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<h2 id="origins">Origins</h2> <p>The <a href="/facts/World_Health_Organization/YNN3bgug">WHO</a> Constitution states that "the health of all peoples is fundamental to the attainment of peace and security and is dependent upon the fullest co-operation of individuals and States".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13"><sup>13</sup></a> Prevalence of <a href="/facts/Biosecurity/Q1EDEjsD">biosecurity</a> threats, both naturally occurring and intentional acts of <a href="/facts/Bioterrorism/YW2rmVls">bioterrorism</a>, have resulted in the emergence of health security agendas globally.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14"><sup>14</sup></a> The occurrence and threat of infectious <a href="/facts/Disease/55eeQlGL">diseases</a> has increased partially because of the advent of global <a href="/facts/Aviation/HX5MHY71">aviation</a> and the shifting nature of human society.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15"><sup>15</sup></a> Transnational diffusion of diseases may have created many global health insecurities.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16"><sup>16</sup></a> </p><p>The prevalence of disease outbreaks and increased transnational spread of disease in the twentieth century required policymakers to consider new security frameworks.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17"><sup>17</sup></a> The global spread of <a href="/facts/HIV%2fAIDS/RqLIEMuJ">HIV/AIDS</a> in the 1980s provoked political responses, prompting the <a href="/facts/United_Nations_Security_Council/ytwaz2e4">United Nations Security Council</a> to consider disease as a threat to <a href="/facts/International_security/gsfpRwUv">international security</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18"><sup>18</sup></a> In 2001, <a href="/facts/World_Health_Assembly/j4fbxHMc">World Health Assembly</a> Resolution 54.14 determined health security as a strategy for the prevention of the spread of diseases across national borders.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19"><sup>19</sup></a> </p><p>Contemporary security agendas have expanded from traditional security concerns, such as <a href="/facts/Terrorism/DHJGPJ6P">terrorism</a>, <a href="/facts/War/MPluTbJ0">war</a>, and <a href="/facts/Weapon_of_mass_destruction/JfsDSeGo">weapons of mass destruction</a>, to biological threats.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20"><sup>20</sup></a> Whereas traditional approaches to security regard the <a href="/facts/State_(polity)/7ggBzTSk">State</a> as the referent object of analysis, the development of <a href="/facts/Human_security/hsszpc6J">human security</a> highlights the need to include <a href="/facts/Economic_security/H4UFbu6b">economic</a>, personal, community, political, <a href="/facts/Food_security/cKrQd4E9">food</a>, and health insecurities.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21"><sup>21</sup></a> Health security is essential to achieving human security.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22"><sup>22</sup></a> </p><p>Not all health issues are considered threats to <a href="/facts/National_security/DlmpehRa">national security</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23"><sup>23</sup></a> Health security focusses on <a href="/facts/Pandemic/KaJe9rTu">pandemics</a>, <a href="/facts/Epidemic/N7fM3HYd">epidemics</a>, and the spread of infectious disease. Infectious diseases are the most significant threat to <a href="/facts/Public_health/4563Kre9">public health</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24"><sup>24</sup></a> Diseases have the capacity to cause high levels of morbidity and mortality, incite societal fear and disruption, and provoke economic shocks.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25"><sup>25</sup></a> The emergence of new and recurring infectious diseases, including the 2002–2003 <a href="/facts/Severe_acute_respiratory_syndrome/F5b7XSMS">SARS</a> coronavirus novel and the 2009 <a href="/facts/Influenza_A_virus/bKMeST8Q">influenza A</a> (H1N1) virus, pose considerable threat to the global population.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26"><sup>26</sup></a> The rapid, worldwide spread of microbial <a href="/facts/Pathogen/axMXtV1M">pathogens</a> has increased demand for strategic health security policies.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27"><sup>27</sup></a> The expansion of global aviation networks has increased the speed, rate, and volume of connections between nations, increasing the risk of the spread of infectious disease.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28"><sup>28</sup></a> Conventional measures of disease control are no longer viable to mitigate threats to public health.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29"><sup>29</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="role-of-organisations">Role of organisations</h2> <h3>World Health Organization (WHO)</h3> <p>The creation of the <a href="/facts/World_Health_Organization/YNN3bgug">WHO</a> in 1948 recognised the severity of epidemiological events in the wake of the 1918 <a href="/facts/Spanish_flu/dSI1TWUD">Spanish Influenza</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30"><sup>30</sup></a> During <a href="/facts/World_War_II/2efV5L1U">WWII</a>, the security implications of major epidemic events, including <a href="/facts/Malaria/rN3g58CX">malaria</a>, <a href="/facts/Cholera/rk8JfWEp">cholera</a>, <a href="/facts/Yellow_fever/feT3DIKu">yellow fever</a>, <a href="/facts/Typhoid_fever/bKPTIYLl">typhoid</a>, and <a href="/facts/Typhus/tlxCFaHf">typhus</a>, demonstrated the need to establish an institution to mitigate threats to human life and the subsequent economic impacts of such events.