mısír</i></i> (maize), <i><i>Mísır</i></i> (Egypt), <i><i>sirkecı̇́</i></i> (vinegar-seller), <i><i>Sı̇́rkeci</i></i> (district in Istanbul), <i><i>bebék</i></i> (doll, baby), <i><i>Bébek</i></i> (district in Istanbul), <i><i>ordú</i></i> (army), <i><i>Órdu</i></i> (a Turkish city on the Black Sea).</li> <li>Foreign nouns usually retain their original accentuation,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:69" href="#fn:69"><sup>69</sup></a> e.g., <i><i>lokánta</i></i> (< Italian <i>locanda</i> "restaurant"), <i><i>gazéte</i></i> (< Italian <i>gazzetta</i> "newspaper")</li> <li>Some words about family members<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:70" href="#fn:70"><sup>70</sup></a> and living creatures<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:71" href="#fn:71"><sup>71</sup></a> have irregular accentuation: <i><i>ánne</i></i> (mother), <i><i>görúmce</i></i> (husband's sister), <i><i>çekı̇́rge</i></i> (grasshopper), <i><i>karínca</i></i> (ant), <i><i>kokárca</i></i> (skunk)</li> <li>Adverbs<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:72" href="#fn:72"><sup>72</sup></a> are usually accented on the first syllable, e.g., <i><i>şı̇́mdi</i></i> (now), <i><i>sónra</i></i> (after), <i><i>ánsızın</i></i> (suddenly), <i><i>gérçekten</i></i> (really), (but <i><i>gerçektén</i></i> (from reality)), <i><i>kíşın</i></i> (during winter)</li> <li>Compound words<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:73" href="#fn:73"><sup>73</sup></a> are accented on the end of the first element, e.g., <i><i>çırílçıplak</i></i> (stark naked), <i><i>bakán</i></i> (minister), <i><i>báşbakan</i></i> (prime minister)</li> <li>Diminutives constructed by suffix –cik are accented on the first syllable, e.g., <i><i>úfacık</i></i> (very tiny)</li> <li>Words with enclitic suffixes, <i>–le</i> (meaning "with"), <i>–ken</i> (meaning "while"), <i>–ce</i> (creating an adverb), <i>–leyin</i> (meaning "in" or "during"), <i>–me</i> (negating the verbal stem), <i>–yor</i> (denoting the present tense)</li></ol> <table><tbody><tr><th scope="col">Enclitic suffix</th><th scope="col">Turkish example</th><th scope="col">Meaning in English</th></tr><tr><td><i>–le</i></td><td><i><i>memnuniyétle</i></i></td><td>with pleasure</td></tr><tr><td><i>–ken</i></td><td><i><i>yazárken</i></i></td><td>while writing</td></tr><tr><td><i>–ce</i></td><td><i><i>hayvánca</i></i></td><td>bestially</td></tr><tr><td><i>–leyin</i></td><td><i><i>gecéleyin</i></i></td><td>by night</td></tr><tr><td><i>–me</i></td><td><i><i>anlámadı</i></i></td><td>he/she/it did not understand</td></tr><tr><td><i>–yor</i></td><td><i><i>gelı̇́yor</i></i></td><td>he/she/it is coming</td></tr></tbody></table> <ul><li>Enclitic words, which shift the accentuation to the previous syllable, e.g., <i>ol-</i> (meaning to be), <i>mi</i> (denoting a question), <i>gibi</i> (meaning similar to), <i>için</i> (for), <i>ki</i> (that), <i>de</i> (too)</li></ul> <table><tbody><tr><th scope="col">Enclitic suffix</th><th scope="col">Turkish example</th><th scope="col">Meaning in English</th></tr><tr><td><i>ol-</i> as a separate word</td><td><i><i>arkadaşím idi</i></i></td><td>he/she was my friend</td></tr><tr><td><i>ol-</i> as a suffix</td><td><i><i>arkadaşímdı</i></i></td><td>he/she was my friend</td></tr><tr><td><i>mi</i></td><td><i><i>anlamadí mı</i></i></td><td>did he/she not understand?</td></tr><tr><td><i>gibi</i></td><td><i><i>sizı̇́n gibi</i></i></td><td>like you</td></tr><tr><td><i>için</i></td><td><i><i>benı̇́m için</i></i></td><td>for me</td></tr><tr><td><i>ki</i></td><td><i><i>diyorlár ki ólmıyacak</i></i></td><td>they are saying that it won't happen</td></tr><tr><td><i>de</i></td><td><i><i>biz de</i></i></td><td>us too</td></tr></tbody></table> <h2 id="syntax">Syntax</h2> <h3>Sentence groups</h3> <p>Turkish has two groups of sentences: <a href="/facts/Verb/zp42buvn">verbal</a> and <a href="/facts/Nominal_sentences/HcHL7PF7">nominal sentences</a>. In the case of a verbal sentence, the predicate is a finite verb, while the predicate in nominal sentence will have either no overt verb or a verb in the form of the <a href="/facts/Copula_(linguistics)/nFkAhQhL">copula</a> <i>ol</i> or <i>y</i> (variants of "be"). Examples of both are given below:<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:74" href="#fn:74"><sup>74</sup></a> </p> <table><tbody><tr><th>Sentence type</th><th colspan="2">Turkish</th><th>English</th></tr><tr><td></td><td>Subject</td><td>Predicate</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Verbal</td><td>Necla</td><td><i>okula gitti</i></td><td>Necla went to school</td></tr><tr><td>Nominal (no verb)</td><td>Necla</td><td><i>öğretmen</i></td><td>Necla is a teacher</td></tr><tr><td>(copula)</td><td>Necla</td><td><i>ev-de-y-miş</i> (hyphens delineate suffixes)</td><td>Apparently Necla is/was at home</td></tr></tbody></table> <h4>Negation</h4> <p>The two groups of sentences have different ways of forming negation. A nominal sentence can be negated with the addition of the word <i>değil</i>. For example, the sentence above would become <i>Necla öğretmen değil</i> ('Necla is not a teacher'). However, the verbal sentence requires the addition of a negative suffix <i>-me</i> to the verb (the suffix comes after the stem but before the tense): <i>Necla okula gitmedi</i> ('Necla did not go to school').<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:75" href="#fn:75"><sup>75</sup></a> </p> <h4>Yes/no questions</h4> <p>In the case of a verbal sentence, an interrogative clitic <i>mi</i> is added after the verb and stands alone, for example <i>Necla okula gitti mi?</i> ('Did Necla go to school?'). In the case of a nominal sentence, then <i>mi</i> comes after the predicate but before the personal ending, so for example <i>Necla, siz öğretmen misiniz</i>? ('Necla, are you [formal, plural] a teacher?').<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:76" href="#fn:76"><sup>76</sup></a> </p> <h3>Word order</h3> <p>Word order in simple Turkish sentences is generally <a href="/facts/Subject%25E2%2580%2593object%25E2%2580%2593verb/yqAybkWr">subject–object–verb</a>, as in Korean and <a href="/facts/Latin/pM3Kge85">Latin</a>, but unlike English, for verbal sentences and subject-predicate for nominal sentences. However, as Turkish possesses a case-marking system, and most grammatical relations are shown using morphological markers, often the SOV structure has diminished relevance and may vary. The SOV structure may thus be considered a "pragmatic word order" of language, one that does not rely on word order for grammatical purposes.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:77" href="#fn:77"><sup>77</sup></a> </p> <h4>Immediately preverbal</h4> <p>Consider the following simple sentence which demonstrates that the focus in Turkish is on the element that immediately precedes the verb:<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:78" href="#fn:78"><sup>78</sup></a> </p> <table><tbody><tr><th>Word order</th><th>Example</th><th>Focus</th></tr><tr><td>SOV</td><td><p>Ahmet</p><p>Ahmet</p><p>yumurta-yı</p><p>egg.ACC</p><p>yedi</p><p>ate</p><p>Ahmet yumurta-yı yedi</p><p>Ahmet egg.ACC ate</p><p>Ahmet ate the egg</p></td><td>unmarked</td></tr><tr><td>SVO</td><td><p>Ahmet</p><p>Ahmet</p><p>yedi</p><p>ate</p><p>yumurta-yı</p><p>egg.ACC</p><p>Ahmet yedi yumurta-yı</p><p>Ahmet ate egg.ACC</p><p>Ahmet ate the egg</p></td><td>the focus is on the subject: Ahmet (it was Ahmet who ate the egg)</td></tr><tr><td>OVS</td><td><p>Yumurta-yı</p><p>egg.ACC</p><p>yedi</p><p>ate</p><p>Ahmet</p><p>Ahmet</p><p>Yumurta-yı yedi Ahmet</p><p>egg.ACC ate Ahmet</p><p>Ahmet ate the egg</p></td><td>the focus is on the object: egg (it was an egg that Ahmet ate)</td></tr></tbody></table> <h4>Postpredicate</h4> <p>The postpredicate position signifies what is referred to as background information in Turkish — information that is assumed to be known to both the speaker and the listener, or information that is included in the context. Consider the following examples:<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:79" href="#fn:79"><sup>79</sup></a> </p> <table><tbody><tr><th>Sentence type</th><th>Word order</th><th></th><th></th></tr><tr><td>Nominal</td><td>S-predicate</td><td><i>Bu ev güzelmiş</i> (apparently this house is beautiful)</td><td>unmarked</td></tr><tr><td></td><td>Predicate-s</td><td><i>Güzelmiş bu ev</i> (it is apparently beautiful, this house)</td><td>it is understood that the sentence is about this house</td></tr><tr><td>Verbal</td><td>SOV</td><td><i>Bana da bir kahve getir</i> (get me a coffee too)</td><td>unmarked</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td><i>Bana da getir bir kahve</i> (get me one too, a coffee)</td><td>it is understood that it is a coffee that the speaker wants</td></tr></tbody></table> <h4>Topic</h4> <p>There has been some debate among linguists whether Turkish is a subject-prominent (like English) or <a href="/facts/Topic-prominent_language/fy0jXjJm">topic-prominent</a> (like Japanese and Korean) language, with recent scholarship implying that it is indeed both subject and topic-prominent.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:80" href="#fn:80"><sup>80</sup></a> This has direct implications for word order as it is possible for the subject to be included in the <a href="/facts/Verb_phrase/nfJ5hbY8">verb-phrase</a> in Turkish. There can be S/O inversion in sentences where the topic is of greater importance than the subject. </p> <h2 id="grammar">Grammar</h2> <p class="note">Main article: <a href="/facts/Turkish_grammar/oawl02zc">Turkish grammar</a></p> <p>Turkish is an <a href="/facts/Agglutinative_language/yd4Iee5p">agglutinative language</a> and frequently uses <a href="/facts/Affix/MKeAIE7e">affixes</a>, and specifically suffixes, or endings.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:81" href="#fn:81"><sup>81</sup></a> One word can have many affixes and these can also be used to create new words, such as creating a verb from a noun, or a noun from a verbal root (see the section on Word formation). Most affixes indicate the grammatical function of the word.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:82" href="#fn:82"><sup>82</sup></a>: Chapter XIV The only native prefixes are <a href="/facts/Alliteration/N4ESE135">alliterative</a> intensifying syllables used with adjectives or adverbs: for example <i>sımsıcak</i> ("boiling hot" < <i>sıcak</i>) and <i>masmavi</i> ("bright blue" < <i>mavi</i>).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:83" href="#fn:83"><sup>83</sup></a> </p><p>The extensive use of affixes can give rise to long words, e.g. <i>Çekoslovakyalılaştıramadıklarımızdanmışsınızcasına</i>, meaning "In the manner of you being one of those that we apparently couldn't manage to convert to Czechoslovakian". While this case is contrived, long words frequently occur in normal Turkish, as in this heading of a newspaper obituary column: <i>Bayramlaşamadıklarımız</i> (Bayram [festival]-Recipr-Impot-Partic-Plur-PossPl1; "Those of our number with whom we cannot exchange the season's greetings").