Menu
Home Explore People Places Arts History Plants & Animals Science Life & Culture Technology
On this page
Weapon of mass destruction
Weapon that can kill numerous humans or cause great damage

A weapon of mass destruction (WMD) is a biological, chemical, radiological, nuclear, or any other weapon that can kill or significantly harm many people or cause great damage to artificial structures (e.g., buildings), natural structures (e.g., mountains), or the biosphere. The scope and usage of the term has evolved and been disputed, often signifying more politically than technically. Originally coined in reference to aerial bombing with chemical explosives during World War II, it has later come to refer to large-scale weaponry of warfare-related technologies, such as biological, chemical, radiological, or nuclear warfare.

Related Image Collections Add Image
Profiles
1 Image
We don't have any YouTube videos related to Weapon of mass destruction yet.
We don't have any PDF documents related to Weapon of mass destruction yet.
We don't have any Books related to Weapon of mass destruction yet.

Early uses of this term

The first use of the term "weapon of mass destruction" on record is by Cosmo Gordon Lang, Archbishop of Canterbury, in 1937 in reference to the bombing of Guernica, Spain:1

Who can think at this present time without a sickening of the heart of the appalling slaughter, the suffering, the manifold misery brought by war to Spain and to China? Who can think without horror of what another widespread war would mean, waged as it would be with all the new weapons of mass destruction?2

At the time, nuclear weapons had not been developed fully. Japan conducted research on biological weapons (see Unit 731),3 and chemical weapons had seen wide battlefield use in World War I. Their use was outlawed by the Geneva Protocol of 1925.4 Italy used mustard agent against civilians and soldiers in Ethiopia in 1935–36.5

Following the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki that ended World War II and during the Cold War, the term came to refer more to non-conventional weapons. The application of the term to specifically nuclear and radiological weapons is traced by William Safire to the Russian phrase "Оружие массового поражения" – oruzhiye massovogo porazheniya (weapon of mass destruction).6

William Safire credits James Goodby (of the Brookings Institution) with tracing what he considers the earliest known English-language use soon after the nuclear bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki (although it is not quite verbatim): a communique from a 15 November 1945, meeting of Harry Truman, Clement Attlee and Mackenzie King (probably drafted by Vannevar Bush, as Bush claimed in 1970) referred to "weapons adaptable to mass destruction."7

Safire says Bernard Baruch used that exact phrase in 1946 (in a speech at the United Nations probably written by Herbert Bayard Swope).8 The phrase found its way into the very first resolution the United Nations General assembly adopted in January 1946 in London, which used the wording "the elimination from national armaments of atomic weapons and of all other weapons adaptable to mass destruction."9 The resolution also created the Atomic Energy Commission (predecessor of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)).10

An exact use of this term was given in a lecture titled "Atomic Energy as a Contemporary Problem" by J. Robert Oppenheimer. He delivered the lecture to the Foreign Service and the State Department, on 17 September 1947.11

It is a very far reaching control which would eliminate the rivalry between nations in this field, which would prevent the surreptitious arming of one nation against another, which would provide some cushion of time before atomic attack, and presumably therefore before any attack with weapons of mass destruction, and which would go a long way toward removing atomic energy at least as a source of conflict between the powers.12

The term was also used in the introduction to the hugely influential U.S. government document known as NSC 68 written in 1950.13

During a speech at Rice University on 12 September 1962, President John F. Kennedy spoke of not filling space "with weapons of mass destruction, but with instruments of knowledge and understanding."14 The following month, during a televised presentation about the Cuban Missile Crisis on 22 October 1962, Kennedy made reference to "offensive weapons of sudden mass destruction."15

An early use of the exact phrase in an international treaty is in the Outer Space Treaty of 1967, but the treaty provides no definition of the phrase,16 and the treaty also categorically prohibits the stationing of "weapons" and the testing of "any type of weapon" in outer space, in addition to its specific prohibition against placing in orbit, or installing on celestial bodies, "any objects carrying nuclear weapons or any other kinds of weapons of mass destruction."

Evolution of its use

During the Cold War, the term "weapons of mass destruction" was primarily a reference to nuclear weapons. At the time, in the West the euphemism "strategic weapons" was used to refer to the American nuclear arsenal. However, there is no precise definition of the "strategic" category, neither considering range nor yield of the nuclear weapon.17

Subsequent to Operation Opera, the destruction of a pre-operational nuclear reactor inside Iraq by the Israeli Air Force in 1981, the Israeli prime minister, Menachem Begin, countered criticism by saying that "on no account shall we permit an enemy to develop weapons of mass destruction against the people of Israel." This policy of pre-emptive action against real or perceived weapons of mass destruction became known as the Begin Doctrine.18

The term "weapons of mass destruction" continued to see periodic use, usually in the context of nuclear arms control; Ronald Reagan used it during the 1986 Reykjavík Summit, when referring to the 1967 Outer Space Treaty.19 Reagan's successor, George H. W. Bush, used the term in a 1989 speech to the United Nations, primarily in reference to chemical arms.20

The end of the Cold War reduced U.S. reliance on nuclear weapons as a deterrent, causing it to shift its focus to disarmament. With the 1990 invasion of Kuwait and 1991 Gulf War, Iraq's nuclear, biological, and chemical weapons programs became a particular concern of the first Bush Administration.21 Following the war, Bill Clinton and other western politicians and media continued to use the term, usually in reference to ongoing attempts to dismantle Iraq's weapons programs.22

After the 11 September 2001 attacks and the 2001 anthrax attacks in the United States, an increased fear of nonconventional weapons and asymmetric warfare took hold in many countries. The fear reached a crescendo with the 2002 Iraq disarmament crisis and the alleged existence of weapons of mass destruction in Iraq that became the primary justification for the 2003 invasion of Iraq; however, American forces found none in Iraq. They found old stockpiles of chemical munitions including sarin and mustard agents, but all were considered to be unusable because of corrosion or degradation.23 Iraq, however, declared a chemical weapons stockpile in 2009 which U.N. personnel had secured after the 1991 Gulf War. The stockpile contained mainly chemical precursors, but some munitions remained usable.24

Because of its prolific use and (worldwide) public profile during this period, the American Dialect Society voted "weapons of mass destruction" (and its abbreviation, "WMD") the word of the year in 2002,25 and in 2003 Lake Superior State University added WMD to its list of terms banished for "Mis-use, Over-use and General Uselessness" (and "as a card that trumps all forms of aggression").26

In its criminal complaint against the main suspect of the Boston Marathon bombing of 15 April 2013, the FBI refers to a pressure-cooker improvised bomb as a "weapon of mass destruction."27

There have been calls to classify at least some classes of cyber weapons as WMD, in particular those aimed to bring about large-scale (physical) destruction, such as by targeting critical infrastructure.282930 However, some scholars have objected to classifying cyber weapons as WMD on the grounds that they "cannot [currently] directly injure or kill human beings as efficiently as guns or bombs" or clearly "meet the legal and historical definitions" of WMD.3132

Definitions of the term

United States

Strategic definition

The most widely used definition of "weapons of mass destruction" is that of nuclear, biological, or chemical weapons (NBC) although there is no treaty or customary international law that contains an authoritative definition. Instead, international law has been used with respect to the specific categories of weapons within WMD, and not to WMD as a whole. While nuclear, chemical and biological weapons are regarded as the three major types of WMDs,33 some analysts have argued that radiological materials as well as missile technology and delivery systems such as aircraft and ballistic missiles could be labeled as WMDs as well.34

However, there is an argument that nuclear and biological weapons do not belong in the same category as chemical and "dirty bomb" radiological weapons, which have limited destructive potential (and close to none, as far as property is concerned), whereas nuclear and biological weapons have the unique ability to kill large numbers of people with very small amounts of material, and thus could be said to belong in a class by themselves.

The NBC definition has also been used in official U.S. documents, by the U.S. President,3536 the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency,37 the U.S. Department of Defense,3839 and the U.S. Government Accountability Office.40

Other documents expand the definition of WMD to also include radiological or conventional weapons. The U.S. military refers to WMD as:

Chemical, biological, radiological, or nuclear weapons capable of a high order of destruction or causing mass casualties and exclude the means of transporting or propelling the weapon where such means is a separable and divisible part from the weapon. Also called WMD.41

This may also refer to nuclear ICBMs (intercontinental ballistic missiles).

The significance of the words separable and divisible part of the weapon is that missiles such as the Pershing II and the SCUD are considered weapons of mass destruction, while aircraft capable of carrying bombloads are not.