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31"><sup>31</sup></a> The WHO was imbued with the constitutional authority to combat pandemics and epidemics.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32"><sup>32</sup></a> </p><p>The WHO has an official role in the guidance and prevention policy of global disease.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33"><sup>33</sup></a> It acts as intermediary between states to ensure the safety of populations through collective health action.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34"><sup>34</sup></a> The WHO oversees the prevention, control, and resolution of infectious disease, assisting governments globally.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35"><sup>35</sup></a> It has a coordinating role and the authority to direct international health activities to manage infectious disease outbreaks and health security.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36"><sup>36</sup></a> </p><p>The WHO's 2005 <a href="/facts/International_Health_Regulations/JNwaWRxz">International Health Regulations</a> (IHR) established standards for the detection and response to international disease outbreak.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37"><sup>37</sup></a> The 194 countries that are WHO signatories are bound by the IHR, implemented to aid in the prevention and response to public health threats.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38"><sup>38</sup></a> Signatories are required to report public health events that might pose threat to the international population within 24 hours of detection.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39"><sup>39</sup></a> Enhanced <a href="/facts/Disease_surveillance/bmBGVw9V">disease surveillance</a> technologies have enabled effective and timely detection and response to public health events.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40"><sup>40</sup></a> </p> <h3>Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)</h3> <p>The <a href="/facts/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention/NmoJNDV5">CDC</a> is the national public health institute of the United States, leading health security.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:41" href="#fn:41"><sup>41</sup></a> It is responsible for protecting the population from health, security, and safety threats.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:42" href="#fn:42"><sup>42</sup></a> Health security has become an increased concern of policymakers, and therefore, has become more central to the agenda of <a href="/facts/Public_health_in_the_United_States/utUnKRuS">public health in the United States</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:43" href="#fn:43"><sup>43</sup></a> </p><p>Following the <a href="/facts/September_11_attacks/PfWQcQNx">9/11 terrorist attacks</a>, the CDC began to stockpile items as part of a Bioterrorism Initiative to strengthen public health preparedness for public health crises and <a href="/facts/Biological_warfare/hLnbu8Sd">biological attacks</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:44" href="#fn:44"><sup>44</sup></a> The stockpile includes vaccines, medical equipment, and therapeutics, designed to be deployed within 12 hours of a public health crisis.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:45" href="#fn:45"><sup>45</sup></a> Similar stockpiles have been developed internationally; the CDC has become a framework for international health security.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:46" href="#fn:46"><sup>46</sup></a> </p> <h3>Global Health Security Agenda (GHSA)</h3> <p>The GHSA was implemented in 2014, in response to the growing threat of <a href="/facts/Ebola/9e8kyCVy">Ebola</a>, to increase capacities for the detection, prevention, and response to naturally, accidentally, or deliberately occurring infectious diseases.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:47" href="#fn:47"><sup>47</sup></a> The agenda is the combined effort of 67 nations, the <a href="/facts/World_Health_Organization/YNN3bgug">WHO</a>, the <a href="/facts/World_Organisation_for_Animal_Health/2aWywqAy">World Organisation for Animal Health</a> (OIE), and the <a href="/facts/Food_and_Agriculture_Organization/13WV8JJK">United Nations Food and Agriculture Organisation</a> (FAO).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:48" href="#fn:48"><sup>48</sup></a> The combination of nations, <a href="/facts/Non-governmental_organization/qxQSsxsI">NGOs</a>, <a href="/facts/International_organization/6yJu9qNB">international organisations</a>, and private sector companies has been developed to advance global security to infectious disease.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:49" href="#fn:49"><sup>49</sup></a> Nations are committed to elevating global health security as a national security priority.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:50" href="#fn:50"><sup>50</sup></a> </p><p>The GHSA has committed to ensuring adequate preparation for pandemics and epidemics.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:51" href="#fn:51"><sup>51</sup></a> The Agenda helps nations identify the strengths and weaknesses of domestic and international health systems, ensuring that assistance is directed where necessary.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:52" href="#fn:52"><sup>52</sup></a> The 2020 <a href="/facts/Coronavirus_disease_2019/YsUgvsaX">COVID-19</a> pandemic has demonstrated need for coordinated international response to ensure preparedness of governments to protect public health.