<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:84" href="#fn:84"><sup>84</sup></a> Another example can be seen in the final word of this heading of the online Turkish Spelling Guide (<i>İmlâ Kılavuzu</i>): <i>Dilde birlik, ulusal birliğin vazgeçilemezlerindendir</i> ("Unity in language is among the indispensables [dispense-Pass-Impot-Plur-PossS3-Abl-Copula] of national unity ~ Linguistic unity is a <i><a href="/facts/Sine_qua_non/BptIw6e0">sine qua non</a></i> of national unity").<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:85" href="#fn:85"><sup>85</sup></a> </p> <h3>Nouns</h3> <h4>Gender</h4> <p>Turkish does not have grammatical gender and the sex of a person does not affect the forms of words. The third-person pronoun <i><i>o</i></i> may refer to "he", "she" or "it." Despite this lack, Turkish still has ways of indicating gender in nouns: </p> <ol><li>Most domestic animals have male and female forms, e.g., <i><i>aygır</i></i> (stallion), <i><i>kısrak</i></i> (mare), <i><i>boğa</i></i> (bull), <i><i>inek</i></i> (cow).</li> <li>For other animals, the sex may be indicated by adding the word <i><i>erkek</i></i> (male) or <i><i>dişi</i></i> (female) before the corresponding noun, e.g., <i><i>dişi kedi</i></i> (female cat).</li> <li>For people, the female sex may be indicated by adding the word <i><i>kız</i></i> (girl) or <i><i>kadın</i></i> (woman), e.g., <i><i>kadın kahraman</i></i> (heroine) instead of <i><i>kahraman</i></i> (hero).</li> <li>Some foreign words of <a href="/facts/French_language/qe1DnaQh">French</a> or <a href="/facts/Arabic_language/A1e66hVV">Arabic</a> origin already have separate female forms, e.g., <i><i>aktris</i></i> (actress).</li> <li>The <a href="/facts/Serbo-Croatian/MS85Xuwk">Serbo-Croat</a> feminine suffix –ica is used in three borrowings: <i><i>kraliçe</i></i> (queen), <i><i>imparatoriçe</i></i> (empress) and <i><i>çariçe</i></i> (tsarina). This suffix was used in the neologism <i><i>tanrıça</i></i> (< Old Turkic <i><i>tanrı</i></i> "god").</li></ol> <h4>Case</h4> <p>There is no <a href="/facts/Definite_article/dLXmIPh1">definite article</a> in Turkish, but definiteness of the object is implied when the accusative ending is used (see below). Turkish nouns decline by taking case endings. There are six <a href="/facts/Declension/SWppkx4X">noun cases</a> in Turkish, with all the endings following vowel harmony (shown in the table using the shorthand superscript notation). Since the postposition <i>ile</i> often gets suffixed onto the noun, some analyze it as an <a href="/facts/Instrumental_case/NvGhAHWa">instrumental case</a>, although in formal speech it takes the genitive with personal pronouns, singular demonstratives, and interrogative <i>kim</i>. The <a href="/facts/Plural/3VjXP7VF">plural</a> marker <i>-ler</i> ² immediately follows the noun before any case or other affixes (e.g. <i>köylerin</i> "of the villages"). </p> <table><tbody><tr><th rowspan="2">Case</th><th rowspan="2">Ending</th><th colspan="2">Examples</th><th rowspan="2">Meaning</th></tr><tr><th><i>köy</i> "village"</th><th><i>ağaç</i> "tree"</th></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Nominative_case/wXX3Vn4x">Nominative</a></td><td>∅ (none)</td><td><i>köy</i></td><td><i>ağaç</i></td><td>(the) village/tree</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Accusative_case/HA1Q81qd">Accusative</a></td><td><i>-i</i> 4</td><td><i>köyü</i></td><td><i>ağacı</i></td><td>the village/tree</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Genitive_case/nMXh3StK">Genitive</a></td><td><i>-in</i> 4</td><td><i>köyün</i></td><td><i>ağacın</i></td><td>the village's/tree'sof the village/tree</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Dative_case/bBjY0RVf">Dative</a></td><td><i>-e</i> ²</td><td><i>köye</i></td><td><i>ağaca</i></td><td>to the village/tree</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Locative_case/h9KCqqhq">Locative</a></td><td><i>-de</i> ²</td><td><i>köyde</i></td><td><i>ağaçta</i></td><td>in/on/at the village/tree</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Ablative_case/GotGMD3k">Ablative</a></td><td><i>-den</i> ²</td><td><i>köyden</i></td><td><i>ağaçtan</i></td><td>from the village/tree</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Instrumental_case/NvGhAHWa">Instrumental</a></td><td><i>-le</i> ²</td><td><i>köyle</i></td><td><i>ağaçla</i></td><td>with the village/tree</td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The accusative case marker is used only for definite objects; compare <i>(bir) ağaç gördük</i> "we saw a tree" with <i>ağacı gördük</i> "we saw the tree".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:86" href="#fn:86"><sup>86</sup></a> The plural marker <i>-ler</i> ² is generally not used when a class or category is meant: <i>ağaç gördük</i> can equally well mean "we saw trees [as we walked through the forest]"—as opposed to <i>ağaçları gördük</i> "we saw the trees [in question]". </p><p>The declension of <i>ağaç</i> illustrates two important features of Turkish phonology: consonant <a href="/facts/Assimilation_(linguistics)/YxIy0MBv">assimilation</a> in <a href="/facts/Suffix/Nlnft3NK">suffixes</a> (<i>ağaçtan, ağaçta</i>) and <a href="/facts/Voice_(phonetics)/VdqrEGQ3">voicing</a> of final consonants before vowels (<i>ağacın, ağaca, ağacı</i>). </p><p>Additionally, nouns can take suffixes that assign <a href="/facts/Grammatical_person/PfUA43oU">person</a>: for example <i>-imiz</i> 4, "our". With the addition of the <a href="/facts/Turkish_copula/AGQersFn">copula</a> (for example <i>-im</i> 4, "I am") complete sentences can be formed. The <a href="/facts/Interrogative_word/UuJYcnzQ">interrogative</a> particle <i>mi</i> 4 immediately follows the word being questioned, and also follows vowel harmony: <i>köye mi?</i> "[going] to the village?", <i>ağaç mı?</i> "[is it a] tree?". </p> <table><tbody><tr><th>Turkish</th><th>English</th></tr><tr><td><i>ev</i></td><td>(the) house</td></tr><tr><td><i>evler</i></td><td>(the) houses</td></tr><tr><td><i>evin</i></td><td>your (sing.) house</td></tr><tr><td><i>eviniz</i></td><td>your (pl./formal) house</td></tr><tr><td><i>evim</i></td><td>my house</td></tr><tr><td><i>evimde</i></td><td>at my house</td></tr><tr><td><i>evlerinizin</i></td><td>of your houses</td></tr><tr><td><i>evlerinizden</i></td><td>from your houses</td></tr><tr><td><i>evlerinizdendi</i></td><td>(he/she/it) was from your houses</td></tr><tr><td><i>evlerinizdenmiş</i></td><td>(he/she/it) was (apparently/said to be) from your houses</td></tr><tr><td><i>Evinizdeyim.</i></td><td>I am at your house.</td></tr><tr><td><i>Evinizdeymişim.</i></td><td>I was (apparently) at your house.</td></tr><tr><td><i>Evinizde miyim?</i></td><td>Am I at your house?</td></tr></tbody></table> <h3>Personal pronouns</h3> <p>The Turkish <a href="/facts/Personal_pronoun/kHSgr4sc">personal pronouns</a> in the nominative case are <i>ben</i> (1s), <i>sen</i> (2s), <i>o</i> (3s), <i>biz</i> (1pl), <i>siz</i> (2pl, or 2h), and <i>onlar</i> (3pl). They are declined regularly with some exceptions: <i>benim</i> (1s gen.); <i>bizim</i> (1pl gen.); <i>bana</i> (1s dat.); <i>sana</i> (2s dat.); and the oblique forms of <i>o</i> use the root <i>on</i>. As mentioned before, all demonstrative singular and personal pronouns take the genitive when <i>ile</i> is affixed onto it: <i>benimle</i> (1s ins.), <i>bizimle</i> (1pl ins.); but <i>onunla</i> (3s ins.), <i>onlarla</i> (3pl ins.). All other pronouns (reflexive <i>kendi</i> and so on) are declined regularly. </p> <h4>Noun phrases (<i>tamlama</i>)</h4> <p>Two nouns, or groups of nouns, may be joined in either of two ways: </p> <ul><li>definite (possessive) compound (<i>belirtili tamlama</i>). E.g. <i>Türkiye'nin sesi</i> "the voice of Turkey (radio station)": the voice belonging to Turkey. Here the relationship is shown by the genitive ending <i>-in</i>4 added to the first noun; the second noun has the third-person suffix of possession <i>-(s)i</i>4.</li> <li>indefinite (qualifying) compound (<i>belirtisiz tamlama</i>). E.g. <i>Türkiye Cumhuriyeti</i> "Turkey-Republic<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:87" href="#fn:87"><sup>87</sup></a> = the Republic of Turkey": not the republic belonging to Turkey, but the Republic that is Turkey. Here the first noun has no ending; but the second noun has the ending <i>(s)i</i>4—the same as in definite compounds.</li></ul> <p>The following table illustrates these principles.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:88" href="#fn:88"><sup>88</sup></a>: 41–47 In some cases, the constituents of the compounds are themselves compounds; for clarity these subsidiary compounds are marked with [square brackets]. The suffixes involved in the linking are underlined. If the second noun group already had a possessive suffix (because it is a compound by itself), no further suffix is added. </p> Linked nouns and noun groups<table><tbody><tr><th>Definite (possessive)</th><th>Indefinite (qualifier)</th><th>Complement</th><th>Meaning</th></tr><tr><td><i>kimsenin</i></td><td></td><td><i>yanıtı</i></td><td>nobody's answer</td></tr><tr><td></td><td><i>"kimse"</i></td><td><i>yanıtı</i></td><td>the answer "nobody"</td></tr><tr><td><i>Atatürk'ün</i></td><td></td><td><i>evi</i></td><td>Atatürk's house</td></tr><tr><td></td><td><i>Atatürk</i></td><td><i>Bulvarı</i></td><td><a href="/facts/Atat%25C3%25BCrk_Boulevard/g2R2Jo9F">Atatürk Boulevard</a> (named after, not belonging to Atatürk)</td></tr><tr><td><i>Orhan'ın</i></td><td></td><td><i>adı</i></td><td>Orhan's name</td></tr><tr><td></td><td><i>"Orhan"</i></td><td><i>adı</i></td><td>the name "Orhan"</td></tr><tr><td></td><td><i>r</i></td><td><i>sessizi</i></td><td>the consonant <i>r</i></td></tr><tr><td>[<i>r sessizi</i>]<i>nin</i></td><td></td><td><i>söylenişi</i></td><td>pronunciation of the consonant <i>r</i></td></tr><tr><td></td><td><i>Türk</i></td><td>[<i>Dil Kurumu</i>]</td><td>Turkish Language-Association</td></tr><tr><td></td><td>[<i>Türk Dili</i>]</td><td><i>Dergisi</i></td><td>Turkish-Language Magazine</td></tr><tr><td></td><td><i>Ford</i></td><td>[<i>aile arabası</i>]</td><td>Ford family car</td></tr><tr><td><i>Ford'un</i></td><td></td><td>[<i>aile arabası</i>]</td><td>(Mr) Ford's family car</td></tr><tr><td>[<i>Ford ailesi</i>]<i>nin</i></td><td></td><td><i>arabası</i></td><td>the Ford family's car<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:89" href="#fn:89"><sup>89</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td></td><td><i>Ankara</i></td><td>[<i>Kız Lisesi</i>]<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:90" href="#fn:90"><sup>90</sup></a></td><td>Ankara Girls' School</td></tr><tr><td></td><td>[<i>yıl sonu</i>]</td><td><i>sınavları</i></td><td>year-end examinations</td></tr><tr><td><i>Bulgaristan'ın</i></td><td></td><td>[<i>İstanbul Başkonsolosluğu</i>]</td><td>the Istanbul Consulate-General of Bulgaria (located in Istanbul, but belonging to Bulgaria)</td></tr><tr><td></td><td>[ [<i>İstanbul Üniversitesi</i>] [<i>Edebiyat Fakültesi</i>] ]</td><td>[ [<i>Türk Edebiyatı</i>] <i>Profesörü</i>]</td><td>Professor of Turkish Literature in the Faculty of Literature of the University of Istanbul</td></tr><tr><td></td><td><i>ne oldum</i></td><td><i>delisi</i></td><td>"what-have-I-become!"