Mind

<h2 id="definition">Definition</h2>
The mind is the totality of psychological phenomena and capacities, encompassing both <a href="/facts/Consciousness/IAxmgt6c">conscious</a> and <a href="/facts/Unconscious_mind/BAIRTFMM">unconscious</a> states. The term mind is sometimes used in a narrow meaning to refer only to cognitive functions associated with <a href="/facts/Perception/xLK0n2q4">perception</a>, <a href="/facts/Logical_reasoning/NwR4hQva">reasoning</a>, <a href="/facts/Awareness/PazhgWFC">awareness</a>, and <a href="/facts/Memory/zucwQIEX">memory</a>. In a broader sense, it also includes processes like <a href="/facts/Feeling/RJgeFMo1">feeling</a>, <a href="/facts/Motivation/uqLMfLKq">motivation</a>, and <a href="/facts/Behavior/0Y1VqmVX">behavior</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:1" href="#fn:1">1</a> The precise definition of mind is disputed and while it is generally accepted that some non-human animals also have minds, there is no agreement on where exactly the boundary lies.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:2" href="#fn:2">2</a> Despite these disputes, there is wide agreement that mind plays a central role in most aspects of human life as the seat of consciousness, emotions, thoughts, and sense of personal identity.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:3" href="#fn:3">3</a> Various fields of inquiry study the mind; the main ones include <a href="/facts/Psychology/duoqW7Sz">psychology</a>, <a href="/facts/Cognitive_science/8qoggl7r">cognitive science</a>, <a href="/facts/Neuroscience/o5RV8Cas">neuroscience</a>, and <a href="/facts/Philosophy_of_mind/o6yNRjwd">philosophy of mind</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:4" href="#fn:4">4</a>
The words <a href="/facts/Psyche_(psychology)/PI2cpEPT">psyche</a> and mentality are usually used as synonyms of mind.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5">5</a> They are often employed in overlapping ways with the terms <a href="/facts/Soul/DJl01SxP">soul</a>, spirit, <a href="/facts/Cognition/ga0tSBul">cognition</a>, <a href="/facts/Intellect/oqUql3bD">intellect</a>, <a href="/facts/Intelligence/pRmAeRsw">intelligence</a>, and <a href="/facts/Brain/EKla9NkJ">brain</a>, but their meanings are not exactly the same. Some religions understand the soul as an independent entity that constitutes the immaterial essence of human beings, is of divine origin, survives bodily death, and is <a href="/facts/Immortality/nDAb6CKo">immortal</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6">6</a> The word spirit has various additional meanings not directly associated with mind, such as <a href="/facts/Spirit_(animating_force)/58PeK6Ia">a vital principle animating living beings</a> or a <a href="/facts/Spirit_(supernatural_entity)/p9CH62uA">supernatural being</a> inhabiting objects or places.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7">7</a> Cognition encompasses certain types of mental processes in which <a href="/facts/Knowledge/joozoaup">knowledge</a> is acquired and <a href="/facts/Information/3LdrzXtJ">information</a> processed.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8">8</a> The intellect is one mental capacity responsible for thought, reasoning, and understanding<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9">9</a> and is closely related to intelligence as the ability to acquire, understand, and apply knowledge.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10">10</a> The brain is the physical organ responsible for most or all mental functions.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11">11</a>
The modern English word mind originates from the <a href="/facts/Old_English/9rsmQG2a">Old English</a> word gemynd, meaning "memory". This term gave rise to the <a href="/facts/Middle_English/dj1wHvwd">Middle English</a> words mind(e), münd(e), and mend(e), resulting in a slow expansion of meaning to cover all mental capacities. The original meaning is preserved in expressions like call to mind and keep in mind. <a href="/facts/Cognate/nXETf5Y4">Cognates</a> include the <a href="/facts/Old_High_German/Vr3YC8sW">Old High German</a> gimunt, the <a href="/facts/Gothic_language/14Hrn0o2">Gothic</a> gamunds, the <a href="/facts/Ancient_Greek/LIK7NlUh">ancient Greek</a> μένος, the <a href="/facts/Latin/pM3Kge85">Latin</a> mens, and the <a href="/facts/Sanskrit/ychfjhlx">Sanskrit</a> manas.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12">12</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13">13</a>

<h2 id="forms">Forms</h2>
The mind encompasses many phenomena, including perception, memory, <a href="/facts/Thought/loD3aFv9">thought</a>, <a href="/facts/Imagination/FD85g9cD">imagination</a>, motivation, <a href="/facts/Emotion/kvAr22wa">emotion</a>, <a href="/facts/Attention/pleJPaeQ">attention</a>, <a href="/facts/Learning/lehEKRjC">learning</a>, and consciousness.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14">14</a> Perception is the process of interpreting and organizing <a href="/facts/Sense_data/BSwNwBv0">sensory information</a> to become acquainted with the environment. This information is acquired through <a href="/facts/Sense_organs/n9kYQ3rf">sense organs</a> receptive to various types of <a href="/facts/Physical_stimulation/aBcpBfYQ">physical stimuli</a>, which correspond to different forms of perception, such as <a href="/facts/Visual_perception/g7Tfaq2l">vision</a>, <a href="/facts/Auditory_perception/EPYrVkSx">hearing</a>, <a href="/facts/Touch/0nhRsBnt">touch</a>, <a href="/facts/Olfactory_perception/t6ytFklU">smell</a>, and <a href="/facts/Taste/mdB8ysuK">taste</a>. The sensory information received serves as raw data that is filtered and processed to actively constitute the experience of the world and the objects within it. This complex process underlying perceptual experience is shaped by many factors, including the individual's past <a href="/facts/Experience/1LeXy1DW">experiences</a>, cultural background, beliefs, knowledge, and expectations.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15">15</a>