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:53" href="#fn:53"><sup>53</sup></a> </p> <h3>Global Health Security Initiative (GHSI)</h3> <p>The <a href="/facts/Global_Health_Security_Initiative/Rfm6Dan8">GHSI</a> was established to contest the increased threat of bioterrorism.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:54" href="#fn:54"><sup>54</sup></a> The initiative expanded to consider pandemic threats and the prevention of the spread of infectious disease.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:55" href="#fn:55"><sup>55</sup></a> In 2001, the GHSI became an informal, international partnership between nations committed to strengthening public health preparedness and response to global health threats.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:56" href="#fn:56"><sup>56</sup></a> Pandemic, biological, chemical, and radio-nuclear threats were regarded as important to global health security.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:57" href="#fn:57"><sup>57</sup></a> It was founded on the basis of exchanging information between nations and coordinating practices to respond to potential bioterrorism threats.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:58" href="#fn:58"><sup>58</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="policy-and-responses">Policy and responses</h2> <p><a href="/facts/Securitization_(international_relations)/4NkT9KPJ">Securitising</a> global health includes resolving forms of insecurity that enable the spread of disease.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:59" href="#fn:59"><sup>59</sup></a> Public health crises and inadequate <a href="/facts/Health_system/LpM7ISXR">health systems</a> have the potential to undermine the <a href="/facts/World_economy/Gng36UFL">global economy</a> and <a href="/facts/International_security/gsfpRwUv">global security</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:60" href="#fn:60"><sup>60</sup></a> Resilience to health insecurities caused by changing patterns of infectious disease is integral to national security agendas.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:61" href="#fn:61"><sup>61</sup></a> Understanding vulnerabilities enables policymakers to identify and target health insecurities to prevent or treat the spread of infectious disease.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:62" href="#fn:62"><sup>62</sup></a> Health security encompasses the activities and responses of nations to public health threats.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:63" href="#fn:63"><sup>63</sup></a> Access to <a href="/facts/Health_care/LPS1WKbI">health care</a>, access to <a href="/facts/Preventive_healthcare/pWGlacXu">preventative medicine</a>, <a href="/facts/Vaccination/3SfpzPsd">vaccination programs</a>, and epidemic control are part of deliberate health security strategies.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:64" href="#fn:64"><sup>64</sup></a> Preparedness to respond to public health crises relies on assessments and improvements to plans, training, gap analysis, and communication strategies.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:65" href="#fn:65"><sup>65</sup></a> Public health surveillance activities includes collection, analysis and interpretation of health data for the purpose of improving public health systems.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:66" href="#fn:66"><sup>66</sup></a> Surveillance of public health incidents enables improved detection and prevention of infectious disease outbreaks.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:67" href="#fn:67"><sup>67</sup></a> Health security has become a tool utilised by the WHO, policymakers, academics, and health professionals to promote healthcare expenditure, health system strengthening, <a href="/facts/Health_surveillance/8ujFgV1U">health surveillance</a>, and cooperation between stakeholders.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:68" href="#fn:68"><sup>68</sup></a> </p><p>The development of health security has emphasised the need to improve national health systems to control and reduce threats.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:69" href="#fn:69"><sup>69</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Developing_country/eTfS4kxl">Developing countries</a> have implemented strategies to strengthen health systems to ensure equitable advances in health provision and outcomes.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:70" href="#fn:70"><sup>70</sup></a> Securitising health enables policymakers to focus additional resources on the development of health services.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:71" href="#fn:71"><sup>71</sup></a> Improving health security of populations will have subsequent effects on economic and national stability.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:72" href="#fn:72"><sup>72</sup></a> </p><p>Nations continually adapt to the ever-changing health insecurities posed to their populations.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:73" href="#fn:73"><sup>73</sup></a> Risk of antimicrobial <a href="/facts/Drug_resistance/cgLruXm6">drug resistance</a> will impact how governments choose to treat and manage a vast number of diseases and infections.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:74" href="#fn:74"><sup>74</sup></a> Dominance of the <a href="/facts/Pharmaceutical_industry/5mCITYys">pharmaceutical industry</a> in the development of medicines has significantly impeded governments' attempts to obtain pharmaceutical defences for health security.