<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:91" href="#fn:91"><sup>91</sup></a> madman = <a href="/facts/Parvenu/SRMAJeDa">parvenu</a> who gives himself airs</td></tr></tbody></table> <p>As the last example shows, the qualifying expression may be a substantival sentence rather than a noun or noun group.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:92" href="#fn:92"><sup>92</sup></a> </p><p>There is a third way of linking the nouns where both nouns take no suffixes (<i>takısız tamlama</i>). However, in this case the first noun acts as an adjective,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:93" href="#fn:93"><sup>93</sup></a> e.g. <i>Demir kapı</i> (iron gate), <i>elma yanak</i> ("apple cheek", i.e. red cheek), <i>kömür göz</i> ("coal eye", i.e. black eye) : </p> <h3>Adjectives</h3> <p>Turkish adjectives are not <a href="/facts/Declension/SWppkx4X">declined</a>. However most adjectives can also be used as nouns, in which case they are declined: e.g. <i>güzel</i> ("beautiful") → <i>güzeller</i> ("(the) beautiful ones / people"). Used attributively, adjectives precede the nouns they modify. The adjectives <i>var</i> ("existent") and <i>yok</i> ("<a href="/facts/Non-existent/IRAl4dlu">non-existent</a>") are used in many cases where English would use "there is" or "have", <i>e.g.</i> <i>süt yok</i> ("there is no milk", <i>lit.</i> "(the) milk (is) non-existent"); the construction "<i>noun 1</i>-GEN <i>noun 2</i>-POSS <i>var/yok</i>" can be translated "<i>noun 1</i> has/doesn't have <i>noun 2</i>"; <i>imparatorun elbisesi yok</i> "the emperor has no clothes" ("(the) emperor-<i>of</i> clothes-<i>his</i> non-existent"); <i>kedimin ayakkabıları yoktu</i> ("my cat had no shoes", <i>lit.</i> "cat-<i>my</i>-<i>of</i> shoe-<i>plur.</i>-<i>its</i> non-existent-<i>past tense</i>"). </p> <h3>Verbs</h3> <p class="note">See also: <a href="/facts/Turkish_copula/AGQersFn">Turkish copula</a></p> <p>Turkish verbs indicate <a href="/facts/Grammatical_person/PfUA43oU">person</a>. They can be made negative, potential ("can"), or non-potential ("cannot"). Furthermore, Turkish verbs show <a href="/facts/Grammatical_tense/reLNLa97">tense</a> (<a href="/facts/Present_tense/Dlum8nSr">present</a>, <a href="/facts/Past_tense/WkdWorjX">past</a>, <a href="/facts/Future_tense/YTLNSh1Y">future</a>, and <a href="/facts/Aorist/QrlsM8e2">aorist</a>), <a href="/facts/Grammatical_mood/QS8qwCPm">mood</a> (<a href="/facts/Conditional_mood/8t2dWG2r">conditional</a>, <a href="/facts/Imperative_mood/E3zRtPgJ">imperative</a>, <a href="/facts/Inferential_mood/p9qdhzze">inferential</a>, <a href="/facts/Necessitative_mood/6n0XpK5b">necessitative</a>, and <a href="/facts/Optative_mood/j1mN6wnD">optative</a>), and <a href="/facts/Grammatical_aspect/zX9gFXn9">aspect</a>. The inferential suffix <i>-miş4</i> is also glossed as a <a href="/facts/Evidentiality/zTfPBzgp">direct evidential</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:94" href="#fn:94"><sup>94</sup></a> or a <a href="/facts/Mirativity/h5eUP76l">mirative</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:95" href="#fn:95"><sup>95</sup></a> Negation is expressed by the <a href="/facts/Suffix/Nlnft3NK">suffix</a> <i>-me²-</i> immediately following the stem. </p> <table><tbody><tr><th>Turkish</th><th>English</th></tr><tr><td><i>gel-</i></td><td>(to) come</td></tr><tr><td><i>gelebil-</i></td><td>(to) be able to come</td></tr><tr><td><i>gelme-</i></td><td>not (to) come</td></tr><tr><td><i>geleme-</i></td><td>(to) be unable to come</td></tr><tr><td><i>gelememiş</i></td><td>Apparently (s)he couldn't come</td></tr><tr><td><i>gelebilecek</i></td><td>(s)he'll be able to come</td></tr><tr><td><i>gelmeyebilir</i></td><td>(s)he may (possibly) not come</td></tr><tr><td><i>gelebilirsen</i></td><td>if you can come</td></tr><tr><td><i>gelinir</i></td><td>(<i>passive</i>) one comes, people come</td></tr><tr><td><i>gelebilmeliydin</i></td><td>you should have been able to come</td></tr><tr><td><i>gelebilseydin</i></td><td>if you could have come</td></tr><tr><td><i>gelmeliydin</i></td><td>you should have come</td></tr></tbody></table> <h3>Verb tenses</h3> <p>(For the sake of simplicity the term "tense" is used here throughout, although for some forms "aspect" or "mood" might be more appropriate.) There are nine simple and 20 compound tenses in Turkish. The nine simple tenses are: simple past (<i>di'li geçmiş</i>), inferential past (<i>miş'li geçmiş</i>), present continuous, simple present (<a href="/facts/Aorist/QrlsM8e2">aorist</a>), future, optative, <a href="/facts/Subjunctive_mood/r71oa4sE">subjunctive</a>, necessitative ("must") and imperative.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:96" href="#fn:96"><sup>96</sup></a> There are three groups of compound forms. Story (<i>hikaye</i>) is the witnessed past of the above forms (except command), referral (<i>rivayet</i>) is the unwitnessed past of the above forms (except simple past and command), conditional (<i>koşul</i>) is the conditional form of the first five basic tenses.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:97" href="#fn:97"><sup>97</sup></a> In the example below, the second person singular of the verb <i>gitmek</i> ("go"), stem <i>gid-/git-</i>, is shown. </p> <table><tbody><tr><th>English of the basic form</th><th>Basic tense</th><th>Story (<i>hikâye</i>)</th><th>Referral (<i>rivayet</i>)</th><th>Condition (<i>koşul</i>)</th></tr><tr><td>you went</td><td><i>gittin</i></td><td><i>gittiydin</i></td><td>–</td><td><i>gittiysen</i></td></tr><tr><td>you have gone</td><td><i>gitmişsin</i></td><td><i>gitmiştin</i></td><td><i>gitmişmişsin</i></td><td><i>gitmişsen</i></td></tr><tr><td>you are going</td><td><i>gidiyorsun</i></td><td><i>gidiyordun</i></td><td><i>gidiyormuşsun</i></td><td><i>gidiyorsan</i></td></tr><tr><td>you (are want to) go</td><td><i>gidersin</i></td><td><i>giderdin</i></td><td><i>gidermişsin</i></td><td><i>gidersen</i></td></tr><tr><td>you will go</td><td><i>gideceksin</i></td><td><i>gidecektin</i></td><td><i>gidecekmişsin</i></td><td><i>gideceksen</i></td></tr><tr><td>if only you go</td><td><i>gitsen</i></td><td><i>gitseydin</i></td><td><i>gitseymişsin</i></td><td>–</td></tr><tr><td>may you go</td><td><i>gidesin</i></td><td><i>gideydin</i></td><td><i>gideymişsin</i></td><td>–</td></tr><tr><td>you must go</td><td><i>gitmelisin</i></td><td><i>gitmeliydin</i></td><td><i>gitmeliymişsin</i></td><td>–</td></tr><tr><td>go! (imperative)</td><td><i>git</i></td><td>–</td><td>–</td><td>–</td></tr></tbody></table> <p>There are also so-called combined verbs, which are created by suffixing certain verb stems (like <i>bil</i> or <i>ver</i>) to the original stem of a verb. <i>Bil</i> is the suffix for the sufficiency mood. It is the equivalent of the English auxiliary verbs "able to", "can" or "may". <i>Ver</i> is the suffix for the swiftness mood, <i>kal</i> for the perpetuity mood and <i>yaz</i> for the approach ("almost") mood.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:98" href="#fn:98"><sup>98</sup></a> Thus, while <i>gittin</i> means "you went", <i>gidebildin</i> means "you could go" and <i>gidiverdin</i> means "you went swiftly". The tenses of the combined verbs are formed the same way as for simple verbs. </p> <h4>Attributive verbs (participles)</h4> <p>Turkish verbs have <a href="/facts/Attributive_verb/622lvXbx">attributive forms</a>, including present,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:99" href="#fn:99"><sup>99</sup></a> similar to the English <a href="/facts/Present_participle/rYxXQKaG">present participle</a> (with the ending <i>-en</i>2); future (<i>-ecek</i>2); indirect/inferential past (<i>-miş</i>4); and <a href="/facts/Aorist/QrlsM8e2">aorist</a> (<i>-er</i>2 or <i>-ir</i>4). </p><p>The most important function of some of these attributive verbs is to form modifying phrases equivalent to the <a href="/facts/Relative_clause/zFSPHLwE">relative clauses</a> found in most European languages. The subject of the verb in an <i>-en</i>2 form is (possibly implicitly) in the third person (he/she/it/they); this form, when used in a modifying phrase, does not change according to number. The other attributive forms used in these constructions are the future (<i>-ecek</i>2) and an older form (<i>-dik</i>4), which covers both present and past meanings.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:100" href="#fn:100"><sup>100</sup></a> These two forms take "personal endings," which have the same form as the <a href="/facts/Possessive_affix/C6so99zE">possessive suffixes</a> but indicate the person and possibly number of the subject of the attributive verb; for example, <i>yediğim</i> means "what I eat," <i>yediğin</i> means "what you eat," and so on. The use of these "personal or relative participles" is illustrated in the following table, in which the examples are presented according to the grammatical case which would be seen in the equivalent English relative clause.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:101" href="#fn:101"><sup>101</sup></a> </p> <table><tbody><tr><th colspan="2">English equivalent</th><th rowspan="2">Example</th></tr><tr><th>Case of relative pronoun</th><th>Pronoun</th></tr><tr><td>Nominative</td><td>who, which/that</td><td><p>şimdi</p><p>now</p><p>konuşan</p><p>speaking</p><p>adam</p><p>man</p><p>şimdi konuşan adam</p><p>now speaking man</p><p>the man (who is) now speaking</p></td></tr><tr><td>Genitive</td><td>whose (nom.)</td><td><p>babası</p><p>father-is</p><p>şimdi</p><p>now</p><p>konuşan</p><p>speaking</p><p>adam</p><p>man</p><p>babası şimdi konuşan adam</p><p>father-is now speaking man</p><p>the man whose father is now speaking</p></td></tr><tr><td></td><td>whose (acc.)