In 2004, the United Kingdom's Butler Review recognized the "considerable and long-standing academic debate about the proper interpretation of the phrase 'weapons of mass destruction'". The committee set out to avoid the general term but when using it, employed the definition of United Nations Security Council Resolution 687, which defined the systems which Iraq was required to abandon:

  • "Nuclear weapons or nuclear-weapons-usable material or any sub-systems or components or any research, development, support or manufacturing facilities relating to [nuclear weapons].
  • Chemical and biological weapons and all stocks of agents and all related subsystems and components and all research, development, support and manufacturing facilities.
  • Ballistic missiles with a range greater than 150 kilometres and related major parts, and repair and production facilities."42

Chemical weapons expert Gert G. Harigel considers only nuclear weapons true weapons of mass destruction, because "only nuclear weapons are completely indiscriminate by their explosive power, heat radiation and radioactivity, and only they should therefore be called a weapon of mass destruction". He prefers to call chemical and biological weapons "weapons of terror" when aimed against civilians and "weapons of intimidation" for soldiers.43

Testimony of one such soldier expresses the same viewpoint.44 For a period of several months in the winter of 2002–2003, U.S. Deputy Secretary of Defense Paul Wolfowitz frequently used the term "weapons of mass terror", apparently also recognizing the distinction between the psychological and the physical effects of many things currently falling into the WMD category.45

Gustavo Bell Lemus, the Vice President of Colombia, at 9 July 2001 United Nations Conference on the Illicit Trade in Small Arms and Light Weapons in All Its Aspects, quoted the Millennium Report of the UN Secretary-General to the General Assembly, in which Kofi Annan said that small arms could be described as WMD because the fatalities they cause "dwarf that of all other weapons systems – and in most years greatly exceed the toll of the atomic bombs that devastated Hiroshima and Nagasaki".46

An additional condition often implicitly applied to WMD is that the use of the weapons must be strategic. In other words, they would be designed to "have consequences far outweighing the size and effectiveness of the weapons themselves".47 The strategic nature of WMD also defines their function in the military doctrine of total war as targeting the means a country would use to support and supply its war effort, specifically its population, industry, and natural resources.

Within U.S. civil defense organizations, the category is now Chemical, Biological, Radiological, Nuclear, and Explosive (CBRNE), which defines WMD as:

(1) Any explosive, incendiary, poison gas, bomb, grenade, or rocket having a propellant charge of more than four ounces [113 g], missile having an explosive or incendiary charge of more than one-quarter ounce [7 g], or mine or device similar to the above. (2) Poison gas. (3) Any weapon involving a disease organism. (4) Any weapon that is designed to release radiation at a level dangerous to human life.48

Military definition

For the general purposes of national defense,49 the U.S. Code50 defines a weapon of mass destruction as:

  • any weapon or device that is intended, or has the capability, to cause death or serious bodily injury to a significant number of people through the release, dissemination, or impact of:
    • toxic or poisonous chemicals or their precursors
    • a disease organism
    • radiation or radioactivity51

For the purposes of the prevention of weapons proliferation,52 the U.S. Code defines weapons of mass destruction as "chemical, biological, and nuclear weapons, and chemical, biological, and nuclear materials used in the manufacture of such weapons".53

Criminal (civilian) definition

For the purposes of U.S. criminal law concerning terrorism,54 weapons of mass destruction are defined as:

  • any "destructive device" defined as any explosive, incendiary, or poison gas – bomb, grenade, rocket having a propellant charge of more than four ounces, missile having an explosive or incendiary charge of more than one-quarter ounce, mine, or device similar to any of the devices described in the preceding clauses55
  • any weapon that is designed or intended to cause death or serious bodily injury through the release, dissemination, or impact of toxic or poisonous chemicals, or their precursors
  • any weapon involving a biological agent, toxin, or vector
  • any weapon that is designed to release radiation or radioactivity at a level dangerous to human life56

The Federal Bureau of Investigation's definition is similar to that presented above from the terrorism statute:57

  • any "destructive device" as defined in Title 18 USC Section 921: any explosive, incendiary, or poison gas – bomb, grenade, rocket having a propellant charge of more than four ounces, missile having an explosive or incendiary charge of more than one-quarter ounce, mine, or device similar to any of the devices described in the preceding clauses
  • any weapon designed or intended to cause death or serious bodily injury through the release, dissemination, or impact of toxic or poisonous chemicals or their precursors
  • any weapon involving a disease organism
  • any weapon designed to release radiation or radioactivity at a level dangerous to human life
  • any device or weapon designed or intended to cause death or serious bodily injury by causing a malfunction of or destruction of an aircraft or other vehicle that carries humans or of an aircraft or other vehicle whose malfunction or destruction may cause said aircraft or other vehicle to cause death or serious bodily injury to humans who may be within range of the vector in its course of travel or the travel of its debris.

Indictments and convictions for possession and use of WMD such as truck bombs,58 pipe bombs,59 shoe bombs,60 and cactus needles coated with a biological toxin61 have been obtained under 18 USC 2332a.

As defined by 18 USC §2332 (a), a Weapon of Mass Destruction is:

  • (A) any destructive device as defined in section 921 of the title;
  • (B) any weapon that is designed or intended to cause death or serious bodily injury through the release, dissemination, or impact of toxic or poisonous chemicals, or their precursors;
  • (C) any weapon involving a biological agent, toxin, or vector (as those terms are defined in section 178 of this title); or
  • (D) any weapon that is designed to release radiation or radioactivity at a level dangerous to human life;

Under the same statute, conspiring, attempting, threatening, or using a Weapon of Mass Destruction may be imprisoned for any term of years or for life, and if resulting in death, be punishable by death or by imprisonment for any terms of years or for life. They can also be asked to pay a maximum fine of $250,000.62

The Washington Post reported on 30 March 2006: "Jurors asked the judge in the death penalty trial of Zacarias Moussaoui today to define the term 'weapons of mass destruction' and were told it includes airplanes used as missiles". Moussaoui was indicted and tried for conspiracy to both destroy aircraft and use weapons of mass destruction, among others.63

The surviving Boston Marathon bombing perpetrator, Dzhokhar Tsarnaev, was charged in June 2013 with the federal offense of "use of a weapon of mass destruction" after he and his brother Tamerlan Tsarnaev allegedly placed crude shrapnel bombs, made from pressure cookers packed with ball bearings and nails, near the finish line of the Boston Marathon. He was convicted in April 2015. The bombing resulted in three deaths and at least 264 injuries.64

International law

See also: Arms control and List of weapons of mass destruction treaties

The development and use of WMD is governed by several international conventions and treaties.

TreatyDate signedDate of entry into forceNumber of states partiesObjective
Geneva Protocol6517 June 19258 February 1928145Ban the use of chemical and biological weapons in international armed conflicts
Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty665 August 196310 October 1963126 (list)Ban all nuclear weapons tests except for those conducted underground
Outer Space Treaty6727 January 196710 October 1967111Ban stationing of WMD in space
Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT)681 July 19685 March 1970190 (list)1. prevent nuclear proliferation; 2. promote nuclear disarmament; 3. promote peaceful uses of nuclear energy
Seabed Arms Control Treaty6911 February 197118 May 197294Ban stationing of WMD on the ocean floor
Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT)7010 September 1996Not in force176 (list)Ban all nuclear weapons tests
Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention (BWC)7110 April 197226 March 1975184 (list)Comprehensively ban biological weapons
Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC)723 September 199229 April 1997193 (list)Comprehensively ban chemical weapons
Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons (TPNW)7320 September 201722 January 202168 (list)Comprehensively ban nuclear weapons

Use, possession, and access

Nuclear weapons

Main articles: Nuclear warfare and List of states with nuclear weapons

Nuclear weapons use the energy inside of an atom's nucleus to create massive explosions. This goal is achieved through nuclear fission and fusion.74

Nuclear fission is when the nucleus of an atom is split into smaller nuclei. This process can be induced by shooting a neutron at the nucleus of an atom. When the neutron is absorbed by the atom, it becomes unstable, causing it to split and release energy.75 Modern nuclear weapons start this process by detonating chemical explosives around a pit of either uranium-235 or plutonium-239 metal.76 The force from this detonation is directed inwards, causing the pit of uranium or plutonium to compress to a dense point. Once the uranium/plutonium is dense enough, neutrons are then injected. This starts a fission chain reaction also known as an atomic explosion.77

Nuclear fusion is essentially the opposite of fission. It is the fusing together of nuclei, not the splitting of it. When exposed to extreme pressure and temperature, some lightweight nuclei can fuse together and form heavier nuclei, releasing energy in the process.78 Fusion weapons (also known as “thermonuclear” or “hydrogen” weapons) use the fission process to initiate fusion. Fusion weapons use the energy released from a fission explosion to fuse hydrogen isotopes together.79 The energy released from these weapons creates a fireball, which reaches tens of million degrees. A temperature of this magnitude is similar to the temperature found at center of the sun; the sun runs on fusion as well.80

The only country to have used a nuclear weapon in war is the United States, which dropped two atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki during World War II.