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:75" href="#fn:75"><sup>75</sup></a> </p><p>Global health security encourages transnational partnerships to synthesise support and mobilisation between governments and relevant stakeholders in public health.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:76" href="#fn:76"><sup>76</sup></a> Global partnerships facilitate the effective implementation and practice of global health regulations.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:77" href="#fn:77"><sup>77</sup></a> Advocates of <a href="/facts/Universal_health_care/pT6kLbAW">universal health care</a> have suggested that improved access to enhanced health care would facilitate greater global health security against threats to public health.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:78" href="#fn:78"><sup>78</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="criticisms">Criticisms</h2> <p>The securitisation of public health has been contested by some policymakers and academics.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:79" href="#fn:79"><sup>79</sup></a> Health security advocates claim that securitisation improves responses to health crises.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:80" href="#fn:80"><sup>80</sup></a> Securitising public health enables governments to engage necessary resources and practices needed to mitigate infectious diseases and health threats endangering populations.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:81" href="#fn:81"><sup>81</sup></a> </p><p>Critics of health security are concerned with the impact on <a href="/facts/Civil_liberties/xyu96brC">civil liberties</a> and global equitable distribution.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:82" href="#fn:82"><sup>82</sup></a> Securitisation of health has increased concerns for <a href="/facts/Human_rights/WMW5XCdM">human rights</a>, as public health is politicised and militarised.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:83" href="#fn:83"><sup>83</sup></a> Opposition to the linkage of health and security by governments and public health stakeholders has impacted policy.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:84" href="#fn:84"><sup>84</sup></a> Health security measures have been criticised for their potential to incite anti-democratic responses to health crises.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:85" href="#fn:85"><sup>85</sup></a> Social implications of securitising health have been considered by many academics and policymakers.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:86" href="#fn:86"><sup>86</sup></a> For example, securitising <a href="/facts/HIV%2fAIDS/RqLIEMuJ">HIV/AIDS</a> patients as a threat to national security rather than the virus creates social implications.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:87" href="#fn:87"><sup>87</sup></a> The linkage of health and security has the potential to threaten human rights or lead to the prioritisation of some diseases over other health needs.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:88" href="#fn:88"><sup>88</sup></a> </p><p>Opponents to the concept of health security have critiqued the WHO's language.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:89" href="#fn:89"><sup>89</sup></a> Opposition within the <a href="/facts/Indo-Pacific/pVfP1gxV">Indo-Pacific</a> region have rejected the terminology 'health security'.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:90" href="#fn:90"><sup>90</sup></a> Governments in <a href="/facts/India/1kKHcnxM">India</a>, <a href="/facts/Indonesia/vQnWU3IW">Indonesia</a> and <a href="/facts/Thailand/GCUnN4JK">Thailand</a> have criticised linkage of health and security discourses.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:91" href="#fn:91"><sup>91</sup></a> Limited consensus regarding the definition and scope of health security, and the assumption that it focusses predominately on protection of populations in high-income nations motivates this opposition.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:92" href="#fn:92"><sup>92</sup></a> Health security has been perceived as an opportunity for high-income nations to assert <a href="/facts/Soft_power/Sdt77tKX">soft power</a> throughout the region through the provision of technical and medical assistance.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:93" href="#fn:93"><sup>93</sup></a> </p><p>Social structures, and the dissemination of <a href="/facts/Neoliberalism/UfqKadhe">neoliberal</a> development policy agendas in developing nations may prevent the securitisation of public health threats.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:94" href="#fn:94"><sup>94</sup></a> Personal insecurity, food insecurity, deprivation and endemic poverty impede human and health security in developing nations.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:95" href="#fn:95"><sup>95</sup></a> However, these factors are often not securitised.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:96" href="#fn:96"><sup>96</sup></a> The prevalence of societal structures and finance institutions determine what health issues are securitised.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:97" href="#fn:97"><sup>97</sup></a> The dominant <a href="/facts/Realism_(international_relations)/wgCXWYJs">realist</a> paradigm of <a href="/facts/International_relations/FgLEX3Cy">international relations</a> emphasises the structure-agency binaries and institutions of gender, power and the distribution of resources and wealth.