</td><td><p>babasını</p><p>father-is-ACC</p><p>dün</p><p>yesterday</p><p>gördüğüm</p><p>seen-my</p><p>adam</p><p>man</p><p>babasını dün gördüğüm adam</p><p>father-is-ACC yesterday seen-my man</p><p>the man whose father I saw yesterday</p></td></tr><tr><td></td><td>at whose</td><td><p>resimlerine</p><p>pictures-is-to</p><p>baktığımız</p><p>looked-our</p><p>ressam</p><p>artist</p><p>resimlerine baktığımız ressam</p><p>pictures-is-to looked-our artist</p><p>the artist whose pictures we looked at</p></td></tr><tr><td></td><td>of which</td><td><p>muhtarı</p><p>mayor-its</p><p>seçildiği</p><p>been-chosen-his</p><p>köy</p><p>village</p><p>muhtarı seçildiği köy</p><p>mayor-its been-chosen-his village</p><p>the village of which he was elected mayor</p></td></tr><tr><td></td><td>of which</td><td><p>muhtarı</p><p>seçilmek</p><p>istediği</p><p>köy</p><p>muhtarı seçilmek istediği köy</p><p>the village of which he wishes to be elected mayor</p></td></tr><tr><td>Remaining cases (incl. prepositions)</td><td>whom, which</td><td><p>yazdığım</p><p>written-my</p><p>mektup</p><p>letter</p><p>yazdığım mektup</p><p>written-my letter</p><p>the letter (which) I wrote</p></td></tr><tr><td></td><td>from which</td><td><p>çıktığımız</p><p>emerged-our</p><p>kapı</p><p>door</p><p>çıktığımız kapı</p><p>emerged-our door</p><p>the door from which we emerged</p></td></tr><tr><td></td><td>on which</td><td><p>geldikleri</p><p>come-their</p><p>vapur</p><p>ship</p><p>geldikleri vapur</p><p>come-their ship</p><p>the ship they came on</p></td></tr><tr><td></td><td>which + subordinate clause</td><td><p>yaklaştığını</p><p>approach-their-ACC</p><p>anladığı</p><p>understood-his</p><p>hapishane</p><p>prison</p><p>günleri</p><p>days-its</p><p>yaklaştığını anladığı hapishane günleri</p><p>approach-their-ACC understood-his prison days-its</p><p>the prison days (which) he knew were approaching</p><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:102" href="#fn:102"><sup>102</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:103" href="#fn:103"><sup>103</sup></a></td></tr></tbody></table> <h2 id="vocabulary">Vocabulary</h2> <p class="note">Main article: <a href="/facts/Turkish_vocabulary/pKNv7Kwu">Turkish vocabulary</a></p><p>Latest 2011 edition of <i>Güncel Türkçe Sözlük</i> (<i>Current Turkish Dictionary</i>), the official dictionary of the Turkish language published by Turkish Language Association, contains 117,000 words organized into 93,000 entries.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:104" href="#fn:104"><sup>104</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:105" href="#fn:105"><sup>105</sup></a> </p><h3>Word origins</h3> <p>Around 86% of the Turkish vocabulary is of <a href="/facts/Turkic_languages/RXqsmfgh">Turkic</a> origin. The majority of the core vocabulary and the most commonly used words in Turkish, including those first acquired by children as they learn to speak, derive from Turkic. Nevertheless, Turkish vocabulary contains a significant number of loanwords from other languages, in which around 14% of Turkish words are of foreign origin. According to the <a href="/facts/Turkish_Language_Association/zPwLkuS3">Turkish Language Association</a>, 6,463 of these foreign words come from <a href="/facts/Arabic/A1e66hVV">Arabic</a>, 4,974 from <a href="/facts/French_language/qe1DnaQh">French</a>, 1,374 from <a href="/facts/Persian_language/jfUYbHbt">Persian</a>, 632 from <a href="/facts/Italian_language/YXsmvlQG">Italian</a>, 538 from <a href="/facts/English_language/tpkxGt7b">English</a>, 399 from <a href="/facts/Greek_language/pzDd6eIz">Greek</a>, and 147 from <a href="/facts/Latin/pM3Kge85">Latin</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:106" href="#fn:106"><sup>106</sup></a> </p><p>In Turkish, there are many pairs of <a href="/facts/Synonyms/a3BgMcdu">synonyms</a> where one word is of foreign origin and the other of Turkic origin. These pairs are the result of the enrichment of the Turkish vocabulary with loanwords from Arabic, Persian and French, and of the <a href="/facts/Turkish_language_reform/C5X56Ijp">Turkish language reform</a> initiated in the early 20th century that aimed to restore foreign-origin words with Turkic equivalents.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:107" href="#fn:107"><sup>107</sup></a> </p> <h3>Word formation</h3> <p>Turkish extensively uses <a href="/facts/Agglutination/pKEhqgRE">agglutination</a> to <a href="/facts/Word_formation/dcqY8cYp">form new words</a> from nouns and verbal stems. The majority of Turkish words originate from the application of derivative suffixes to a relatively small set of core vocabulary.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:108" href="#fn:108"><sup>108</sup></a> </p><p>Turkish obeys certain principles when it comes to suffixation. Most suffixes in Turkish will have more than one form, depending on the vowels and consonants in the root- vowel harmony rules will apply; consonant-initial suffixes will follow the voiced/ voiceless character of the consonant in the final unit of the root; and in the case of vowel-initial suffixes an additional consonant may be inserted if the root ends in a vowel, or the suffix may lose its initial vowel. There is also a prescribed order of affixation of suffixes- as a rule of thumb, derivative suffixes precede inflectional suffixes which are followed by <a href="/facts/Clitic/4A00CTek">clitics</a>, as can be seen in the example set of words derived from a substantive root below: </p> <table><tbody><tr><th>Turkish</th><th>Components</th><th>English</th><th>Word class</th></tr><tr><td><i>göz</i></td><td><i>göz</i></td><td>eye</td><td>Noun</td></tr><tr><td><i>gözlük</i></td><td><i>göz + -lük</i></td><td>eyeglasses</td><td>Noun</td></tr><tr><td><i>gözlükçü</i></td><td><i>göz + -lük + -çü</i></td><td>optician</td><td>Noun</td></tr><tr><td><i>gözlükçülük</i></td><td><i>göz + -lük + -çü + -lük</i></td><td>optician's trade</td><td>Noun</td></tr><tr><td><i>gözlem</i></td><td><i>göz + -lem</i></td><td>observation</td><td>Noun</td></tr><tr><td><i>gözlemci</i></td><td><i>göz + -lem + -ci</i></td><td>observer</td><td>Noun</td></tr><tr><td><i>gözle-</i></td><td><i>göz + -le</i></td><td>observe</td><td>Verb (order)</td></tr><tr><td><i>gözlemek</i></td><td><i>göz + -le + -mek</i></td><td>to observe</td><td>Verb (infinitive)</td></tr><tr><td><i>gözetlemek</i></td><td><i>göz + -et + -le + -mek</i></td><td>to peep</td><td>Verb (infinitive)</td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Another example, starting from a verbal root: </p> <table><tbody><tr><th>Turkish</th><th>Components</th><th>English</th><th>Word class</th></tr><tr><td><i>yat-</i></td><td><i>yat-</i></td><td>lie down</td><td>Verb (order)</td></tr><tr><td><i>yatmak</i></td><td><i>yat-mak</i></td><td>to lie down</td><td>Verb (infinitive)</td></tr><tr><td><i>yatık</i></td><td><i>yat- + -(ı)k</i></td><td>leaning</td><td>Adjective</td></tr><tr><td><i>yatak</i></td><td><i>yat- + -ak</i></td><td>bed, place to sleep</td><td>Noun</td></tr><tr><td><i>yatay</i></td><td><i>yat- + -ay</i></td><td>horizontal</td><td>Adjective</td></tr><tr><td><i>yatkın</i></td><td><i>yat- + -gın</i></td><td>inclined to; stale (from lying too long)</td><td>Adjective</td></tr><tr><td><i>yatır-</i></td><td><i>yat- + -(ı)r-</i></td><td>lay down</td><td>Verb (order)</td></tr><tr><td><i>yatırmak</i></td><td><i>yat- + -(ı)r-mak</i></td><td>to lay down something/someone</td><td>Verb (infinitive)</td></tr><tr><td><i>yatırım</i></td><td><i>yat- + -(ı)r- + -(ı)m</i></td><td>laying down; deposit, investment</td><td>Noun</td></tr><tr><td><i>yatırımcı</i></td><td><i>yat- + -(ı)r- + -(ı)m + -cı</i></td><td>depositor, investor</td><td>Noun</td></tr></tbody></table> <p>New words are also frequently formed by <a href="/facts/Compound_(linguistics)/IbumXJgd">compounding</a> two existing words into a new one, as in German. Compounds can be of two types- bare and <i>(s)I</i>. The bare compounds, both nouns and adjectives are effectively two words juxtaposed without the addition of suffixes for example the word for girlfriend <i>kızarkadaş</i> (<i>kız+arkadaş</i>) or black pepper <i>karabiber</i> (<i>kara+biber</i>). A few examples of compound words are given below: </p> <table><tbody><tr><th>Turkish</th><th>English</th><th>Constituent words</th><th>Literal meaning</th></tr><tr><td><i>pazartesi</i></td><td>Monday</td><td><i>pazar</i> ("Sunday") and <i>ertesi</i> ("after")</td><td>after Sunday</td></tr><tr><td><i>bilgisayar</i></td><td>computer</td><td><i>bilgi</i> ("information") and <i>say-</i> ("to count")</td><td>information counter</td></tr><tr><td><i>gökdelen</i></td><td>skyscraper</td><td><i>gök</i> ("sky") and <i>del-</i> ("to pierce")</td><td>sky piercer</td></tr><tr><td><i>başparmak</i></td><td>thumb</td><td><i>baş</i> ("prime") and <i>parmak</i> ("finger")</td><td>primary finger</td></tr><tr><td><i>önyargı</i></td><td>prejudice</td><td><i>ön</i> ("before") and <i>yargı</i> ("splitting; judgement")</td><td>fore-judging</td></tr></tbody></table> <p>However, the majority of compound words in Turkish are <i>(s)I</i> compounds, which means that the second word will be marked by the 3rd person possessive suffix. A few such examples are given in the table below (note <a href="/facts/Vowel_harmony/oQfPrTWV">vowel harmony</a>): </p> <table><tbody><tr><th>Turkish</th><th>English</th><th>Constituent words</th><th>Possessive Suffix</th></tr><tr><td><i>el çantası</i></td><td>handbag</td><td><i>el</i> (hand) and <i>çanta</i> (bag)</td><td><i>+sı</i></td></tr><tr><td><i>masa örtüsü</i></td><td>tablecloth</td><td><i>masa</i> (table) and <i>örtü</i> (cover)</td><td><i>+sü</i></td></tr><tr><td><i>çay bardağı</i></td><td>tea glass</td><td><i>çay</i> (tea) and <i>bardak</i> (glass)</td><td><i>+ı</i> (the k changes to ğ)</td></tr></tbody></table> <h2 id="writing-system">Writing system</h2> <p class="note">Main articles: <a href="/facts/Turkish_alphabet/Skpn0bkK">Turkish alphabet</a> and <a href="/facts/Turkish_Braille/T39lW1S5">Turkish Braille</a></p> <p>Turkish is written using <a href="/facts/Turkish_alphabet/Skpn0bkK">a version</a> of <a href="/facts/Latin_script/7EWeJjUV">Latin script</a> introduced in 1928 by <a href="/facts/Mustafa_Kemal_Atat%25C3%25BCrk/RYKRRRst">Atatürk</a> to replace the <a href="/facts/Ottoman_Turkish_alphabet/UzI1YVA1">Ottoman Turkish alphabet</a>, a version of <a href="/facts/Perso-Arabic_script/GB5gsj1F">Perso-Arabic script</a>. The Ottoman alphabet marked only three different vowels—long <i>ā, ū</i> and <i>ī</i>—and included several redundant consonants, such as variants of <i>z</i> (which were distinguished in Arabic but not in Turkish). The omission of short vowels in the Arabic script was claimed to make it particularly unsuitable for Turkish, which has eight vowels.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:109" href="#fn:109"><sup>109</sup></a> </p><p>The reform of the script was an important step in the <a href="/facts/Atat%25C3%25BCrk%2527s_reforms/kR518f4R">cultural reforms</a> of the period. The task of preparing the new alphabet and selecting the necessary modifications for sounds specific to Turkish was entrusted to a <a href="/facts/Turkish_alphabet/Skpn0bkK">Language Commission</a> composed of prominent linguists, academics, and writers. The introduction of the new Turkish alphabet was supported by public education centers opened throughout the country, cooperation with publishing companies, and encouragement by Atatürk himself, who toured the country teaching the new letters to the public.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:110" href="#fn:110"><sup>110</sup></a> As a result, there was a dramatic increase in literacy from its original, pre-modern levels.