At the start of 2024, nine states—the United States, Russia, the United Kingdom, France, China, India, Pakistan, the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea (North Korea) and Israel—together possessed approximately 12 121 nuclear weapons, of which 9585 were considered to be potentially operationally available. An estimated 3904 of these warheads were deployed with operational forces, including about 2100 that were kept in a state of high operational alert—about 100 more than the previous year.81

South Africa developed a small nuclear arsenal in the 1980s but disassembled them in the early 1990s, making it the only country to have fully given up an independently developed nuclear weapons arsenal. Belarus, Kazakhstan, and Ukraine inherited stockpiles of nuclear arms following the break-up of the Soviet Union, but relinquished them to the Russian Federation.82

Countries where nuclear weapons are deployed through nuclear sharing agreements include Belgium, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, and Turkey.83

Biological weapons

Main articles: Biological warfare and Biological weapons

The history of biological warfare goes back at least to the Mongol siege of Caffa in 1346 and possibly much farther back to antiquity.84 It is believed that the Ancient Greeks contaminated their adversaries' wells by placing animal corpses in them.8586 However, only by the turn of the 20th century did advances in microbiology allow for the large-scale weaponization of pathogens. During First World War, German military attempted to introduce anthrax into Allied livestock. In Second World War, Japan conducted aerial attacks on China using fleas carrying the bubonic plague.87 During the 20th century, at least nine states have operated offensive biological weapons programs, including Canada (1946–1956),88 France (1921–1972),89 Iraq (1985–1990s),90 Japan (1930s–1945),91 Rhodesia, South Africa (1981–1993),92 the Soviet Union (1920s–1992),93 the United Kingdom (1934–1956),94 and the United States (1943–1969).95 The Japanese biological weapons program, which was run by the secret Imperial Japanese Army Unit 731 during the Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945), became infamous for conducting often fatal human experiments on prisoners and producing biological weapons for combat use.96 The Soviet Union covertly operated the world's largest, longest, and most sophisticated biological weapons program, in violation of its obligations under international law.97

International restrictions on biological warfare began with the 1925 Geneva Protocol, which prohibits the use but not the possession or development of biological and chemical weapons.9899 Upon ratification of the Geneva Protocol, several countries made reservations regarding its applicability and use in retaliation.100 Due to these reservations, it was in practice a "no-first-use" agreement only.101 The 1972 Biological Weapons Convention (BWC) supplements the Geneva Protocol by prohibiting the development, production, acquisition, transfer, stockpiling, and use of biological weapons.102 Having entered into force on 26 March 1975, the BWC was the first multilateral disarmament treaty to ban the production of an entire category of weapons of mass destruction.103 As of March 2021, 183 states have become party to the treaty.104

Chemical weapons

Main article: Chemical warfare

Chemical weapons have been used around the world by various civilizations since ancient times. The oldest reported case of a chemical substance being used as a weapon was in 256 AD during the siege of Dura-Europos. A mixture of tar and sulfur was used to produce sulfur oxides, which helped take control of the city.105106 In the industrial era, chemical weapons were used extensively by both sides during World War I, and by the Axis powers during World War II (both in battle and in extermination camp gas chambers) though Allied powers also stockpiled them.

International restrictions on chemical warfare began with the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907, and was expanded significantly by the 1925 Geneva Protocol. These treaties prohibited the use of poisons or chemical agents in international warfare, but did not place restrictions on development or weapon stockpiles. Since 1997, the Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) has expanded restrictions to prohibit any use and development of chemical weapons except for very limited purposes (research, medical, pharmaceutical or protective). As of 2018, a handful of countries have known inventories, and many are in the process of being safely destroyed.107 Nonetheless, proliferation and use in war zones remains an active concern, most recently the use of chemical weapons in the Syrian Civil War.

Countries with known or possible chemical weapons, as of 2021
NationCW PossessionSigned CWCRatified CWC
AlbaniaEliminated, 2007January 14, 1993108May 11, 1994109
ChinaProbableJanuary 13, 1993April 4, 1997
EgyptProbableNoNo
IndiaEliminated, 2009January 14, 1993September 3, 1996
IranPossibleJanuary 13, 1993November 3, 1997
IraqEliminated, 2018January 13, 2009February 12, 2009
IsraelProbableJanuary 13, 1993110No
JapanProbableJanuary 13, 1993September 15, 1995
LibyaEliminated, 2014NoJanuary 6, 2004 (acceded)
Myanmar (Burma)PossibleJanuary 14, 1993111July 8, 2015112
North KoreaKnownNoNo
PakistanProbableJanuary 13, 1993November 27, 1997
RussiaEliminated, 2017January 13, 1993November 5, 1997
Serbia and MontenegroProbableNoApril 20, 2000 (acceded)
SudanPossibleNoMay 24, 1999 (acceded)
SyriaKnownNoSeptember 14, 2013 (acceded)
TaiwanPossiblen/an/a
United StatesEliminated, 2023113January 13, 1993April 25, 1997
VietnamPossibleJanuary 13, 1993September 30, 1998

Some commentators classify some or all the uses of nuclear, chemical, or biological weapons during wartime as a war crime (or crime against humanity if widespread) because they kill civilians (who are protected by the laws of war) indiscriminately or are specifically prohibited by international treaties (which have become more comprehensive over time).114 Proponents of use say that specific uses of such weapons have been necessary for defense or to avoid more deaths in a protracted war.115 The tactic of terror bombing from aircraft, and generally targeting cities with area bombardment or saturation carpet bombing has also been criticized, defended, and prohibited by treaty in the same way; the destructive effect of conventional saturation bombing is similar to that of a nuclear weapon.116117118

United States politics

Due to the potentially indiscriminate effects of WMD, the fear of a WMD attack has shaped political policies and campaigns, fostered social movements, and has been the central theme of many films. Support for different levels of WMD development and control varies nationally and internationally. Yet understanding of the nature of the threats is not high, in part because of imprecise usage of the term by politicians and the media.

Fear of WMD, or of threats diminished by the possession of WMD, has long been used to catalyze public support for various WMD policies. They include mobilization of pro- and anti-WMD campaigners alike, and generation of popular political support. The term WMD may be used as a powerful buzzword119 or to generate a culture of fear.120 It is also used ambiguously, particularly by not distinguishing among the different types of WMD.121

A television commercial called Daisy, promoting Democrat Lyndon Johnson's 1964 presidential candidacy, invoked the fear of a nuclear war and was an element in Johnson's subsequent election.122

Later, United States' President George W. Bush used the threat of potential WMD in Iraq as justification for the 2003 invasion of Iraq.123 Broad reference to Iraqi WMD in general was seen as an element of President Bush's arguments.124 The claim that Iraq possessed Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD) was a major factor that led to the invasion of Iraq in 2003 by Coalition forces.125

Over 500 munitions containing mustard agent and sarin were discovered throughout Iraq since 2003; they were made in the 1980s and are no longer usable as originally intended due to corrosion.126

The American Heritage Dictionary defines a weapon of mass destruction as: "a weapon that can cause widespread destruction or kill large numbers of people, especially a nuclear, chemical, or biological weapon."127 In other words, it does not have to be nuclear, biological or chemical (NBC). For example, Dzhokhar Tsarnaev, one of the perpetrators of the Boston Marathon bombing, was charged under United States law 18 U.S.C. 2332A128 for using a weapon of mass destruction129 and that was a pressure cooker bomb. In other words, it was a weapon that caused large-scale death and destruction, without being an NBC weapon.

Media coverage

In March 2004, the Center for International and Security Studies at Maryland (CISSM) released a report130 examining the media's coverage of WMD issues during three separate periods: nuclear weapons tests by India and Pakistan in May 1998; the U.S. announcement of evidence of a North Korean nuclear weapons program in October 2002; and revelations about Iran's nuclear program in May 2003. The CISSM report argues that poor coverage resulted less from political bias among the media than from tired journalistic conventions. The report's major findings were that:

1. Most media outlets represented WMD as a monolithic menace, failing to adequately distinguish between weapons programs and actual weapons or to address the real differences among chemical, biological, nuclear, and radiological weapons.

2. Most journalists accepted the Bush administration's formulation of the "War on Terror" as a campaign against WMD, in contrast to coverage during the Clinton era, when many journalists made careful distinctions between acts of terrorism and the acquisition and use of WMD.

3. Many stories stenographically reported the incumbent administration's perspective on WMD, giving too little critical examination of the way officials framed the events, issues, threats, and policy options.

4. Too few stories proffered alternative perspectives to official line, a problem exacerbated by the journalistic prioritizing of breaking-news stories and the "inverted pyramid" style of storytelling.

— Susan D. Moeller, Media Coverage of Weapons of Mass Destruction

In a separate study published in 2005,131 a group of researchers assessed the effects reports and retractions in the media had on people's memory regarding the search for WMD in Iraq during the 2003 Iraq War. The study focused on populations in two coalition countries (Australia and the United States) and one opposed to the war (Germany). Results showed that U.S. citizens generally did not correct initial misconceptions regarding WMD, even following disconfirmation; Australian and German citizens were more responsive to retractions. Dependence on the initial source of information led to a substantial minority of Americans exhibiting false memory that WMD were indeed discovered, while they were not. This led to three conclusions:

  1. The repetition of tentative news stories, even if they are subsequently disconfirmed, can assist in the creation of false memories in a substantial proportion of people.
  2. Once information is published, its subsequent correction does not alter people's beliefs unless they are suspicious about the motives underlying the events the news stories are about.
  3. When people ignore corrections, they do so irrespective of how certain they are that the corrections occurred.