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:98" href="#fn:98"><sup>98</sup></a> As such, health security tends to focus on the threats to <a href="/facts/Public_health/4563Kre9">public health</a> rather than individual experiences.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:99" href="#fn:99"><sup>99</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="see-also">See also</h2> <ul><li><a href="/facts/International_relations/FgLEX3Cy">International relations</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Security_studies/F4HUUF1o">Security studies</a></li></ul> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>"Health Security". World Health Organization. Retrieved March 19, 2020. <a href="https://www.who.int/health-security/en/" target="_blank">https://www.who.int/health-security/en/</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>Rushton, Simon and Youde, Jeremy (2014). Routledge Handbook of Global Health Security. London: Routledge. ISBN 9781136155567. <a href="9781136155567" target="_blank">9781136155567</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>"Health Security". World Health Organization. Retrieved March 19, 2020. <a href="https://www.who.int/health-security/en/" target="_blank">https://www.who.int/health-security/en/</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:4"><p>Rushton, Simon and Youde, Jeremy (2014). Routledge Handbook of Global Health Security. London: Routledge. ISBN 9781136155567. <a href="9781136155567" target="_blank">9781136155567</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:5"><p>"Health Security". World Health Organization. Retrieved March 19, 2020. <a href="https://www.who.int/health-security/en/" target="_blank">https://www.who.int/health-security/en/</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:6"><p>Rushton, Simon and Youde, Jeremy (2014). Routledge Handbook of Global Health Security. London: Routledge. ISBN 9781136155567. <a href="9781136155567" target="_blank">9781136155567</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:7"><p>Blazes, David L. and Lewis, Sheri H. (2016). Disease Surveillance: Technological Contributions to Global Health Security. Boca Raton: CRC Press. ISBN 9780429585999. <a href="9780429585999" target="_blank">9780429585999</a> <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:8"><p>Rushton, Simon and Youde, Jeremy (2014). Routledge Handbook of Global Health Security. London: Routledge. ISBN 9781136155567. <a href="9781136155567" target="_blank">9781136155567</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:9"><p>"Health Security". World Health Organization. Retrieved March 19, 2020. <a href="https://www.who.int/health-security/en/" target="_blank">https://www.who.int/health-security/en/</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:10"><p>Blazes, David L. and Lewis, Sheri H. (2016). Disease Surveillance: Technological Contributions to Global Health Security. Boca Raton: CRC Press. ISBN 9780429585999. <a href="9780429585999" target="_blank">9780429585999</a> <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:11"><p>William Aldis (November 2008), "Health security as a public health concept: a critical analysis", Health Policy and Planning, 23 (6): 369–375, doi:10.1093/heapol/czn030, PMID 18689437 <a href="https://academic.oup.com/heapol/article/23/6/369/572074" target="_blank">https://academic.oup.com/heapol/article/23/6/369/572074</a> <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:12"><p>Colin McInnes (2014), Simon Rushton; Jeremy Youde (eds.), "The Many Meanings of Health Security", Routledge Handbook of Global Health Security, Routledge, ISBN 9781136155574 <a href="9781136155574" target="_blank">9781136155574</a> <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:13"><p>"Health Security". World Health Organization. Retrieved March 19, 2020. <a href="https://www.who.int/health-security/en/" target="_blank">https://www.who.int/health-security/en/</a> <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:14"><p>Elbe, Stefan (2018). Pandemics, Pills, and Politics: Governing Global Health Security. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 9781421425580. <a href="9781421425580" target="_blank">9781421425580</a> <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:15"><p>Niu, Song and Xu, Mindan (2019). "Impact of Hajj on Global Health Security". Journal of Religion & Health. 58 (1): 289–302. doi:10.1007/s10943-018-0648-5. PMC 7088024. PMID 29948791. S2CID 48359595. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7088024" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7088024</a> <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:16"><p>Niu, Song and Xu, Mindan (2019). "Impact of Hajj on Global Health Security". Journal of Religion & Health. 58 (1): 289–302. doi:10.1007/s10943-018-0648-5. PMC 7088024. PMID 29948791. S2CID 48359595. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7088024" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7088024</a> <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:17"><p>Rushton, Simon and Youde, Jeremy (2014). Routledge Handbook of Global Health Security. London: Routledge. ISBN 9781136155567. <a href="9781136155567" target="_blank">9781136155567</a> <a href="#fnref:17" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:18"><p>Elbe, Stefan (2018). Pandemics, Pills, and Politics: Governing Global Health Security. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. 