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:111" href="#fn:111"><sup>111</sup></a>[<i>need quotation to verify</i>] </p><p>The Latin alphabet was applied to the Turkish language for educational purposes even before the 20th-century reform. Instances include a 1635 Latin-Albanian dictionary by <a href="/facts/Frang_Bardhi/6fS4xNY9">Frang Bardhi</a>, who also incorporated several sayings in the Turkish language, as an appendix to his work (e.g. <i>alma agatsdan irak duschamas</i><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:112" href="#fn:112"><sup>112</sup></a>—"An apple does not fall far from its tree"). </p><p>Turkish now has an alphabet suited to the sounds of the language: the spelling is largely <a href="/facts/Phonemic_spelling/wqndpTbB">phonemic</a>, with one letter corresponding to each <a href="/facts/Phoneme/EXGHlJ7a">phoneme</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:113" href="#fn:113"><sup>113</sup></a> Most of the letters are used approximately as in English, the main exceptions being ⟨c⟩, which denotes [dʒ] (⟨j⟩ being used for the [ʒ] found in Persian and European loans); and the undotted ⟨ı⟩, representing [ɯ]. As in German, ⟨ö⟩ and ⟨ü⟩ represent [ø] and [y]. The letter ⟨ğ⟩, in principle, denotes [ɣ] but has the property of lengthening the preceding vowel and assimilating any subsequent vowel. The letters ⟨ş⟩ and ⟨ç⟩ represent [ʃ] and [tʃ], respectively. A <a href="/facts/Circumflex/kg8xlo6W">circumflex</a> is written over <a href="/facts/Back_vowel/gyHoGCH0">back vowels</a> following ⟨k⟩ and ⟨g⟩ when these consonants represent [c] and [ɟ]—almost exclusively in Arabic and Persian <a href="/facts/Loanword/PWGYczgY">loans</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:114" href="#fn:114"><sup>114</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:115" href="#fn:115"><sup>115</sup></a>: 3–7 </p><p>The Turkish alphabet consists of 29 letters (q, w, x omitted and ç, ş, ğ, ı, ö, ü added); the complete list is: </p> <i>a, b, c, ç, d, e, f, g, ğ, h, ı, i, j, k, l, m, n, o, ö, p, r, s, ş, t, u, ü, v, y</i>, and <i>z</i> (Capital of <i>i</i> is <i>İ</i> and lowercase <i>I</i> is <i>ı</i>.) <p>The specifically Turkish letters and spellings described above are illustrated in this table: </p> <table><tbody><tr><th>Turkish spelling</th><th>Pronunciation</th><th>Meaning</th></tr><tr><td><i><a href="/facts/Ca%25C4%259Falo%25C4%259Flu/mT93XpEC">Cağaloğlu</a></i></td><td>ˈdʒaːɫoːɫu</td><td>[İstanbul district]</td></tr><tr><td><i>çalıştığı</i></td><td>tʃaɫɯʃtɯː</td><td>where/that (s)he works/worked</td></tr><tr><td><i>müjde</i></td><td>myʒˈde</td><td>good news</td></tr><tr><td><i>lazım</i></td><td>laːˈzɯm</td><td>necessary</td></tr><tr><td><i>mahkûm</i></td><td>mahˈcum</td><td>condemned</td></tr></tbody></table> <h2 id="sample-texts">Sample texts</h2> <h3><i>Dostlar Beni Hatırlasın</i></h3> <p><i>Dostlar Beni Hatırlasın</i> is a <a href="/facts/Turkish_folk_literature/D2SyyYdt">Turkish folk poem</a> by the world-renowned poet and <a href="/facts/Ashik/4F2ILctP">ashik</a> <a href="/facts/%25C3%2582%25C5%259F%25C4%25B1k_Veysel_%25C5%259Eat%25C4%25B1ro%25C4%259Flu/rSymlF6K">Âşık Veysel Şatıroğlu</a> (1894–1973). </p> <table><tbody><tr><th><a href="/facts/Turkish_orthography/Skpn0bkK">Turkish orthography</a></th><th>IPA transcription</th><th><a href="/facts/English_language/tpkxGt7b">English</a> <a href="/facts/Translation/2foI82so">translation</a></th></tr><tr><td><i>Ben giderim adım kalır</i></td><td>[bɛɲ ɟid̪e̞ɾim äd̪ɯm käɫɯɾ]</td><td>I depart, my name remains</td></tr><tr><td><i>Dostlar beni hatırlasın</i></td><td>[d̪o̞st̪ɫäɾ be̞ni hätɯɾɫäsɯn]</td><td>May friends remember me</td></tr><tr><td><i>Düğün olur bayram gelir</i></td><td>[d̪yjyn o̞ɫuɾ bäjɾäm ɟe̞liɾ]</td><td>There are weddings, there are feasts</td></tr><tr><td><i>Dostlar beni hatırlasın</i></td><td>[d̪o̞st̪ɫäɾ be̞ni hätɯɾɫäsɯn]</td><td>May friends remember me</td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td><i>Can kafeste durmaz uçar</i></td><td>[d͡ʒäŋ käfe̞st̪e̞ d̪uɾmäz ut͡ʃäɾ]</td><td>The soul won't stay caged, it flies away</td></tr><tr><td><i>Dünya bir han konan göçer</i></td><td>[d̪ynjä biɾ häŋ ko̞näɲ ɟø̞t͡ʃɛɾ]</td><td>The world is an inn, residents depart</td></tr><tr><td><i>Ay dolanır yıllar geçer</i></td><td>[äj d̪o̞ɫänɯɾ jɯɫːäɾ ɟe̞t͡ʃɛɾ]</td><td>The moon wanders, years pass by</td></tr><tr><td><i>Dostlar beni hatırlasın</i></td><td>[d̪o̞st̪ɫäɾ be̞ni hätɯɾɫäsɯn]</td><td>May friends remember me</td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td><i>Can bedenden ayrılacak</i></td><td>[d͡ʒän be̞d̪ɛnd̪ɛn äjɾɯɫäd͡ʒäk]</td><td>The soul will leave the body</td></tr><tr><td><i>Tütmez baca yanmaz ocak</i></td><td>[t̪yt̪mɛz bäd͡ʒä jänmäz o̞d͡ʒäk]</td><td>The chimney won't smoke, furnace won't burn</td></tr><tr><td><i>Selam olsun kucak kucak</i></td><td>[se̞läːm o̞ɫsuŋ kud͡ʒäk kud͡ʒäk]</td><td>Goodbye goodbye to you all</td></tr><tr><td><i>Dostlar beni hatırlasın</i></td><td>[d̪o̞st̪ɫäɾ be̞ni hätɯɾɫäsɯn]</td><td>May friends remember me</td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td><i>Açar solar türlü çiçek</i></td><td>[ät͡ʃäɾ so̞läɾ t̪yɾly t͡ʃit͡ʃe̞k]</td><td>Various flowers bloom and fade</td></tr><tr><td><i>Kimler gülmüş kim gülecek</i></td><td>[kimlɛɾ ɟylmyʃ kim ɟyle̞d͡ʒe̞k]</td><td>Someone laughed, someone will laugh</td></tr><tr><td><i>Murat yalan ölüm gerçek</i></td><td>[muɾät jäɫän ø̞lym gɛɾt͡ʃe̞k]</td><td>Wishes are lies, death is real</td></tr><tr><td><i>Dostlar beni hatırlasın</i></td><td>[d̪o̞st̪ɫäɾ be̞ni hätɯɾɫäsɯn]</td><td>May friends remember me</td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td><i>Gün ikindi akşam olur</i></td><td>[ɟyn ikindi äkʃäm o̞ɫuɾ]</td><td>Morning and afternoon turn to night</td></tr><tr><td><i>Gör ki başa neler gelir</i></td><td>[ɟø̞ɾ ki bäʃä ne̞lɛɾ ɟe̞liɾ]</td><td>And many things happen to a person anyway</td></tr><tr><td><i>Veysel gider adı kalır</i></td><td>[ve̞jsɛl ɟidɛɾ äd̪ɯ käɫɯɾ]</td><td>Veysel departs, his name remains</td></tr><tr><td><i>Dostlar beni hatırlasın</i></td><td>[d̪o̞st̪ɫäɾ be̞ni hätɯɾɫäsɯn]</td><td>May friends remember me</td></tr></tbody></table> <h3><i>İnsan Hakları Evrensel Bildirisi</i></h3> <p>Article 1 of the <a href="/facts/Universal_Declaration_of_Human_Rights/8hsauJsB">Universal Declaration of Human Rights</a> in Turkish: </p> <i>Bütün insanlar hür, haysiyet ve haklar bakımından eşit doğarlar. Akıl ve vicdana sahiptirler ve birbirlerine karşı kardeşlik zihniyeti ile hareket etmelidirler.</i> <p>Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in English: </p> All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood. <p><a href="/facts/International_Phonetic_Alphabet/2e7jmUaG">International Phonetic Alphabet</a> transcription: </p> [byˈt̪ʰyn̪ in̪s̪än̪ˈɫ̪äɾ̞̊ hyɾ̞̊ häjs̪iˈje̞t̪ ve̞ häk̠ˈɫ̪äɾ‿bäk̠ʰɯmɯn̪ˈd̪än̪ e̞ˈʃit̪ d̪o̞.äˈɫ̪äɾ̞̊ ‖ äˈk̠ʰɯɫ̪ ve̞ vid͡ʒd̪äˈn̪ä sä(h)ipt̪ʰiɾˈl̠ɛɾ̞̊ ve̞ biɾbiɾl̠e̞ɾiˈn̪e̞ k̠ʰäɾˈʃɯ k̠ʰäɾd̪e̞ʃˈl̠ik̟ z̪ihn̪ije̞ˈt̪ʰi‿iˈl̠e̞ häɾe̞ˈk̟ʰe̞t̪ e̞t̪me̞l̠id̪iɾˈl̠ɛɾ̞̊ ‖] <h2 id="turkish-computer-keyboard">Turkish computer keyboard</h2> <p>Turkish language uses two standardised <a href="/facts/Keyboard_layout/6aYkBXuK">keyboard layouts</a>, known as Turkish Q (QWERTY) and Turkish F, with Turkish Q being the most common. </p> <h2 id="see-also">See also</h2> <ul> <li>Turkey portal</li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Sun_Language_Theory/m2nrKa9k">Sun Language Theory</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Turkish_name/SLt8SaYV">Turkish name</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Turkish_Sign_Language/jyUcSJes">Turkish Sign Language</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/List_of_English_words_of_Turkic_origin/BsbkNfTh">List of English words of Turkic origin</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Languages_used_on_the_Internet/YVfKb7CU">Languages used on the Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Turkish_bird_language/mxEHobSq">Turkish bird language</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/%25C3%2596zt%25C3%25BCrk%25C3%25A7e/n7cKpnXY">Öztürkçe</a></li></ul> <h2 id="notes">Notes</h2> <h3>Sources</h3> <ul><li>Bazin, Louis (1975). "Turcs et Sogdiens: Les Enseignements de L'Inscription de Bugut (Mongolie), Mélanges Linguistiques Offerts à Émile Benveniste". <i>Collection Linguistique, Publiée Par la Société de Linguistique de Paris</i> (in French) (LXX): 37–45.</li> <li><i>Encyclopaedia Britannica, Expo 70 Edition Vol 12</i>. William Benton. 1970.</li> <li>Ergin, Muharrem (1980). <i>Orhun Abideleri</i> (in Turkish). Boğaziçi Yayınları. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 0-19-517726-6.</li> <li>Ishjatms, N. (October 1996). "Nomads In Eastern Central Asia". <i>History of civilizations of Central Asia</i>. Vol. 2. UNESCO Publishing. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 92-3-102846-4.</li> <li><a href="/facts/Bert_Vaux/4HkDb4ef">Vaux, Bert</a> (2001). <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070315154048/http://www.uwm.edu/~vaux/hamshen.pdf">"Hemshinli: The Forgotten Black Sea Armenians"</a> (PDF). <a href="/facts/Harvard_University/Lhy9L1cx">Harvard University</a>. Archived from <a href="http://www.uwm.edu/~vaux/hamshen.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on March 15, 2007. Retrieved 2007-04-24.</li></ul> <p>On-line sources </p> <ul><li>Center for Studies on Turkey, <a href="/facts/University_of_Essen/2AGouBgx">University of Essen</a> (2003). <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20051204091302/http://www.tusiad.org/haberler/basin/ab/9.pdf">"The European Turks: Gross Domestic Product, Working Population, Entrepreneurs and Household Data"</a> (PDF). Turkish Industrialists' and Businessmen's Association. Archived from <a href="http://www.tusiad.org/haberler/basin/ab/9.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on December 4, 2005. Retrieved 2007-01-06.</li> <li><a href="http://www.nisanyansozluk.com">"Turkish Etymological Dictionary online"</a> (in Turkish). Sevan Nişanyan. 2006. Retrieved 2007-09-11.</li> <li><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071011180149/http://www.lmp.ucla.edu/Profile.aspx?LangID=67&menu=004">"Language Materials Project: Turkish"</a>. <a href="/facts/UCLA/KwPz7AK1">UCLA</a> International Institute, Center for World Languages. February 2007. Archived from <a href="http://www.lmp.ucla.edu/Profile.aspx?LangID=67&menu=004">the original</a> on 2007-10-11. Retrieved 2007-04-26.</li> <li><a href="/facts/Turkish_Language_Association/zPwLkuS3">Turkish Language Association</a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070316024438/http://www.tdk.gov.tr/TR/BelgeGoster.aspx?F6E10F8892433CFFAAF6AA849816B2EF2858DA18F4388CDD">"Türk Dil Kurumu – Tarihçe (History of the Turkish Language Association)"</a> (in Turkish). Archived from <a href="http://www.tdk.gov.tr/TR/BelgeGoster.aspx?F6E10F8892433CFFAAF6AA849816B2EF2858DA18F4388CDD">the original</a> on 2007-03-16. Retrieved 2007-03-18.</li> <li><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070301064559/http://www.tdk.gov.tr/TR/BelgeGoster.aspx?F6E10F8892433CFFAAF6AA849816B2EF1A46C5FBFA979D0C">"Türkçe Sözlük (2005)'teki Sözlerin Kökenlerine Ait Sayısal Döküm (Numerical list on the origin of words in <i>Türkçe Sözlük (2005)</i>)"</a> (in Turkish). <a href="/facts/Turkish_Language_Association/zPwLkuS3">Turkish Language Association</a>. 2005. Archived from <a href="http://www.tdk.gov.tr/TR/BelgeGoster.aspx?F6E10F8892433CFFAAF6AA849816B2EF1A46C5FBFA979D0C">the original</a> on March 1, 2007. Retrieved 2007-03-21.