A poll conducted between June and September 2003 asked people whether they thought evidence of WMD had been discovered in Iraq since the war ended. They were also asked which media sources they relied upon. Those who obtained their news primarily from Fox News were three times as likely to believe that evidence of WMD had been discovered in Iraq than those who relied on PBS and NPR for their news, and one third more likely than those who primarily watched CBS.132

Media sourceRespondents believing evidence of WMD had been found in Iraq
Fox33%
CBS23%
NBC20%
CNN20%
ABC19%
Print media17%
PBS–NPR11%

Based on a series of polls taken from June–September 2003.133

In 2006, Fox News reported the claims of two Republican lawmakers that WMDs had been found in Iraq,134 based upon unclassified portions of a report by the National Ground Intelligence Center. Quoting from the report, Senator Rick Santorum said "Since 2003, coalition forces have recovered approximately 500 weapons munitions which contain degraded mustard or sarin nerve agent". According to David Kay, who appeared before the U.S. House Armed Services Committee to discuss these badly corroded munitions, they were leftovers, many years old, improperly stored or destroyed by the Iraqis.135 Charles Duelfer agreed, stating on NPR's Talk of the Nation: "When I was running the ISG – the Iraq Survey Group – we had a couple of them that had been turned in to these IEDs, the improvised explosive devices. But they are local hazards. They are not a major, you know, weapon of mass destruction."136

Later, wikileaks would show that WMDs of these kinds continued to be found as the Iraqi occupation continued.137

Many news agencies, including Fox News, reported the conclusions of the CIA that, based upon the investigation of the Iraq Survey Group, WMDs are yet to be found in Iraq.138139

Public perceptions

Awareness and opinions of WMD have varied during the course of their history. Their threat is a source of unease, security, and pride to different people. The anti-WMD movement is embodied most in nuclear disarmament, and led to the formation of the British Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament in 1957.

In order to increase awareness of all kinds of WMD, in 2004 the nuclear physicist and Nobel Peace Prize winner Joseph Rotblat inspired the creation of The WMD Awareness Programme140 to provide trustworthy and up to date information on WMD worldwide.

In 1998, the University of New Mexico's Institute for Public Policy released their third report141 on U.S. perceptions – including the general public, politicians and scientists – of nuclear weapons since the breakup of the Soviet Union. Risks of nuclear conflict, proliferation, and terrorism were seen as substantial.142

While maintenance of the U.S. nuclear arsenal was considered above average in importance, there was widespread support for a reduction in the stockpile, and very little support for developing and testing new nuclear weapons.143

Also in 1998, nuclear weapons became an issue in India's election of March, in relation to political tensions with neighboring Pakistan.144 Prior to the election the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) announced it would "declare India a nuclear weapon state" after coming to power.145

BJP won the elections, and on 14 May, three days after India tested nuclear weapons for the second time, a public opinion poll reported that a majority of Indians favored the country's nuclear build-up.

On 15 April 2004, the Program on International Policy Attitudes (PIPA) reported146 that U.S. citizens showed high levels of concern regarding WMD, and that preventing the spread of nuclear weapons should be "a very important U.S. foreign policy goal", accomplished through multilateral arms control rather than the use of military threats.

A majority also believed the United States should be more forthcoming with its biological research and its Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty commitment of nuclear arms reduction.

A Russian opinion poll conducted on 5 August 2005 indicated half the population believed new nuclear powers have the right to possess nuclear weapons.147 39% believed the Russian stockpile should be reduced, though not eliminated.148

Main article: Weapons of mass destruction in popular culture

Weapons of mass destruction and their related impacts have been a mainstay of popular culture since the beginning of the Cold War, as both political commentary and humorous outlet. The actual phrase "weapons of mass destruction" has been used similarly and as a way to characterise any powerful force or product since the Iraqi weapons crisis in the lead up to the Coalition invasion of Iraq in 2003. Science-fiction may introduce novel weapons of mass destruction with much greater yields or impact than anything in reality.

The term; “Weapon of Mass Destruction”, verbatim, is voiced in the American dubbed 1964 anime television show Gigantor. Season 1, episode 3 (Japan, 1963)

Common hazard symbols

Main article: Hazard symbol

Symbol Type (Toxic, Radioactive or Biohazard)SymbolUnicodeImage
Toxic symbol☠U+2620149
Radioactive symbol☢U+2622150
Biohazard symbol☣U+2623151

Radioactive weaponry or hazard symbol

The international radioactivity symbol (also known as trefoil) first appeared in 1946, at the University of California, Berkeley Radiation Laboratory. At the time, it was rendered as magenta, and was set on a blue background.152

It is drawn with a central circle of radius R, the blades having an internal radius of 1.5R and an external radius of 5R, and separated from each other by 60°.153 It is meant to represent a radiating atom.154

The International Atomic Energy Agency found that the trefoil radiation symbol is unintuitive and can be variously interpreted by those uneducated in its meaning; therefore, its role as a hazard warning was compromised as it did not clearly indicate "danger" to many non-Westerners and children who encountered it. As a result of research, a new radiation hazard symbol (ISO 21482) was developed in 2007 to be placed near the most dangerous parts of radiation sources featuring a skull, someone running away, and using a red rather than yellow background.155

The red background is intended to convey urgent danger, and the sign is intended to be used on equipment where very strong ionizing radiation can be encountered if the device is dismantled or otherwise tampered with. The intended use of the sign is not in a place where the normal user will see it, but in a place where it will be seen by someone who has started to dismantle a radiation-emitting device or equipment. The aim of the sign is to warn people such as scrap metal workers to stop work and leave the area.156

Biological weaponry or hazard symbol

Developed by Dow Chemical company in the 1960s for their containment products.157

According to Charles Dullin, an environmental-health engineer who contributed to its development:158

"We wanted something that was memorable but meaningless, so we could educate people as to what it means."

See also

Bibliography

  • Bentley, Michelle (2014). Weapons of Mass Destruction and US Foreign Policy. doi:10.4324/9780203381649. ISBN 978-1-134-12054-3.
  • Cirincione, Joseph, ed. (2014). Repairing the Regime. doi:10.4324/9780203950401. ISBN 978-1-135-28432-9.
  • Croddy, Eric A.; Wirtz, James J., eds. (2005). Weapons of Mass Destruction [2 Volumes]: An Encyclopedia of Worldwide Policy, Technology, and History. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-1-85109-490-5.
  • Curley, Robert, ed. Weapons of Mass Destruction (Britannica Educational Publishing, 2011)
  • Graham Jr, Thomas, and Thomas Graham. Common sense on weapons of mass destruction (University of Washington Press, 2011)
  • Horowitz, Michael C.; Narang, Neil (April 2014). "Poor Man's Atomic Bomb? Exploring the Relationship between 'Weapons of Mass Destruction'". Journal of Conflict Resolution. 58 (3): 509–535. doi:10.1177/0022002713509049.
  • Hutchinson, Robert. Weapons of Mass Destruction: The no-nonsense guide to nuclear, chemical and biological weapons today (Hachette UK, 2011)

Definition and origin

International law

Compliance with international WMD regimes

Media

Ethics

  • Appel, J M (July 2009). "Is all fair in biological warfare? The controversy over genetically engineered biological weapons". Journal of Medical Ethics. 35 (7): 429–432. doi:10.1136/jme.2008.028944. PMID 19567692.

Public perceptions

References

  1. "Weapon of mass destruction - weaponry". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1 November 1952. Retrieved 25 June 2019. https://www.britannica.com/technology/weapon-of-mass-destruction ↩

  2. "Archbishop's Appeal," Times (London), 28 December 1937, p. 9. ↩

  3. "Biological Weapons Program – Japan". Fas.org. Archived from the original on 27 July 2010. Retrieved 5 August 2010. https://fas.org/nuke/guide/japan/bw/ ↩

  4. Eric Croddy (1997). Chemical and Biological Warfare: An Annotated Bibliography. Scarecrow Press. p. 30. ISBN 9780810832718. Archived from the original on 2 January 2016. Retrieved 11 January 2016. 9780810832718 ↩

  5. William R. Cullen (2008). Is Arsenic an Aphrodisiac?: The Sociochemistry of an Element. Royal Society of Chemistry. p. 241. ISBN 9780854043637. Archived from the original on 2 January 2016. Retrieved 11 January 2016. 9780854043637 ↩

  6. Safire, William (19 April 1998). "On Language; Weapons of Mass Destruction". The New York Times. Retrieved 25 June 2019. https://www.nytimes.com/1998/04/19/magazine/on-language-weapons-of-mass-destruction.html ↩

  7. Safire, William (19 April 1998). "On Language; Weapons of Mass Destruction". The New York Times. Retrieved 25 June 2019. https://www.nytimes.com/1998/04/19/magazine/on-language-weapons-of-mass-destruction.html ↩

  8. Safire, William (19 April 1998). "On Language; Weapons of Mass Destruction". The New York Times. Retrieved 25 June 2019. https://www.nytimes.com/1998/04/19/magazine/on-language-weapons-of-mass-destruction.html ↩

  9. "UNODA – Nuclear Weapons Home". Un.org. Archived from the original on 6 June 2012. Retrieved 14 May 2012. https://www.un.org/disarmament/WMD/Nuclear/ ↩

  10. United Nations General Assembly Session 1 Resolution 1. Establishment of a Commission to Deal with the Problems Raised by the Discovery of Atomic Energy A/RES/1(I) 24 January 1946. Retrieved 2010-06-18. /wiki/United_Nations_General_Assembly ↩

  11. Oppenheimer, Robert J. (1955). The Open Mind. New York: Simon & Schuster. p. 23. /wiki/Simon_%26_Schuster ↩

  12. Pais, A.; Crease, R.P. (2007). J. Robert Oppenheimer: A Life (in German). Oxford University Press. p. 158. ISBN 978-0-19-532712-0. Retrieved 25 June 2019. 978-0-19-532712-0 ↩