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ISBN 9781421425580. <a href="9781421425580" target="_blank">9781421425580</a> <a href="#fnref:20" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:21"><p>Ray-Bennett, Nibedita S.; Collins, Andrew; Bhuiya, Abbas; Edgeworth, Ross; Nahar, Papreen; Alamgir, Fariba (2010). "Exploring the meaning of health security for disaster resilience through people's perspectives in Bangladesh". Health & Place. 16 (3): 581–589. doi:10.1016/j.healthplace.2010.01.003. PMID 20106711. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:21" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:22"><p>Ray-Bennett, Nibedita S.; Collins, Andrew; Bhuiya, Abbas; Edgeworth, Ross; Nahar, Papreen; Alamgir, Fariba (2010). "Exploring the meaning of health security for disaster resilience through people's perspectives in Bangladesh". Health & Place. 16 (3): 581–589. doi:10.1016/j.healthplace.2010.01.003. 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Pandemics, Pills, and Politics: Governing Global Health Security. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 9781421425580. <a href="9781421425580" target="_blank">9781421425580</a> <a href="#fnref:25" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:26"><p>Blazes, David L. and Lewis, Sheri H. (2016). Disease Surveillance: Technological Contributions to Global Health Security. Boca Raton: CRC Press. ISBN 9780429585999. <a href="9780429585999" target="_blank">9780429585999</a> <a href="#fnref:26" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:27"><p>Blazes, David L. and Lewis, Sheri H. (2016). Disease Surveillance: Technological Contributions to Global Health Security. Boca Raton: CRC Press. ISBN 9780429585999. <a href="9780429585999" target="_blank">9780429585999</a> <a href="#fnref:27" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:28"><p>Elbe, Stefan (2018). Pandemics, Pills, and Politics: Governing Global Health Security. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 9781421425580. <a href="9781421425580" target="_blank">9781421425580</a> <a href="#fnref:28" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:29"><p>Elbe, Stefan (2018). Pandemics, Pills, and Politics: Governing Global Health Security. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 9781421425580. <a href="9781421425580" target="_blank">9781421425580</a> <a href="#fnref:29" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:30"><p>Rushton, Simon and Youde, Jeremy (2014). Routledge Handbook of Global Health Security. London: Routledge. ISBN 9781136155567. <a href="9781136155567" target="_blank">9781136155567</a> <a href="#fnref:30" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:31"><p>Rushton, Simon and Youde, Jeremy (2014). Routledge Handbook of Global Health Security. London: Routledge. 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S2CID 32972234. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5711312" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5711312</a> <a href="#fnref:37" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:38"><p>Blazes, David L. and Lewis, Sheri H. (2016). Disease Surveillance: Technological Contributions to Global Health Security. Boca Raton: CRC Press. ISBN 9780429585999. <a href="9780429585999" target="_blank">9780429585999</a> <a href="#fnref:38" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:39"><p>Blazes, David L. and Lewis, Sheri H. (2016). Disease Surveillance: Technological Contributions to Global Health Security. Boca Raton: CRC Press. ISBN 9780429585999. <a href="9780429585999" target="_blank">9780429585999</a> <a href="#fnref:39" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:40"><p>Blazes, David L. and Lewis, Sheri H. (2016). Disease Surveillance: Technological Contributions to Global Health Security. Boca Raton: CRC Press. 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ISBN 9781421425580. <a href="9781421425580" target="_blank">9781421425580</a> <a href="#fnref:54" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:55"><p>Elbe, Stefan (2018). Pandemics, Pills, and Politics: Governing Global Health Security. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 9781421425580. <a href="9781421425580" target="_blank">9781421425580</a> <a href="#fnref:55" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:56"><p>Foley, Michael. "Home". Global Health Security Initiative. Retrieved 2020-05-28. <a href="http://ghsi.ca/" target="_blank">http://ghsi.ca/</a> <a href="#fnref:56" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:57"><p>Foley, Michael. "Home". Global Health Security Initiative. Retrieved 2020-05-28. <a href="http://ghsi.ca/" target="_blank">http://ghsi.ca/</a> <a href="#fnref:57" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:58"><p>Osterholm, Michael T. (2017). "Global Health Security - An Unfinished Journey". Emerging Infectious Diseases. 23 (13): 225–227. doi:10.3201/eid2313.171528. PMC 5711312. S2CID 32972234. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5711312" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5711312</a> <a href="#fnref:58" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:59"><p>Lyttleton, Chris (2018). "Vigilance and Sentinels in Global Health Security". Medical Anthropology. 37 (4): 327–342. doi:10.1080/01459740.2017.1423071. PMID 29319338. S2CID 3592354. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:59" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:60"><p>"Health Security". World Health Organization. Retrieved March 19, 2020. <a href="https://www.who.int/health-security/en/" target="_blank">https://www.who.int/health-security/en/</a> <a href="#fnref:60" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:61"><p>Masys, Anthony J. (2020). 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