</li> <li><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130313043006/http://www.turkishstudies.net/Makaleler/1934555583_85Kad%c4%b1u%20Spartak_S-1593-1603.pdf">"Spartak KADIU : Türkçede zaman ve kip kavramı ve i-ek eylemin fonksiyonu üzerine"</a> (PDF) (in Turkish). Turkish Studies: International Periodical For The Languages, Literature and History of Turkish or Turkic Volume 7/3. Archived from <a href="http://www.turkishstudies.net/Makaleler/1934555583_85Kad%c4%b1u%20Spartak_S-1593-1603.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 2013-03-13. Retrieved 2013-01-15.</li></ul> <h2 id="further-reading">Further reading</h2> <ul><li>Eyüboğlu, İsmet Zeki (1991). <i>Türk Dilinin Etimoloji Sözlüğü</i> [<i>Etymological Dictionary of the Turkish Language</i>] (in Turkish). Sosyal Yayınları, İstanbul. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978975-7384-72-4.</li> <li>Özel, Sevgi; Haldun Özen; Ali Püsküllüoğlu, eds. (1986). <i>Atatürk'ün Türk Dil Kurumu ve Sonrası</i> [<i>Atatürk's Turkish Language Association and its Legacy</i>] (in Turkish). Bilgi Yayınevi, Ankara. <a href="/facts/OCLC_(identifier)/Yqad8waq">OCLC</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/18836678">18836678</a>.</li> <li>Püsküllüoğlu, Ali (2004). <i>Arkadaş Türkçe Sözlük</i> [<i>Arkadaş Turkish Dictionary</i>] (in Turkish). Arkadaş Yayınevi, Ankara. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 975-509-053-3.</li> <li>Rezvani, B. "Türkçe Mi: Türkçe’deki İrani (Farsca, Dimilce, Kurmançca) Orijinli kelimeler Sözlüğü.[Turkish title (roughly translated): Is this Turkish? An etymological dictionary of originally Iranic (Persian, Zazaki, and Kurmanji Kurdish) words]." (2006).</li></ul> <h2 id="external-links">External links</h2> <ul><li><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:Turkish_Swadesh_list">Swadesh list of Turkish basic vocabulary words</a> (from Wiktionary's <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:Swadesh_lists">Swadesh-list appendix</a>)</li> <li><a href="http://www.umich.edu/~turkish/langres_tr.html">Turkish Language: Resources – University of Michigan</a></li></ul> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>Balci, Bayram (2018). Islam in Central Asia and the Caucasus Since the Fall of the Soviet Union. Oxford University Press. p. 36. ISBN 978-0-19-005030-6. <a href="978-0-19-005030-6" target="_blank">978-0-19-005030-6</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>Boeschoten, Hendrik; Johanson, Lars; Milani, Vildan (2006). Turkic Languages in Contact. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. ISBN 978-3-447-05212-2. <a href="978-3-447-05212-2" target="_blank">978-3-447-05212-2</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>"The Muslim Minority of Greek Thrace". Archived from the original on 2017-07-01. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170701074825/http://www.hri.org/MFA/foreign/musminen.htm" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20170701074825/http://www.hri.org/MFA/foreign/musminen.htm</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:4"><p>Aalto, P. "Iranian Contacts of the Turks in Pre-Islamic times", in Studia Turcica, ed. L. Ligeti, Budapest, 1971, pp. 29–37. <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:5"><p>Benzing, J. Einführung in das Studium der altäischen Philologie und der Turkologie, Wiesbaden, 1953. <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:6"><p>Starostin, George (2016-04-05), "Altaic Languages", Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Linguistics, doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780199384655.013.35, ISBN 978-0-19-938465-5, retrieved 2023-07-11 <a href="978-0-19-938465-5" target="_blank">978-0-19-938465-5</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:7"><p>Gandjeï, T. "Über die türkischen und mongolischen Elemente der persischen Dichtung der Ilchan-Zeit", in Ural-altaische Jahrbücher 30, 1958, pp. 229–31. <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:8"><p>Gandjeï, T. "Über die türkischen und mongolischen Elemente der persischen Dichtung der Ilchan-Zeit", in Ural-altaische Jahrbücher 30, 1958, pp. 229–31. <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:9"><p>Erdal, Marcel (March 2004). A Grammar Of Old Turkic. <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:10"><p>"A Database of Turkic Runiform Inscriptions". Archived from the original on 2017-03-26. Retrieved 2017-03-26. <a href="http://www.runiform.lingfil.uu.se/" target="_blank">http://www.runiform.lingfil.uu.se/</a> <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:11"><p>Findley, Carter V. (October 2004). The Turks in World History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-517726-6. <a href="0-19-517726-6" target="_blank">0-19-517726-6</a> <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:12"><p>Soucek, Svat (2000). A History of Inner Asia. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-65169-1. <a href="978-0-521-65169-1" target="_blank">978-0-521-65169-1</a> <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:13"><p>Glenny, Misha (2001). The Balkans: Nationalism, War, and the Great Powers, 1804-1999. New York: Penguin. p. 99. <a href="/wiki/Misha_Glenny" target="_blank">/wiki/Misha_Glenny</a> <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:14"><p>Evliyâ Çelebi Seyahatnâmesi: III. pp. 174–175. Retrieved 17 October 2022. <a href="https://archive.org/details/EvliyelebiSeyahatnmesiIII/page/n174/mode/2up" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/EvliyelebiSeyahatnmesiIII/page/n174/mode/2up</a> <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:15"><p>See Lewis (2002) for a thorough treatment of the Turkish language reform.[28] <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:16"><p>Turkish Language Association. "Türk Dil Kurumu – Tarihçe (History of the Turkish Language Association)" (in Turkish). Archived from the original on March 16, 2007. Retrieved 2007-03-18. <a href="/wiki/Turkish_Language_Association" target="_blank">/wiki/Turkish_Language_Association</a> <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:17"><p>Szurek, Emmanuel (2015-02-17). Aymes, Marc (ed.). Order and Compromise: Government Practices in Turkey from the Late Ottoman Empire to the Early 21st Century. Brill Publishers. p. 94. ISBN 978-90-04-28985-7. Archived from the original on 2023-01-15. Retrieved 2021-08-03. <a href="978-90-04-28985-7" target="_blank">978-90-04-28985-7</a> <a href="#fnref:17" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:18"><p>See Lewis (2002), pages 2-3.[28] For the first two translations. For the third, see Bedi Yazıcı.[31] <a href="#fnref:18" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:19"><p>"Öz Türkçeleştirme Çalışmaları". Çok Bilgi. Archived from the original on 14 July 2019. Retrieved 29 May 2014. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190714065848/https://www.cokbilgi.com/yazi/oz-turkcelestirme-calismalari/" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20190714065848/https://www.cokbilgi.com/yazi/oz-turkcelestirme-calismalari/</a> <a href="#fnref:19" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:20"><p>Mütercim Asım (1799). Burhân-ı Katı Tercemesi (in Turkish). İstanbul. <a href="#fnref:20" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:21"><p>"Iraq". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2016. Archived from the original on 2017-10-31. Retrieved 2017-03-25. <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Iraq/Arabs#toc22939" target="_blank">https://www.britannica.com/place/Iraq/Arabs#toc22939</a> <a href="#fnref:21" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:22"><p>Kurdish, Northern at Ethnologue (25th ed., 2022) <a href="https://www.ethnologue.com/25/language/kmr" target="_blank">https://www.ethnologue.com/25/language/kmr</a> <a href="#fnref:22" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:23"><p>See for example citations given in Cindark, Ibrahim/Aslan, Sema (2004).[36] <a href="#fnref:23" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:24"><p>European Commission (2006). "Special Eurobarometer 243: Europeans and their Languages (Survey)" (PDF). Europa. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2016-04-14. 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Milliyet. 18 November 2012. Archived from the original on 2018-11-11. Retrieved 2017-12-30. <a href="http://www.milliyet.com.tr/-magazin-1628628/" target="_blank">http://www.milliyet.com.tr/-magazin-1628628/</a> <a href="#fnref:35" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:36"><p>Johanson, Lars (2001), Discoveries on the Turkic linguistic map (PDF), Swedish Research Institute in Istanbul, archived from the original (PDF) on February 5, 2007, retrieved 2007-03-18 <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070205070509/http://www.srii.org/Map.pdf" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20070205070509/http://www.srii.org/Map.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:36" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:37"><p>Özsoy, A. Sumru; Taylan, Eser E., eds. (2000). Türkçe'nin ağızları çalıştayı bildirileri [Workshop on the dialects of Turkish] (in Turkish). Boğaziçi University Yayınevi. ISBN 975-518-140-7. <a href="975-518-140-7" target="_blank">975-518-140-7</a> <a href="#fnref:37" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:38"><p>Akalın, Şükrü Halûk (January 2003). "Türk Dil Kurumu'nun 2002 yılı çalışmaları (Turkish Language Association progress report for 2002)" (PDF). Türk Dili (in Turkish). 85 (613). ISSN 1301-465X. Archived from the original (PDF) on June 27, 2007. Retrieved 2007-03-18. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070627231538/http://www.tdk.gov.tr/TR/dosyagoster.aspx?DIL=1&BELGEANAH=2693&DOSYAISIM=calismalar2002.pdf" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20070627231538/http://www.tdk.gov.tr/TR/dosyagoster.aspx?DIL=1&BELGEANAH=2693&DOSYAISIM=calismalar2002.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:38" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:39"><p>Shashi, Shyam Singh (1992). Encyclopaedia of Humanities and Social Sciences. Anmol Publications. p. 47. Archived from the original on 2023-01-15. Retrieved 2008-03-26. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4T0oAAAAMAAJ&q=yoruk+turkish+taurus" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=4T0oAAAAMAAJ&q=yoruk+turkish+taurus</a> <a href="#fnref:39" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:40"><p>Aydıngün, Ayşegül; Harding, Çiğdem Balım; Hoover, Matthew; Kuznetsov, Igor; Swerdlow, Steve (2006), Meskhetian Turks: An Introduction to their History, Culture, and Resettelment Experiences (PDF), Center for Applied Linguistics, archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-07-14 <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070714205907/http://www.cal.org/co/pdffiles/mturks.pdf" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20070714205907/http://www.cal.org/co/pdffiles/mturks.