Memory is the mechanism of storing and retrieving information.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16">16</a> <a href="/facts/Episodic_memory/1QIEM9gQ">Episodic memory</a> handles information about specific past events in one's life and makes this information available in the present. When a person remembers what they had for dinner yesterday, they employ episodic memory. <a href="/facts/Semantic_memory/NwlHHjHG">Semantic memory</a> handles general knowledge about the world that is not tied to any specific episodes. When a person recalls that the capital of Japan is Tokyo, they usually employ semantic memory to access this general information without remembering the specific instance when they learned it. <a href="/facts/Procedural_memory/3xXwEo2a">Procedural memory</a> is memory of how to do things, such as riding a bicycle or playing a musical instrument.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17">17</a> Another distinction is between <a href="/facts/Short-term_memory/xaFod2bp">short-term memory</a>, which holds information for brief periods, usually with the purpose of completing specific cognitive tasks, and <a href="/facts/Long-term_memory/NvxgXP2y">long-term memory</a>, which can store information for extended periods, potentially lasting a lifetime.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18">18</a>
Thinking involves the processing of information and the manipulation of <a href="/facts/Concept/VWB6yhQp">concepts</a> and <a href="/facts/Idea/zK4ar1yv">ideas</a>. It is goal-oriented and often happens in response to experiences by aiming at making sense of them, organizing their information, and deciding how to respond.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19">19</a> Logical reasoning is a form of thinking that starts from a set of premises and aims to arrive at a conclusion supported by these premises. This is the case when deducing that "Socrates is mortal" from the premises "Socrates is a man" and "all men are mortal".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20">20</a> <a href="/facts/Problem-solving/9cuLz5pH">Problem-solving</a> is a closely related process that consists of several steps, such as identifying a problem, developing a plan to address it, implementing the plan, and assessing whether it worked.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21">21</a> Thinking in the form of <a href="/facts/Decision-making/NbJYprSw">decision-making</a> involves considering possible courses of action to assess which one is the most beneficial.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22">22</a> As a symbolic process, thinking is deeply intertwined with language, and some theorists hold that <a href="/facts/Language_of_thought_hypothesis/17ltKUBF">all thought happens through the medium of language</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23">23</a>
Imagination is a creative process of internally generating mental images, ideas, experiences, and related phenomena. Unlike perception, it does not directly depend on the stimulation of sensory organs. Similar to <a href="/facts/Dream/BdJDoVmg">dreaming</a>, these mental constructs are often derived from previous experiences but can include novel combinations and elements. Imagination happens during <a href="/facts/Daydreaming/sWHGPfnU">daydreaming</a> and plays a key role in art and literature. Additionally, it can also be used to come up with novel solutions to real-world problems.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24">24</a>
Motivation is an internal state that propels individuals to initiate, continue, or terminate goal-directed behavior. It is responsible for the formation of <a href="/facts/Intentions/ahzUpq2G">intentions</a> to perform <a href="/facts/Action_(philosophy)/AHXKoq1V">actions</a> and affects what goals someone pursues, how much effort they invest in the activity, and how long they engage in it.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25">25</a> Motivation is affected by emotions, which are temporary experiences of positive or negative feelings like joy or anger. They are directed at and evaluate specific events, persons, or situations. They usually come together with certain physiological and behavioral responses.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26">26</a>
Attention is an aspect of other mental processes in which mental resources like awareness are directed towards certain features of experience and away from others. This happens when a driver focuses on traffic while ignoring billboards on the side of the road. Attention can be controlled voluntarily in the pursuit of specific goals but can also be diverted involuntarily when a strong <a href="/facts/Stimulus_(psychology)/el6C43FY">stimulus</a> captures a person's attention.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27">27</a> Attention is relevant to learning, which is the ability of the mind to acquire new information and permanently modify its understanding and behavioral patterns. Individuals learn by undergoing experiences, which helps them <a href="/facts/Adaptation/5K2gNpDB">adapt</a> to the environment.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28">28</a>