  13. "NSC-68 United States Objectives and Programs for National Security". Fas.org. Archived from the original on 24 October 2010. Retrieved 5 August 2010. https://fas.org/irp/offdocs/nsc-hst/nsc-68.htm ↩

  14. "John F. Kennedy Moon Speech—Rice Stadium". nasa.gov. Archived from the original on 6 July 2015. Retrieved 30 June 2015. https://web.archive.org/web/20150706061817/http://er.jsc.nasa.gov/seh/ricetalk.htm ↩

  15. Kennedy JF (22 October 1962). Televised remarks to the American people re "the Soviet military buildup on the island of Cuba" https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Cuban_Missile_Crisis ↩

  16. Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, Art. IV, Jan. 27, 1967, T.I.A.S. No. 6347, 610 U.N.T.S. 205, 18 U.S.T. 2410 (effective Oct. 10, 1967). ↩

  17. Brian Alexander, Alistair Millar, ed. (2003). Tactical nuclear weapons : emergent threats in an evolving security environment (1. ed.). Washington DC: Brassey's. p. 7. ISBN 978-1-57488-585-9. Retrieved 22 March 2011. 978-1-57488-585-9 ↩

  18. Country Profiles -Israel Archived 2014-10-06 at the Wayback Machine, Nuclear Threat Initiative (NTI), updated May, 2014 http://www.nti.org/country-profiles/israel/nuclear/ ↩

  19. "CNN Cold War – Historical Documents: Reagan-Gorbachev transcripts". 18 May 2008. Archived from the original on 18 May 2008. Retrieved 14 May 2012. https://web.archive.org/web/20080518185704/http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/cold.war/episodes/22/documents/reykjavik/ ↩

  20. "Excerpts From Bush's Speech at the Opening of the U.N. General Assembly –". The New York Times. Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (Ussr). 26 September 1989. Archived from the original on 18 March 2009. Retrieved 5 August 2010. https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=950DE1DE153CF935A1575AC0A96F948260&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=all ↩

  21. MICHAEL WINES, Special to The New York Times (30 September 1990). "Confrontation in the Gulf; U.S. Explores New Strategies to Limit Weapons of Mass Destruction –". The New York Times. IRAQ. Retrieved 5 August 2010. https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C0CE3DD1130F933A0575AC0A966958260 ↩

  22. MICHAEL WINES, Special to The New York Times (30 September 1990). "Confrontation in the Gulf; U.S. Explores New Strategies to Limit Weapons of Mass Destruction –". The New York Times. IRAQ. Retrieved 5 August 2010. https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C0CE3DD1130F933A0575AC0A966958260 ↩

  23. Munitions Found in Iraq Meet WMD Criteria Archived 1 October 2012 at the Wayback Machine, Military.com, report filed by American Forces Press Service, 29 June 2006 http://www.military.com/features/0,15240,103631,00.html?ESRC=coastgnews.RSS ↩

  24. "India Completes Chemical Weapons Disposal; Iraq Declares Stockpile | Analysis | NTI". nti.org. Archived from the original on 3 January 2016. Retrieved 12 December 2017. http://www.nti.org/gsn/article/india-completes-chemical-weapons-disposal-iraq-declares-stockpile/ ↩

  25. "American Dialect Society". Americandialect.org. 13 January 2003. Archived from the original on 15 June 2006. Retrieved 5 August 2010. http://www.americandialect.org/index.php/amerdial/2002_words_of_the_y/ ↩

  26. "Lake Superior State University:: Banished Words List:: 2003". Lssu.edu. Archived from the original on 20 August 2017. Retrieved 5 August 2010. https://web.archive.org/web/20170820055207/https://www.lssu.edu/banished-words-list/banished-word-list-archive/#toggle-id-14 ↩

  27. "Criminal Complaint United States vs Dzhokhar Tsarnaev". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 22 April 2013. Retrieved 23 April 2013. https://web.archive.org/web/20130422211727/http://apps.washingtonpost.com/g/documents/national/criminal-complaint-united-states-vs-dzhokhar-tsarnaev/412/ ↩

  28. Hatch, Benjamin B. (December 2017). "Defining a Class of Offensive Destructive Cyber Weapons As Weapons of Mass Destruction: An Examination of the Merits" (PDF). United States Air Force Center for Unconventional Weapon Studies Trinity Site Papers. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 June 2021. https://web.archive.org/web/20210602010924/https://www.airuniversity.af.edu/Portals/10/CSDS/assets/trinity_site_paper10.pdf ↩

  29. Kumar, Davinder (March 2013). "Cyber Weapons – The New Weapons of Mass Destruction". United Service Institution of India. Archived from the original on 7 January 2022. Retrieved 3 July 2021. https://web.archive.org/web/20220107185109/https://usiofindia.org/publication/usi-journal/cyber-weapons-the-new-weapons-of-mass-destruction/ ↩

  30. "The Pentagon Thinks Cyber Ops Could Be The Next WMDs". Government Executive. 19 December 2018. Retrieved 3 July 2021. https://www.govexec.com/defense/2018/12/pentagon-thinks-cyber-ops-could-be-next-wmds/153689/ ↩

  31. Carr, Jeffrey (September 2013). "The misunderstood acronym: Why cyber weapons aren't WMD". Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. 69 (5): 32–37. Bibcode:2013BuAtS..69e..32C. doi:10.1177/0096340213501373. /wiki/Bibcode_(identifier) ↩

  32. Caves, John; Carus, W. Seth (June 2014). "Future of Weapons of Mass Destruction: Their Nature and Role in 2030". Center for the Study of Weapons of Mass Destruction, Occasional Paper 10. https://www.hsdl.org/?view&did=755104 ↩

  33. Reed, Laura (2014). "Weapons of Mass Destruction". Hampshire College. Archived from the original on 2 August 2015. Retrieved 21 October 2014. https://www.hampshire.edu/pawss/weapons-of-mass-destruction ↩

  34. Reed, Laura (2014). "Weapons of Mass Destruction". Hampshire College. Archived from the original on 2 August 2015. Retrieved 21 October 2014. https://www.hampshire.edu/pawss/weapons-of-mass-destruction ↩

  35. "Untitled". Archived from the original on 2 April 2010. Retrieved 6 February 2016. https://web.archive.org/web/20100402124051/http://nti.org/f_wmd411/f1a1_letter.html ↩

  36. "Weekly Compilation of Presidential Documents Volume 37, Issue 19 (May 14, 2001)" (PDF). Frwebgate.access.gpo.gov. Retrieved 14 May 2012.[permanent dead link‍] http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgi-bin/getdoc.cgi?dbname=2001_presidential_documents&docid=pd14my01_txt-9.pdf ↩

  37. CIA Site Redirect – Central Intelligence Agency Archived 4 October 2006 at the Wayback Machine http://www.odci.gov/cia/reports/721_reports/jan_jun2003.htm ↩

  38. "Message of the Secretary of Defense". Archived from the original on 1 October 2004. Retrieved 6 February 2016. https://web.archive.org/web/20041001050843/http://www.defenselink.mil/pubs/prolif97/message.html ↩

  39. "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 June 2006. Retrieved 6 February 2016.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) https://web.archive.org/web/20060601034146/http://www.defenselink.mil/pubs/ptr20010110.pdf ↩

  40. "Weapons of Mass Destruction: State Department Oversight of Science Centers Program" (PDF). Retrieved 5 August 2010.[permanent dead link‍] http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgi-bin/getdoc.cgi?dbname=gao&docid=f:d01582.pdf ↩

  41. "Department of Defense Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms". Dtic.mil. 12 April 2001. Archived from the original on 10 October 2016. Retrieved 5 August 2010. https://web.archive.org/web/20161010194329/http://www.dtic.mil/doctrine/dod_dictionary/ ↩

  42. Review of Intelligence on Weapons of Mass Destruction: Report of a Committee of Privy Counsellors Archived 16 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine (HC 898), London: The Stationery Office, 2004, §14. http://archive.cabinetoffice.gov.uk/butlerreview/report/index.asp ↩

  43. Harigel, Gert G. (22 November 2001). "Chemical and Biological Weapons: Use in Warfare, Impact on Society and Environment". Retrieved 19 January 2021. https://www.wagingpeace.org/chemical-and-biological-weapons-use-in-warfare-impact-on-society-and-environment/ ↩

  44. "A Soldier's Viewpoint on Surviving Nuclear, Chemical and Biological Attacks". Sightm1911.com. Archived from the original on 1 September 2010. Retrieved 5 August 2010. https://web.archive.org/web/20100901234629/http://www.sightm1911.com/lib/other/nbc.htm ↩

  45. Sidel, Victor W.; Levy, Barry S. (2016). "Weapons of Mass Destruction". In Cockerham, William C. (ed.). International Encyclopedia of Public Health. Academic Press. p. 402. ISBN 978-0-12-803708-9. 978-0-12-803708-9 ↩

  46. "Colombia". 2 September 2007. Archived from the original on 2 September 2007. Retrieved 14 May 2012. https://web.archive.org/web/20070902003808/http://disarmament.un.org/cab/smallarms/statements/colombiaE.html ↩

  47. "What makes a weapon one of mass destruction?-News-UK-TimesOnline". 11 March 2007. Archived from the original on 11 March 2007. Retrieved 24 August 2017. https://web.archive.org/web/20070311090139/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/article1013136.ece ↩