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:40" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:41"><p>Brendemoen, B. (1996). Phonological Aspects of Greek-Turkish Language Contact in Trabzon. Conference on Turkish in Contact, Netherlands Institute for Advanced Study (NIAS) in the Humanities and Social Sciences, Wassenaar, 5–6 February 1996. <a href="#fnref:41" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:42"><p>Balta, Evangelia (Fall 2017). "Translating Books from Greek into Turkish for the Karamanli Orthodox Christians of Anatolia (1718–1856)". International Journal of Turkish Studies. 23 (1–2): 20 – via Ebsco. <a href="#fnref:42" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:43"><p>Zimmer, Karl; Orgun, Orhan (1999). "Turkish" (PDF). Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A guide to the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 154–158. ISBN 0-521-65236-7. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2018-07-25. Retrieved 2015-04-12. <a href="0-521-65236-7" target="_blank">0-521-65236-7</a> <a href="#fnref:43" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:44"><p>Petrova, Olga; Plapp, Rosemary; Ringen, Catherine; Szentgyörgyi, Szilárd (2006). "Voice and aspiration: Evidence from Russian, Hungarian, German, Swedish, and Turkish" (PDF). The Linguistic Review. 23 (1): 1–35. doi:10.1515/tlr.2006.001. ISSN 0167-6318. S2CID 42712078. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2018-09-08. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180908054256/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/7a27/5c57dd25134aa7628c46a64ca470cc3a71db.pdf" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20180908054256/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/7a27/5c57dd25134aa7628c46a64ca470cc3a71db.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:44" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:45"><p>Zimmer, Karl; Orgun, Orhan (1999). "Turkish" (PDF). Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A guide to the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 154–158. ISBN 0-521-65236-7. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2018-07-25. Retrieved 2015-04-12. <a href="0-521-65236-7" target="_blank">0-521-65236-7</a> <a href="#fnref:45" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:46"><p>Lewis, Geoffrey (2001). Turkish Grammar. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-870036-9. <a href="0-19-870036-9" target="_blank">0-19-870036-9</a> <a href="#fnref:46" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:47"><p>"Sesler ve ses uyumları "Sounds and Vovel karmony"" (in Turkish). Turkish Language Association. Archived from the original on 2012-07-28. Retrieved 2013-01-13. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120728093237/http://www.imla.dilimiz.com/TDK/unsuzlerinnitelikleri.HTM" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20120728093237/http://www.imla.dilimiz.com/TDK/unsuzlerinnitelikleri.HTM</a> <a href="#fnref:47" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:48"><p>"Turkish Consonant Mutation". turkishbasics.com. Archived from the original on 2018-05-02. Retrieved 2018-05-02. <a href="http://turkishbasics.com/grammar/consonant-mutation.php" target="_blank">http://turkishbasics.com/grammar/consonant-mutation.php</a> <a href="#fnref:48" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:49"><p>Lewis, Geoffrey (2001). Turkish Grammar. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-870036-9. <a href="0-19-870036-9" target="_blank">0-19-870036-9</a> <a href="#fnref:49" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:50"><p>The vowel represented by ⟨ı⟩ is also commonly transcribed as ⟨ɨ⟩ in linguistic literature. <a href="#fnref:50" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:51"><p>Goksel, Asli; Kerslake, Celia (2005). Turkish: A Comprehensive Grammar. Routledge. pp. 24–25. ISBN 0-415-11494-2. <a href="0-415-11494-2" target="_blank">0-415-11494-2</a> <a href="#fnref:51" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:52"><p>Khalilzadeh, Amir (Winter 2010). "Vowel Harmony in Turkish". Karadeniz Araştırmaları: Balkan, Kafkas, Doğu Avrupa ve Anadolu İncelemeleri Dergisi. 6 (24): 141–150. <a href="#fnref:52" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:53"><p>Zimmer, Karl; Orgun, Orhan (1999). "Turkish" (PDF). Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A guide to the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 154–158. ISBN 0-521-65236-7. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2018-07-25. Retrieved 2015-04-12. <a href="0-521-65236-7" target="_blank">0-521-65236-7</a> <a href="#fnref:53" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:54"><p>Mundy, C. (1957). Turkish Syntax as a System of Qualification. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 279–305. <a href="#fnref:54" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:55"><p>Mundy, C. (1957). Turkish Syntax as a System of Qualification. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 279–305. <a href="#fnref:55" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:56"><p>Mundy, C. (1957). Turkish Syntax as a System of Qualification. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 279–305. <a href="#fnref:56" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:57"><p>Deny, J. (1921). Grammaire de la langue turque. Paris: Éditions E. Leroux. <a href="#fnref:57" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:58"><p>von Gabain, A. (1950). Alttürkische Grammatik. <a href="#fnref:58" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:59"><p>Deny, J. (1921). Grammaire de la langue turque. Paris: Éditions E. Leroux. <a href="#fnref:59" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:60"><p>Mundy, C. (1957). Turkish Syntax as a System of Qualification. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 279–305. <a href="#fnref:60" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:61"><p>Lewis, Geoffrey (1953). Teach Yourself Turkish. English Universities Press. ISBN 978-0-340-49231-4. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help) <a href="978-0-340-49231-4" target="_blank">978-0-340-49231-4</a> <a href="#fnref:61" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:62"><p>For the terms twofold and fourfold, as well as the superscript notation, see Lewis (1953), pages 21-22.[62] <a href="#fnref:62" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:63"><p>Lewis, Geoffrey (2001). Turkish Grammar. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-870036-9. <a href="0-19-870036-9" target="_blank">0-19-870036-9</a> <a href="#fnref:63" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:64"><p>Underhill, Robert (1976). Turkish Grammar. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press. p. 25. ISBN 0-262-21006-1. <a href="0-262-21006-1" target="_blank">0-262-21006-1</a> <a href="#fnref:64" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:65"><p>In modern Turkish orthography, an apostrophe is used to separate proper names from any suffixes. <a href="#fnref:65" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:66"><p>Husby, Olaf. "Diagnostic use of nonword repetition for detection of language impairment among Turkish speaking minority children in Norway". Working Papers Department of Language and Communication Studies NTNV. 3/2006: 139–149. Archived from the original on 2022-10-23. Retrieved 2017-07-28 – via Academia.edu. <a href="https://www.academia.edu/3029750" target="_blank">https://www.academia.edu/3029750</a> <a href="#fnref:66" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:67"><p>Boeschoten, Hendrik; Johanson, Lars; Milani, Vildan (2006). Turkic Languages in Contact. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. ISBN 978-3-447-05212-2. <a href="978-3-447-05212-2" target="_blank">978-3-447-05212-2</a> <a href="#fnref:67" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:68"><p>Mundy, C. (1957). Turkish Syntax as a System of Qualification. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 279–305. <a href="#fnref:68" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:69"><p>Mundy, C. (1957). Turkish Syntax as a System of Qualification. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 279–305. <a href="#fnref:69" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:70"><p>Deny, J. (1921). Grammaire de la langue turque. Paris: Éditions E. Leroux. <a href="#fnref:70" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:71"><p>Deny, J. (1921). Grammaire de la langue turque. Paris: Éditions E. Leroux. <a href="#fnref:71" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:72"><p>Deny, J. (1921). Grammaire de la langue turque. Paris: Éditions E. Leroux. <a href="#fnref:72" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:73"><p>von Gabain, A. (1950). Alttürkische Grammatik. <a href="#fnref:73" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:74"><p>Goksel, Asli; Kerslake, Celia (2005). Turkish: A Comprehensive Grammar. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-11494-2. <a href="0-415-11494-2" target="_blank">0-415-11494-2</a> <a href="#fnref:74" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:75"><p>Underhill, Robert (1976). Turkish Grammar. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-21006-1. <a href="0-262-21006-1" target="_blank">0-262-21006-1</a> <a href="#fnref:75" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:76"><p>Underhill, Robert (1976). Turkish Grammar. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-21006-1. <a href="0-262-21006-1" target="_blank">0-262-21006-1</a> <a href="#fnref:76" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:77"><p>Thompson, Sandra (April 1978). "Modern English from a Typological Point of View: Some Implications of the Function of Word Order". Linguistische Berlichte. 1978 (54): 19–35 – via ProQuest. <a href="#fnref:77" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:78"><p>Erguvanlı, Eser Emine (1984). The Function of Word Order in Turkish Grammar. Linguistics Vol. 106. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-09955-9. <a href="0-520-09955-9" target="_blank">0-520-09955-9</a> <a href="#fnref:78" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:79"><p>Goksel, Asli; Kerslake, Celia (2005). Turkish: A Comprehensive Grammar. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-11494-2. <a href="0-415-11494-2" target="_blank">0-415-11494-2</a> <a href="#fnref:79" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:80"><p>Kiliçasaslan, Yılmaz. "A Typological Approach to Sentence Structure in Turkish" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2015-05-30. Retrieved 2017-07-28. <a href="http://www.turkofoni.org/files/a_typological_approach_to_sentence_structure_in_turkish-yilmaz_kili_arslan_trakya_uni.pdf" target="_blank">http://www.turkofoni.org/files/a_typological_approach_to_sentence_structure_in_turkish-yilmaz_kili_arslan_trakya_uni.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:80" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:81"><p>This section draws heavily on Lewis (2001)[54] and, to a lesser extent, Lewis (1953).