<h3>Conscious and unconscious</h3>
Main articles: <a href="/facts/Consciousness/IAxmgt6c">Consciousness</a> and <a href="/facts/Unconscious_mind/BAIRTFMM">Unconscious mind</a>
An influential distinction is between conscious and unconscious mental processes. Consciousness is the awareness of external and internal circumstances. It encompasses a wide variety of states, such as perception, thinking, <a href="/facts/Fantasy_(psychology)/lDzdcsje">fantasizing</a>, dreaming, and <a href="/facts/Altered_states_of_consciousness/97vjsHXF">altered states of consciousness</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29">29</a> In the case of phenomenal consciousness, the awareness involves a direct and qualitative experience of mental phenomena, like the auditory experience of attending a concert. Access consciousness, by contrast, refers to an awareness of information that is accessible to other mental processes but not necessarily part of current experience. For example, the information stored in a memory may be accessible when drawing conclusions or guiding actions even when the person is not explicitly thinking about it.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30">30</a>
Unconscious or nonconscious mental processes operate without the individual's awareness but can still influence mental phenomena on the level of thought, feeling, and action. Some theorists distinguish between <a href="/facts/Preconscious/AMuoPyPp">preconscious</a>, <a href="/facts/Subconscious/N68pC8HJ">subconscious</a>, and unconscious states depending on their accessibility to conscious awareness.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31">31</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32">32</a> When applied to the overall state of a person rather than specific processes, the term <a href="/facts/Unconsciousness/SS240v32">unconscious</a> implies that the person lacks any awareness of their environment and themselves, like during a <a href="/facts/Coma/N9oQ7g7R">coma</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33">33</a> The unconscious mind plays a central role in <a href="/facts/Psychoanalysis/gYCbGpPv">psychoanalysis</a> as the part of the mind that contains thoughts, memories, and desires not accessible to conscious introspection. According to <a href="/facts/Sigmund_Freud/KKIYbom9">Sigmund Freud</a>, the <a href="/facts/Psychological_mechanism/TXEPYaIU">psychological mechanism</a> of <a href="/facts/Repression_(psychoanalysis)/bB30whTK">repression</a> keeps disturbing phenomena, like unacceptable sexual and aggressive impulses, from entering consciousness to protect the individual. Psychoanalytic theory studies symptoms caused by this process and therapeutic methods to avoid them by making the repressed thoughts accessible to conscious awareness.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34">34</a>

<h3>Other distinctions</h3>
<a href="/facts/Mental_states/sHsDj380">Mental states</a> are often divided into qualitative and propositional states. Qualitative states are experiences of sensory qualities, typically referred to as <a href="/facts/Qualia/YnwIAg5v">qualia</a>, like colors, sounds, smells, pains, itches, and hunger. Propositional states involve an <a href="/facts/Propositional_attitude/KpEYEPGc">attitude</a> towards a content that can be expressed by a <a href="/facts/Declarative_sentence/GhKKkcm2">declarative sentence</a>. When a person believes that it is raining, they have the propositional attitude of belief towards the content "it is raining". Different types of propositional states are characterized by different attitudes towards their content. For instance, it is also possible to hope, fear, desire, or doubt that it is raining.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35">35</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36">36</a>
A mental state or process is <a href="/facts/Rationality/ueS0w9lk">rational</a> if it is based on good reasons or follows the norms of rationality. For example, a belief is rational if it relies on strong supporting <a href="/facts/Evidence/d5IGUK0U">evidence</a> and a decision is rational if it follows careful deliberation of all the relevant factors and outcomes. Mental states are irrational if they fail to adhere to these standards, such as beliefs caused by faulty reasoning, <a href="/facts/Superstition/XB63u3qt">superstition</a>, or <a href="/facts/Cognitive_bias/49YKVhmN">cognitive biases</a>, and decisions that give into <a href="/facts/Temptation/CUxC2oYp">temptations</a> against one's best judgment.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37">37</a> Mental states that fall outside the domain of rational evaluation are arational rather than irrational. There is controversy regarding which mental phenomena lie outside this domain; suggested examples include sensory impressions, feelings, desires, and involuntary responses.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38">38</a>