  48. Capt. G. Shane Hendricks, Dr. Margot J. Hall (2007). "The History and Science of CBRNE Agents, Part I" (PDF). American Institute of Chemists. p. 1. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 July 2014. Retrieved 4 July 2014. https://web.archive.org/web/20140714193547/http://www.theaic.org/publications/archives/thechemist/The_Chemist_Vol_84_Issue_1_2007/CBRNE_agents_pt1.pdf ↩

  49. "US CODE: Title 50—War and National Defense". .law.cornell.edu. 23 March 2010. Archived from the original on 27 April 2010. Retrieved 5 August 2010. http://www4.law.cornell.edu/uscode/50/usc_sup_01_50.html ↩

  50. "US CODE: 50, ch. 40—Defense Against Weapons of Mass Destruction". .law.cornell.edu. 23 March 2010. Archived from the original on 27 April 2010. Retrieved 5 August 2010. http://www4.law.cornell.edu/uscode/50/usc_sup_01_50_10_40.html ↩

  51. "US CODE: 50, ch. 40, § 2302. Definitions". .law.cornell.edu. 23 March 2010. Retrieved 5 August 2010. https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/50/2302- ↩

  52. "US CODE: 50, ch. 43—Preventing Weapons of Mass Destruction Proliferation and Terrorism". .law.cornell.edu. 23 March 2010. Archived from the original on 28 July 2010. Retrieved 5 August 2010. http://www4.law.cornell.edu/uscode/50/usc_sup_01_50_10_43.html ↩

  53. "US CODE: 50, ch. 43; § 2902. Definitions". .law.cornell.edu. 23 March 2010. Retrieved 5 August 2010. https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/50/2902- ↩

  54. "US CODE: Chapter 113B—Terrorism". .law.cornell.edu. 28 June 2010. Archived from the original on 19 August 2010. Retrieved 5 August 2010. http://www4.law.cornell.edu/uscode/html/uscode18/usc_sup_01_18_10_I_20_113B.html ↩

  55. "US CODE: Title 18, § 921. Definitions". .law.cornell.edu. 13 September 1994. Retrieved 5 August 2010. https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/18/921- ↩

  56. "US CODE: Title 18, § 2332a. Use of weapons of mass destruction". .law.cornell.edu. 28 June 2010. Retrieved 5 August 2010. https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/18/2332a- ↩

  57. "What is A Weapon of Mass Destruction". Fbi.gov. 30 March 2007. Archived from the original on 13 October 2010. Retrieved 5 August 2010. https://www.fbi.gov/about-us/investigate/terrorism/wmd/wmd_faqs/ ↩

  58. See, e.g., "United States v. McVeigh". Google Scholar. Retrieved 15 October 2021. https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=6243122458905704098 ↩

  59. "FindLaw for Legal Professionals – Case Law, Federal and State Resources, Forms, and Code". Caselaw.lp.findlaw.com. Archived from the original on 10 June 2011. Retrieved 5 August 2010. http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?navby=search&case=/data2/circs/2nd/981723.html ↩

  60. "U.S. v. Richard C. Reid" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 March 2009. Retrieved 5 August 2010. https://web.archive.org/web/20090325035918/http://fl1.findlaw.com/news.findlaw.com/hdocs/docs/reid/usreid1002ind.pdf ↩

  61. "The Free Lance-Star – 14 Jul 1998". Archived from the original on 2 January 2016. Retrieved 11 January 2016. https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=nPAyAAAAIBAJ&pg=6809%2C3453874 ↩

  62. "18 U.S. Code § 2332a - Use of weapons of mass destruction" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 July 2017. Retrieved 27 June 2017. https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/pdf/uscode18/lii_usc_TI_18_PA_I_CH_113B_SE_2332a.pdf ↩

  63. "Indictment of ZACARIAS MOUSSAOUI". www.justice.gov. 9 September 2014. https://www.justice.gov/archives/ag/indictment-zacarias-moussaoui ↩

  64. Kotz, Deborah (24 April 2013). "Injury toll from Marathon bombs reduced to 264". The Boston Globe. Archived from the original on 31 March 2019. Retrieved 29 April 2013. Boston public health officials said Tuesday that they have revised downward their estimate of the number of people injured in the Marathon attacks, to 264. https://web.archive.org/web/20190331141156/https://www.bostonglobe.com/lifestyle/health-wellness/2013/04/23/number-injured-marathon-bombing-revised-downward/NRpaz5mmvGquP7KMA6XsIK/story.html ↩

  65. "Disarmament Treaties Database: 1925 Geneva Protocol". United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs. Archived from the original on 21 May 2019. Retrieved 10 February 2021. https://web.archive.org/web/20190521142454/http://disarmament.un.org/treaties/t/1925 ↩

  66. "Disarmament Treaties Database: Partial Test Ban Treaty". United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs. Archived from the original on 2 February 2017. Retrieved 10 February 2021. https://web.archive.org/web/20170202050200/http://disarmament.un.org/treaties/t/test_ban ↩

  67. "Disarmament Treaties Database: Outer Space Treaty". United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs. Retrieved 10 February 2021. http://disarmament.un.org/treaties/t/outer_space ↩

  68. "Disarmament Treaties Database: Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT)". United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs. Archived from the original on 3 August 2018. Retrieved 10 February 2021. https://web.archive.org/web/20180803083727/http://disarmament.un.org/treaties/t/npt ↩

  69. "Disarmament Treaties Database: Sea-bed Treaty". United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs. Archived from the original on 3 December 2020. Retrieved 10 February 2021. https://web.archive.org/web/20201203225625/http://disarmament.un.org/treaties/t/sea_bed ↩

  70. "Disarmament Treaties Database: Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty". United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs. Archived from the original on 3 December 2020. Retrieved 10 February 2021. https://web.archive.org/web/20201203224018/http://disarmament.un.org/treaties/t/ctbt ↩

  71. "Disarmament Treaties Database: Biological Weapons Convention". United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs. Archived from the original on 2 February 2021. Retrieved 10 February 2021. https://web.archive.org/web/20210202055505/http://disarmament.un.org/treaties/t/bwc ↩

  72. "Disarmament Treaties Database: Chemical Weapons Convention". United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs. Archived from the original on 3 December 2020. Retrieved 10 February 2021. https://web.archive.org/web/20201203223850/http://disarmament.un.org/treaties/t/cwc ↩

  73. "Disarmament Treaties Database: Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons". United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs. Archived from the original on 26 January 2021. Retrieved 10 February 2021. https://web.archive.org/web/20210126050128/http://disarmament.un.org/treaties/t/tpnw ↩

  74. "How Nuclear Weapons Work | Union of Concerned Scientists". www.ucsusa.org. Retrieved 16 May 2024. https://www.ucsusa.org/resources/how-nuclear-weapons-work ↩

  75. "How Nuclear Weapons Work | Union of Concerned Scientists". www.ucsusa.org. Retrieved 16 May 2024. https://www.ucsusa.org/resources/how-nuclear-weapons-work ↩

  76. "How Nuclear Weapons Work | Union of Concerned Scientists". www.ucsusa.org. Retrieved 16 May 2024. https://www.ucsusa.org/resources/how-nuclear-weapons-work ↩

  77. "How Nuclear Weapons Work | Union of Concerned Scientists". www.ucsusa.org. Retrieved 16 May 2024. https://www.ucsusa.org/resources/how-nuclear-weapons-work ↩

  78. "How Nuclear Weapons Work | Union of Concerned Scientists". www.ucsusa.org. Retrieved 16 May 2024. https://www.ucsusa.org/resources/how-nuclear-weapons-work ↩

  79. "How Nuclear Weapons Work | Union of Concerned Scientists". www.ucsusa.org. Retrieved 16 May 2024. https://www.ucsusa.org/resources/how-nuclear-weapons-work ↩

  80. "How Nuclear Weapons Work | Union of Concerned Scientists". www.ucsusa.org. Retrieved 16 May 2024. https://www.ucsusa.org/resources/how-nuclear-weapons-work ↩

  81. Kristensen, Hans M.; Korda, Matt; Friess, Friederike; Mian, Zia; Podvig, Pavel (2024). "World nuclear forces". SIPRI Yearbook 2024. ISBN 9780198930570. 9780198930570 ↩

  82. Sidel, Victor W.; Levy, Barry S. (2017). "Weapons of Mass Destruction". International Encyclopedia of Public Health. pp. 402–407. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-803678-5.00491-4. ISBN 978-0-12-803708-9. 978-0-12-803708-9 ↩

  83. "U.S. Nuclear Weapons in Europe | NATO Nuclear Weapons Policy | NTI". nti.org. Archived from the original on 7 November 2018. Retrieved 19 March 2019. https://www.nti.org/analysis/articles/nato-nuclear-disarmament/ ↩

  84. Wheelis, Mark (September 2002). "Biological Warfare at the 1346 Siege of Caffa". Emerging Infectious Diseases. 8 (9): 971–975. doi:10.3201/eid0809.010536. PMC 2732530. PMID 12194776. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2732530 ↩

  85. Mayor, Adrienne (2003). Greek Fire, Poison Arrows & Scorpion Bombs: Biological and Chemical Warfare in the Ancient World. Abrams Press. ISBN 978-1585673483. 978-1585673483 ↩