[62] Only the most important references are specifically flagged with footnotes. <a href="#fnref:81" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:82"><p>Lewis, Geoffrey (2001). Turkish Grammar. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-870036-9. <a href="0-19-870036-9" target="_blank">0-19-870036-9</a> <a href="#fnref:82" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:83"><p>"The prefix, which is accented, is modelled on the first syllable of the simple adjective or adverb but with the substitution of m, p, r, or s for the last consonant of that syllable.[54]: 55 The prefix retains the first vowel of the base form and thus exhibits a form of reverse vowel harmony. <a href="#fnref:83" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:84"><p>This "splendid word" appeared at the time of Bayram, the festival marking the end of the month of fasting.[54]: 287 <a href="/wiki/Ramadan" target="_blank">/wiki/Ramadan</a> <a href="#fnref:84" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:85"><p>"İmlâ Kilavuzu". Dilimiz.com. Archived from the original on 2011-10-06. Retrieved 2011-11-03. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111006001226/http://www.dilimiz.com/dil/imlakilavuzu/TDK/imlaanasayfa.htm" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20111006001226/http://www.dilimiz.com/dil/imlakilavuzu/TDK/imlaanasayfa.htm</a> <a href="#fnref:85" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:86"><p>Because it is also used for the indefinite accusative, Lewis uses the term "absolute case" in preference to "nominative".[54]: 28 <a href="#fnref:86" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:87"><p>Lewis points out that "an indefinite izafet group can be turned into intelligible (though not necessarily normal) English by the use of a hyphen".[54]: 42 <a href="#fnref:87" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:88"><p>Lewis, Geoffrey (2001). Turkish Grammar. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-870036-9. <a href="0-19-870036-9" target="_blank">0-19-870036-9</a> <a href="#fnref:88" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:89"><p>For other possible permutations of this vehicle, see Lewis (2001):46.[54] <a href="#fnref:89" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:90"><p>"It is most important to note that the third-person suffix is not repeated though theoretically one might have expected Ankara [Kız Lisesi]si.[54]: 45 footnote <a href="#fnref:90" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:91"><p>Note the similarity with the French phrase un m'as-tu-vu "a have-you-seen-me?", i.e., a vain and pretentious person. <a href="#fnref:91" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:92"><p>The term substantival sentence is Lewis's.[54]: 257 <a href="#fnref:92" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:93"><p>Demir, Celal (2007). "Türkiye Türkçesi Gramerlerinde İsim Tamlaması Sorunu ve Bir Tasnif Denemesi" [The Problem of Adjective in Turkish: An Attempt of Classification] (PDF). Türk Dünyası İncelemeleri Dergisi [Journal of Turkish World Studies] (in Turkish). 7 (1): 27–54. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2013-05-02. Retrieved 2013-03-29. <a href="http://turkoloji.cu.edu.tr/YENI%20TURK%20DILI/celal_demir_gramer_isim_tamlamasi_sorunu.pdf" target="_blank">http://turkoloji.cu.edu.tr/YENI%20TURK%20DILI/celal_demir_gramer_isim_tamlamasi_sorunu.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:93" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:94"><p>de Haan, Ferdinand (2013). "Coding of Evidentiality". In Matthew S. Dryer & Martin Haspelmath (ed.). WALS Online (v2020.3). Retrieved 2024-02-03. <a href="http://wals.info/chapter/78" target="_blank">http://wals.info/chapter/78</a> <a href="#fnref:94" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:95"><p>DeLancey, Scott (1997). "Mirativity: The grammatical marking of unexpected information". Linguistic Typology. 1: 33–52. doi:10.1515/lity.1997.1.1.33. S2CID 122264213. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:95" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:96"><p>Yüksel Göknel:Turkish Grammar Archived 2013-05-16 at the Wayback Machine[full citation needed] <a href="https://tr.scribd.com/doc/115291192/TURKISH-GRAMMAR-UPDATED-ACADEMIC-EDITION-YUKSEL-GOKNEL-OCTOBER-2012-signed-pdf" target="_blank">https://tr.scribd.com/doc/115291192/TURKISH-GRAMMAR-UPDATED-ACADEMIC-EDITION-YUKSEL-GOKNEL-OCTOBER-2012-signed-pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:96" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:97"><p>"Turkish Studies Vol 7/3" (PDF) (in Turkish). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-03-13. Retrieved 2013-03-29. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130313043006/http://www.turkishstudies.net/Makaleler/1934555583_85Kad%c4%b1u%20Spartak_S-1593-1603.pdf" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20130313043006/http://www.turkishstudies.net/Makaleler/1934555583_85Kad%c4%b1u%20Spartak_S-1593-1603.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:97" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:98"><p>"Dersimiz Edebiyat Online course" (in Turkish). Dersimizedebiyat.com. Archived from the original on 2013-05-18. Retrieved 2013-03-29. <a href="http://www.dersimizedebiyat.com/icerik_detay.asp?icr=63&bs=S%F6zc%FCk%20(%20Kelime%20)%20T%FCrleri%20-%20Fiiller%20(%20Eylemler%20)" target="_blank">http://www.dersimizedebiyat.com/icerik_detay.asp?icr=63&bs=S%F6zc%FCk%20(%20Kelime%20)%20T%FCrleri%20-%20Fiiller%20(%20Eylemler%20)</a> <a href="#fnref:98" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:99"><p>The conventional translation of the film title Dünyayı Kurtaran Adam, The Man Who Saved the World, uses the past tense. Semantically, his saving the world takes place though in the (narrative) present. <a href="/wiki/D%C3%BCnyay%C4%B1_Kurtaran_Adam" target="_blank">/wiki/D%C3%BCnyay%C4%B1_Kurtaran_Adam</a> <a href="#fnref:99" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:100"><p>See Lewis (2001):163–165, 260–262 for an exhaustive treatment.[54] <a href="#fnref:100" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:101"><p>For the terms personal and relative participle see Lewis (1958):98 and Lewis (2001):163 respectively. Most of the examples are taken from Lewis (2001).[54] <a href="#fnref:101" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:102"><p>This more complex example from Orhan Pamuk's Kar (Snow) contains a nested structure: [which he knew [were approaching]]. Maureen Freely's more succinct and idiomatic translation is the days in prison he knew lay ahead. Pamuk uses the spelling hapisane. <a href="/wiki/Orhan_Pamuk" target="_blank">/wiki/Orhan_Pamuk</a> <a href="#fnref:102" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:103"><p>From the perspective of Turkish grammar yaklaştığını anladığı is exactly parallel to babasını gördüğüm ("whose father I saw"), and could therefore be paraphrased as "whose approaching he understood". <a href="#fnref:103" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:104"><p>"2011 Türkçe Sözlük yenileniyor" (in Turkish). Hürriyet. Archived from the original on 2022-12-06. Retrieved 2016-05-07. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221206031035/https://www.hurriyet.com.tr/gundem/2011-turkce-sozluk-yenileniyor-40100532" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20221206031035/https://www.hurriyet.com.tr/gundem/2011-turkce-sozluk-yenileniyor-40100532</a> <a href="#fnref:104" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:105"><p>"Güncel Türkçe Sözlük" (in Turkish). Turkish Language Association. 2005. Archived from the original on 2007-03-12. Retrieved 2007-03-21. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070312162345/http://www.tdk.gov.tr/TR/BelgeGoster.aspx?F6E10F8892433CFFAAF6AA849816B2EFB40CE59E171C629F" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20070312162345/http://www.tdk.gov.tr/TR/BelgeGoster.aspx?F6E10F8892433CFFAAF6AA849816B2EFB40CE59E171C629F</a> <a href="#fnref:105" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:106"><p>Türk Dil Kurumu (2005). Türkçe Sözlük (10 ed.). Ankara: Türk Dil Kurumu. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110929114554/http://www.tdk.gov.tr/TR/Genel/BelgeGoster.aspx?F6E10F8892433CFFAAF6AA849816B2EF1A46C5FBFA979D0C" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20110929114554/http://www.tdk.gov.tr/TR/Genel/BelgeGoster.aspx?F6E10F8892433CFFAAF6AA849816B2EF1A46C5FBFA979D0C</a> <a href="#fnref:106" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:107"><p>Lewis, Geoffrey (2002). The Turkish Language Reform: A Catastrophic Success. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-925669-1. <a href="0-19-925669-1" target="_blank">0-19-925669-1</a> <a href="#fnref:107" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:108"><p>Goksel, Asli; Kerslake, Celia (2005). Turkish: A Comprehensive Grammar. Routledge. pp. 43–48. ISBN 0-415-11494-2. <a href="0-415-11494-2" target="_blank">0-415-11494-2</a> <a href="#fnref:108" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:109"><p>Zimmer, Karl; Orgun, Orhan (1999). "Turkish" (PDF). Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A guide to the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 154–158. ISBN 0-521-65236-7. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2018-07-25. Retrieved 2015-04-12. <a href="0-521-65236-7" target="_blank">0-521-65236-7</a> <a href="#fnref:109" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:110"><p>Dilaçar, Agop (1977). "Atatürk ve Yazım". Türk Dili (in Turkish). 35 (307). ISSN 1301-465X. Archived from the original on 2007-02-14. Retrieved 2007-03-19. <a href="/wiki/Agop_Dila%C3%A7ar" target="_blank">/wiki/Agop_Dila%C3%A7ar</a> <a href="#fnref:110" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:111"><p>Coulmas, Florian (1989). Writing Systems of the World. Blackwell Publishers Ltd, Oxford. pp. 243–244. ISBN 0-631-18028-1. <a href="0-631-18028-1" target="_blank">0-631-18028-1</a> <a href="#fnref:111" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:112"><p>In modern Turkish spelling: elma ağaçtan ırak düşmez. <a href="#fnref:112" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:113"><p>Celia Kerslake; Asli Goksel (11 June 2014). Turkish: An Essential Grammar. Routledge. p. 12. ISBN 978-1-134-04218-0. Archived from the original on 15 January 2023. Retrieved 11 June 2018. <a href="978-1-134-04218-0" target="_blank">978-1-134-04218-0</a> <a href="#fnref:113" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:114"><p>In these cases the circumflex conveys information about the preceding consonant rather than the vowel over which it is written. <a href="#fnref:114" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:115"><p>Lewis, Geoffrey (2001). Turkish Grammar. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-870036-9. <a href="0-19-870036-9" target="_blank">0-19-870036-9</a> <a href="#fnref:115" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> </ol>