Another contrast is between <a href="/facts/Disposition/GBeJAYMk">dispositional</a> and occurrent mental states. A dispositional state is a power that is not exercised. If a person believes that cats have whiskers but does not think about this fact, it is a dispositional belief. By activating the belief to consciously think about it or use it in other cognitive processes, it becomes occurrent until it is no longer actively considered or used. The great majority of a person's beliefs are dispositional most of the time.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39">39</a>

<h3>Faculties and modules</h3>
Traditionally, the mind was subdivided into <a href="/facts/Faculty_psychology/WQjU2IoT">mental faculties</a> understood as capacities to perform certain functions or bring about certain processes.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40">40</a> An influential subdivision in the <a href="/facts/History_of_philosophy/zAH5PVD6">history of philosophy</a> was between the faculties of intellect and <a href="/facts/Will_(philosophy)/cLDa60FT">will</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:41" href="#fn:41">41</a> The intellect encompasses mental phenomena aimed at understanding the world and determining what to believe or what is true; the will is concerned with practical matters and what is good, reflected in phenomena like desire, decision-making, and action.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:42" href="#fn:42">42</a> The exact number and nature of the mental faculties are disputed. More fine-grained distinctions divide the intellect into the faculties of understanding and judgment or add sensibility as an additional faculty responsible for sensory impressions.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:43" href="#fn:43">43</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:44" href="#fn:44">44</a>

In contrast to the traditional view, more recent approaches analyze the mind in terms of <a href="/facts/Modularity_of_mind/F2EcvPfE">mental modules</a> rather than faculties.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:45" href="#fn:45">45</a> A mental module is an inborn system of the brain that automatically performs a particular function within a specific domain without conscious awareness or effort. In contrast to faculties, the concept of mental modules is normally used to provide a more limited explanation. It is typically restricted to certain low-level cognitive processes without trying to explain how they are integrated into higher-level processes such as conscious reasoning.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:46" href="#fn:46">46</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:47" href="#fn:47">47</a> Many low-level cognitive processes responsible for visual perception have this automatic and unconscious nature. In the case of <a href="/facts/Visual_illusion/8wfWwjFI">visual illusions</a> like the <a href="/facts/M%25C3%25BCller-Lyer_illusion/xUBAC7rb">Müller-Lyer illusion</a>, the underlying processes continue their operation and the illusion persists even after a person has become aware of the illusion, indicating the mechanical and involuntary nature of the process.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:48" href="#fn:48">48</a> Other examples of mental modules concern cognitive processes responsible for <a href="/facts/Language_processing/sjVw9Ppd">language processing</a> and <a href="/facts/Face_perception/shbrk8Ya">facial recognition</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:49" href="#fn:49">49</a>

<h2 id="theories-of-the-nature-of-mind">Theories of the nature of mind</h2>
Theories of the nature of mind aim to determine what all <a href="/facts/Mental_state/sHsDj380">mental states</a> have in common. They seek to discover the "mark of the mental", that is, the criteria that distinguish mental from non-mental phenomena.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:50" href="#fn:50">50</a> Epistemic criteria say that the unique feature of mental states is how people know about them. For example, if a person has a toothache, they have direct or non-inferential knowledge that they are in pain. But they do not have this kind of knowledge about non-mental phenomena such as the physical causes of the pain, and may have to consult <a href="/facts/Empirical_evidence/JUaYSGJc">external evidence</a> through visual inspection or a visit to the dentist. Another feature commonly ascribed to mental states is that they are private, meaning that others do not have direct access to a person's mental state. As a result, external observers have to make inferences from other indicators, like the pain behavior of the person with the toothache. Some philosophers claim that knowledge of some or all mental states is <a href="/facts/Infallible/XhMSj9Al">infallible</a>, for instance, that a person cannot be mistaken about whether they are in pain.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:51" href="#fn:51">51</a>
A related view asserts that all mental states are either conscious or accessible to consciousness. According to this view, when a person actively remembers the fact that the Eiffel Tower is in Paris then this state is mental because it is part of consciousness. When the person does not think about it, this belief is still considered a mental state because the person could bring it to consciousness by thinking about it. This view denies the existence of a "deep unconsciousness", that is, unconscious mental states that cannot in principle become conscious.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:52" href="#fn:52">52</a>