  86. "The A to Z of international relations". The Economist. Retrieved 23 November 2023. https://www.economist.com/international-relations-a-to-z ↩

  87. "The A to Z of international relations". The Economist. Retrieved 23 November 2023. https://www.economist.com/international-relations-a-to-z ↩

  88. "Canada". Nuclear Threat Initiative. Retrieved 4 March 2021. https://www.nti.org/learn/countries/canada/ ↩

  89. "France". Nuclear Threat Initiative. Retrieved 4 March 2021. https://www.nti.org/learn/countries/france/ ↩

  90. "Iraq". Nuclear Threat Initiative. Retrieved 4 March 2021. https://www.nti.org/learn/countries/iraq/biological/ ↩

  91. "Japan". Nuclear Threat Initiative. Retrieved 4 March 2021. https://www.nti.org/learn/countries/japan/ ↩

  92. "South Africa". Nuclear Threat Initiative. Retrieved 4 March 2021. https://www.nti.org/learn/countries/south-africa/biological/ ↩

  93. "Russia". Nuclear Threat Initiative. Retrieved 4 March 2021. https://www.nti.org/learn/countries/russia/biological/ ↩

  94. "United Kingdom". Nuclear Threat Initiative. Retrieved 4 March 2021. https://www.nti.org/learn/countries/united-kingdom/ ↩

  95. "United States". Nuclear Threat Initiative. Retrieved 4 March 2021. https://www.nti.org/learn/countries/united-states/biological/ ↩

  96. Dando, Malcolm (2006). Chapter 2: Biological warfare before 1945. In Bioterror and Biowarfare: A Beginner's Guide. Oneworld. pp. 11–31. ISBN 9781851684472. 9781851684472 ↩

  97. Leitenberg, Milton; Zilinskas, Raymond A.; Kuhn, Jens H. (2012). "Conclusion". The Soviet Biological Weapons Program: A History. Harvard University Press. pp. 698–712. ISBN 978-0-674-04770-9. JSTOR j.ctt2jbscf.30. 978-0-674-04770-9 ↩

  98. Baxter, R. R.; Buergenthal, Thomas (October 1970). "Legal Aspects of the Geneva Protocol of 1925". American Journal of International Law. 64 (5): 853–879. doi:10.2307/2198921. JSTOR 2198921. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  99. "Text of the 1925 Geneva Protocol". United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs. Archived from the original on 9 February 2021. Retrieved 2 March 2021. https://web.archive.org/web/20210209134308/http://disarmament.un.org/treaties/t/1925/text ↩

  100. "Disarmament Treaties Database: 1925 Geneva Protocol". United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs. Archived from the original on 21 May 2019. Retrieved 2 March 2021. https://web.archive.org/web/20190521142454/http://disarmament.un.org/treaties/t/1925 ↩

  101. Beard, Jack M. (April 2007). "The Shortcomings of Indeterminacy in Arms Control Regimes: The Case of the Biological Weapons Convention". American Journal of International Law. 101 (2): 271–321. doi:10.1017/S0002930000030098. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  102. "Biological Weapons Convention". United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs. Archived from the original on 15 February 2021. Retrieved 2 March 2021. https://www.un.org/disarmament/biological-weapons/ ↩

  103. "Biological Weapons Convention". United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs. Archived from the original on 15 February 2021. Retrieved 2 March 2021. https://www.un.org/disarmament/biological-weapons/ ↩

  104. "Disarmament Treaties Database: Biological Weapons Convention". United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs. Archived from the original on 2 February 2021. Retrieved 2 March 2021. https://web.archive.org/web/20210202055505/http://disarmament.un.org/treaties/t/bwc ↩

  105. Vilches, Diego (15 November 2015). "One hundred and one years after a milestone: Modern chemical weapons and World War I". Educacion Quimica (Chemistry Education). 27 (3). https://revistas.unam.mx/index.php/req/article/view/63852 ↩

  106. "Gas Warfare at Dura-Europos". World Archaeology. 7 November 2009. Retrieved 22 December 2021. http://www.archaeology.co.uk/cwa/world-news/death-underground-gas-warfare-at-dura-europos.htm ↩

  107. Timperley, Christopher M.; Forman, Jonathan E.; Abdollahi, Mohammad; Al-Amri, Abdullah Saeed; Alonso, Isel Pascual; Baulig, Augustin; Borrett, Veronica; Cariño, Flerida A.; Curty, Christophe; Berrutti, David González; Kovarik, Zrinka; Martínez-Álvarez, Roberto; Mikulak, Robert; Mourão, Nicia Maria Fusaro; Ponnadurai, Ramasami; Neffe, Slawomir; Raza, Syed K.; Rubaylo, Valentin; Takeuchi, Koji; Tang, Cheng; Trifirò, Ferruccio; van Straten, Francois Mauritz; Vanninen, Paula S.; Zaitsev, Volodymyr; Waqar, Farhat; Zina, Mongia Saïd; Blum, Marc-Michael; Gregg, Hugh; Fischer, Elena; Sun, Siqing; Yang, Pei (October 2018). "Advice on chemical weapons sample stability and storage provided by the Scientific Advisory Board of the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons to increase investigative capabilities worldwide". Talanta. 188: 808–832. doi:10.1016/j.talanta.2018.04.022. PMID 30029449. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  108. "Status of Participation in the Chemical Weapons Convention as at 14 October 2013". Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons. 14 October 2013. http://www.opcw.org/index.php?eID=dam_frontend_push&docID=16815 ↩

  109. "Status of Participation in the Chemical Weapons Convention as at 14 October 2013". Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons. 14 October 2013. http://www.opcw.org/index.php?eID=dam_frontend_push&docID=16815 ↩

  110. "SIGNATORY STATES". Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons. 2 September 2013. https://www.opcw.org/index.php?eID=dam_frontend_push&docID=12300 ↩

  111. "SIGNATORY STATES". Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons. 2 September 2013. https://www.opcw.org/index.php?eID=dam_frontend_push&docID=12300 ↩

  112. "Myanmar Joins Chemical Weapons Convention". Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons. 9 July 2015. https://www.opcw.org/news/article/myanmar-joins-chemical-weapons-convention/ ↩

  113. https://www.peoacwa.army.mil/destruction-progress/ https://www.peoacwa.army.mil/destruction-progress/ ↩

  114. See List of weapons of mass destruction treaties. /wiki/List_of_weapons_of_mass_destruction_treaties ↩

  115. See Debate over the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki for various perspectives on the only combat use of nuclear weapons. The Khabarovsk War Crime Trials sentenced some members of the Japanese army to jail terms for the use of biological and chemical weapons during World War II. The Halabja poison gas attack was determined a war crime by Dutch and Iraqi courts, resulting in the execution of Ali Hassan al-Majid. /wiki/Debate_over_the_atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki ↩

  116. See Aerial bombardment and international law. /wiki/Aerial_bombardment_and_international_law ↩

  117. The Bombing of Dresden in World War II in particular has been referred to as mass murder: Volkery, Carsten. "60 Years after the Bombing of Dresden: A War of Words", Der Spiegel, 2 February 2005. Archived 9 September 2007 at the Wayback Machine. /wiki/Bombing_of_Dresden_in_World_War_II ↩

  118. In addition to previous treaties on bombardment of civilian areas generally, carpet bombing of cities, towns, villages, or other areas containing a concentration of civilians was specifically designated a war crime by the 1977 Protocol I of the Geneva Conventions: Fischer, Horst. "Carpet or Area Bombing". Crimes of War. Archived from the original on 2 December 2015. Retrieved 8 December 2015. /wiki/Protocol_I ↩

  119. Wright, David T. (11 June 2003). "Weapons of mass distraction". The Last Ditch. Archived from the original on 15 June 2011. Retrieved 5 August 2010. https://web.archive.org/web/20110615224203/http://www.thornwalker.com/ditch/dtw_wmd.htm ↩

  120. "Weapons of Mass Destruction Are Overrated as a Threat to America". The Independent Institute. 28 January 2004. Archived from the original on 13 June 2010. Retrieved 5 August 2010. http://www.independent.org/newsroom/article.asp?id=1256 ↩

  121. Easterbrook, Gregg. "Term Limits". The New Republic. Archived from the original on 11 October 2007. https://web.archive.org/web/20071011185538/https://ssl.tnr.com/p/docsub.mhtml?i=20021007&s=easterbrook100702 ↩

  122. Nowicki, Dan (6 September 2014). "'Daisy Girl' political ad still haunting 50 years later". The Arizona Republic. Retrieved 2 February 2022. https://www.azcentral.com/story/news/arizona/politics/2014/09/07/daisy-ad-political-attack-remembered/15233151/ ↩

  123. St. Clair, Jeffrey (13 August 2003). "War Pimps". Anderson Valley Advertiser. Archived from the original on 11 June 2011. Retrieved 5 August 2010. https://web.archive.org/web/20110611164724/http://www.theava.com/03/08-13-warpimps.html ↩

  124. Easterbrook, Gregg. "Term Limits". The New Republic. Archived from the original on 11 October 2007. https://web.archive.org/web/20071011185538/https://ssl.tnr.com/p/docsub.mhtml?i=20021007&s=easterbrook100702 ↩

  125. Blair, Tony; Bush, George W. (31 January 2003). "President Bush Meets with Prime Minister Blair". The White House. Archived from the original on 12 March 2011. Retrieved 1 February 2021. https://web.archive.org/web/20110312120342/http://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2003/01/20030131-23.html ↩

  126. Quigley, Samantha L. (29 June 2006). "Munitions Found in Iraq Meet WMD Criteria, Official Says". US Department of Defense. Archived from the original on 14 June 2014. Retrieved 1 April 2014. https://www.defense.gov/News/News-Stories/id/15918/ ↩

  127. "Weapon of mass destruction". American Heritage Dictionary. Archived from the original on 4 September 2015. Retrieved 24 April 2015. https://web.archive.org/web/20150904054206/https://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=weapon+of+mass+destruction&submit.x=51&submit.y=20 ↩

  128. "18 U.S.C. 2332a - Use of weapons of mass destruction". GovInfo. Archived from the original on 12 May 2015. Retrieved 24 April 2015. https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/granule/USCODE-2011-title18/USCODE-2011-title18-partI-chap113B-sec2332a/content-detail.html ↩

  129. "Case 1:13-mj-02106-MBB Document 3" (PDF). U.S. Department of Justice. 21 April 2013. Archived (PDF) from the original on 23 June 2014. Retrieved 24 April 2015. https://www.justice.gov/iso/opa/resources/363201342213441988148.pdf ↩

  130. Moeller, Susan D. (9 March 2004). "Media coverage of weapons of mass destruction" (PDF). Center for International and Security Studies at Maryland. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 October 2004. Retrieved 19 May 2021. https://web.archive.org/web/20041022050812/http://www.cissm.umd.edu/documents/WMDstudy_full.pdf ↩

  131. "Psychological Science – Journal Information". Blackwellpublishing.com. Archived from the original on 14 August 2010. Retrieved 5 August 2010. https://web.archive.org/web/20100814183500/http://www.blackwellpublishing.com/journal.asp?ref=0956-7976 ↩

  132. Kull, Steven; Ramsay, Clay; Lewis, Evan (December 2003). "Misperceptions, the Media, and the Iraq War". Political Science Quarterly. 118 (4): 569–598. doi:10.1002/j.1538-165X.2003.tb00406.x. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  133. "Misperceptions, the Media and the Iraq War" (PDF). Archived from the original on 10 February 2006. Retrieved 22 October 2009.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link), PIPA, 2 October 2003 https://web.archive.org/web/20060210232719/http://www.pipa.org/OnlineReports/Iraq/IraqMedia_Oct03/IraqMedia_Oct03_rpt.pdf ↩

  134. "Report: Hundreds of WMDs Found in Iraq". Fox News. 22 June 2006. Archived from the original on 24 April 2008. Retrieved 30 June 2007. https://www.foxnews.com/story/report-hundreds-of-wmds-found-in-iraq ↩

  135. Kay, David. "House Armed Services Committee Hearing", 29 June 2006 ↩

  136. Duelfer, Charles. Expert: Iraq WMD Find Did Not Point to Ongoing Program Archived 16 December 2018 at the Wayback Machine NPR. 22 June 2006 https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=5504298 ↩

  137. Shachtman, Noah (23 October 2010). "WikiLeaks Show WMD Hunt Continued in Iraq – With Surprising Results". Wired.com. Archived from the original on 24 March 2014. Retrieved 12 March 2017. https://www.wired.com/dangerroom/2010/10/wikileaks-show-wmd-hunt-continued-in-iraq-with-surprising-results/ ↩

  138. "CIA's Final Report: No WMD Found in Iraq". NBC News. 25 April 2005. Retrieved 1 July 2007. https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna7634313 ↩

  139. "Iraq WMD Inspectors End Search, Find Nothing". Fox News. 26 April 2005. Archived from the original on 5 August 2007. Retrieved 24 July 2007. http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,154574,00.html ↩

  140. "Welcome – WMD Awareness Programme". 26 June 2009. Archived from the original on 26 June 2009. Retrieved 9 October 2017.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link) https://web.archive.org/web/20090626122429/http://www.wmdawareness.org.uk/ ↩

  141. Herron, Kerry G.; Jenkins-Smith, Hank C.; Hughes, Scott (June 2000). Mass and Elite Viewson Nuclear Security (Report). UNM Institute for Public Policy. Retrieved 9 March 2024. Reports of the three previous studies in this series can be obtained from the National Technical Information Service. See ...(3)Kerry G. Herron and Hank C. Jenkins-Smith, 1998, Public Perspectives on Nuclear Security: US National Security Surveys 1993–1997 https://www.osti.gov/servlets/purl/759443 ↩

  142. Herron, K.G.; Jenkins-Smith, H.C. (1 August 1998). Public perspectives on nuclear security. US national security surveys, 1993--1997 (Report). Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI). doi:10.2172/665965. https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc709036/#description-content-main ↩

  143. Herron, K.G.; Jenkins-Smith, H.C. (1 August 1998). Public perspectives on nuclear security. US national security surveys, 1993--1997 (Report). Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI). doi:10.2172/665965. https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc709036/#description-content-main ↩

  144. "Pakistan's Nuclear Tests Attempt to Restore Mutual Deterrence, Pakistan Tells Disarmament Committee". United Nations Meetings Coverage and Press Releases. 20 October 1998. Retrieved 9 March 2024. https://press.un.org/en/1998/19981020.gads3115.html ↩

  145. Venkatesh; Tsao, Jeffrey Y.; Bustamante, Constanza M. Vidal; Calidas, Doug; Bingen, Kari A.; Williams, Heather; Nye, Joseph S.; Walt, Stephen M.; Brooks, Harvey; Comiter, Marcus (13 May 1998). "Indian Nuclear Escalation". Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs. Retrieved 9 March 2024. https://www.belfercenter.org/publication/indian-nuclear-escalation-failure-us-policy ↩

  146. "The Pipa/Knowledge Networks Poll" (PDF). 29 September 2005. Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 September 2005. Retrieved 14 May 2012. https://web.archive.org/web/20050929024408/http://www.pipa.org/OnlineReports/WMD/WMDreport_04_15_04.pdf ↩

  147. Russian public opinion on nuclear weapons (5 August 2005). "Russian public opinion on nuclear weapons – Blog – Russian strategic nuclear forces". Russianforces.org. Archived from the original on 16 February 2006. Retrieved 5 August 2010. https://web.archive.org/web/20060216073301/http://russianforces.org/eng/blog/archive/000580.shtml ↩

  148. Russian public opinion on nuclear weapons (5 August 2005). "Russian public opinion on nuclear weapons – Blog – Russian strategic nuclear forces". Russianforces.org. Archived from the original on 16 February 2006. Retrieved 5 August 2010. https://web.archive.org/web/20060216073301/http://russianforces.org/eng/blog/archive/000580.shtml ↩

  149. "Unicode Character 'SKULL AND CROSSBONES' (U+2620)". fileformat.info. Archived from the original on 13 May 2018. Retrieved 12 May 2018. https://web.archive.org/web/20180513011334/https://www.fileformat.info/info/unicode/char/2620/index.htm ↩

  150. "Unicode Character 'RADIOACTIVE SIGN' (U+2622)". fileformat.info. Archived from the original on 13 May 2018. Retrieved 12 May 2018. https://web.archive.org/web/20180513011314/https://www.fileformat.info/info/unicode/char/2622/index.htm ↩

  151. "Unicode Character 'BIOHAZARD SIGN' (U+2623)". fileformat.info. Archived from the original on 13 May 2018. Retrieved 12 May 2018. https://web.archive.org/web/20180513011316/https://www.fileformat.info/info/unicode/char/2623/index.htm ↩

  152. "Origin of the Radiation Warning Symbol (Trefoil)". Retrieved 13 October 2021. https://www.orau.org/health-physics-museum/articles/radiation-warning-symbol.html ↩

  153. "Biohazard and radioactive Symbol, design and proportions" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 31 December 2013. https://web.archive.org/web/20131231181252/http://www.michigan.gov/documents/CIS_WSH_part476_54539_7.pdf ↩

  154. "Origin of the Radiation Warning Sign (Trefoil)". orau.org. Retrieved 13 October 2021. https://www.orau.org/health-physics-museum/articles/radiation-warning-symbol.html ↩

  155. Linda Lodding, "Drop it and Run! New Symbol Warns of Radiation Dangers and Aims to Save Lives Archived 20 January 2012 at the Wayback Machine," IAEA Bulletin 482 (March 2007): 70–72. http://www.iaea.org/Publications/Magazines/Bulletin/Bull482/pdfs/18RadSymbol.pdf ↩

  156. "IAEA news release Feb 2007". 15 February 2007. Archived from the original on 17 February 2007. Retrieved 11 January 2016. http://www.iaea.org/newscenter/news/2007/radiationsymbol.html ↩

  157. "Biohazard Symbol History". Archived from the original on 13 February 2012. https://web.archive.org/web/20120213165520/http://www.hms.harvard.edu/orsp/coms/biosafetyresources/history-of-biohazard-symbol.htm ↩

  158. "Biohazard and radioactive Symbol, design and proportions" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 31 December 2013. https://web.archive.org/web/20131231181252/http://www.michigan.gov/documents/CIS_WSH_part476_54539_7.pdf ↩