Another theory says that <a href="/facts/Intentionality/IhExom05">intentionality</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:53" href="#fn:53">53</a> is the mark of the mental. A state is intentional if it refers to or <a href="/facts/Mental_representation/dlny9gvs">represents</a> something. For example, if a person perceives a piano or thinks about it then the mental state is intentional because it refers to a piano. This view distinguishes between the original intentionality of mental phenomena and the derivative intentionality of some non-mental phenomena. According to this view, the ability of words and pictures to refer to things derives from the fact that they can evoke mental states. In this sense, only mental states have original intentionality, whereas words and pictures have derivative intentionality since they would not refer if divorced from linguistic conventions or visual interpretations. Some philosophers disagree that all mental states are intentional, citing itches, tickles, and pains as possible exceptions.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:54" href="#fn:54">54</a>
According to <a href="/facts/Behaviorism/8DHljqrh">behaviorism</a>, mental states are dispositions to engage in certain publicly observable behavior as a reaction to particular external stimuli. This view implies that mental phenomena are not private internal states but are accessible to empirical observation like regular physical phenomena.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:55" href="#fn:55">55</a> <a href="/facts/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)/o5doIVHb">Functionalism</a> agrees that mental states do not depend on the exact internal constitution of the mind and characterizes them instead in regard to their functional role. The functional role of a mental state is the way it interacts with other phenomena. For example, <a href="/facts/Pain/70E79oUn">pain</a> is often caused by bodily injury and typically leads to pain behavior, like moaning, and a desire to stop the pain. As a result, injury, pain behavior, and desire are part of the functional role of pain.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:56" href="#fn:56">56</a> <a href="/facts/Computationalism/bSFaF2rW">Computationalism</a>, a similar theory prominent in cognitive science, defines minds in terms of cognitions and <a href="/facts/Computation/qLsELosq">computations</a> as information processors.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:57" href="#fn:57">57</a>
Theories under the umbrella of <a href="/facts/Externalism/TIvHed3C">externalism</a> emphasize the mind's dependency on the environment. According to this view, mental states and their contents are at least partially determined by external circumstances.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:58" href="#fn:58">58</a> For example, some forms of content externalism hold that it can depend on external circumstances whether a belief refers to one object or another.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:59" href="#fn:59">59</a> The position of <a href="/facts/Embodied_embedded_cognition/ceCrG962">embedded cognition</a> emphasizes that mental processes happen in the context of a physical and social environments. It examines how this context shapes cognitive activity.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:60" href="#fn:60">60</a> The <a href="/facts/Extended_mind_thesis/XEJEwWut">extended mind thesis</a> states that external circumstances not only influence the mind but are part of it. In this sense, a diary is part of the mind by helping it store information. Similarly, an electronic calculator is part of the mind by helping it perform calculations.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:61" href="#fn:61">61</a> The closely related view of <a href="/facts/Enactivism/jXK2kGyL">enactivism</a> holds that mental processes involve an interaction between organism and environment.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:62" href="#fn:62">62</a> A theory from the field of <a href="/facts/Embodied_cognition/zgewISTW">embodied cognition</a> states that the connection to a body is an essential feature of minds. It asserts that certain aspects of the body outside the nervous system, like motor capacities, are part of the mind.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:63" href="#fn:63">63</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:64" href="#fn:64">64</a>

<h2 id="relation-to-matter">Relation to matter</h2>
<h3>Mind–body problem</h3>
Main article: <a href="/facts/Mind%25E2%2580%2593body_problem/86RGUgIK">Mind–body problem</a>
The mind–body problem is the difficulty of providing a general explanation of the relationship between mind and body, for example, of the link between thoughts and brain processes. Despite their different characteristics, mind and body interact with each other, like when a bodily change causes mental discomfort or when a limb moves because of an <a href="/facts/Intention/ahzUpq2G">intention</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:65" href="#fn:65">65</a> The mind–body problem came to particular prominence in modern philosophy as a result of Descartes' metaphysical distinction between mind and body. Earlier philosophers typically did not see mind and body as contrasting principles.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:66" href="#fn:66">66</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:67" href="#fn:67">67</a> Following Descartes' philosophy, minds were often conceived as substantial entities able to exist on their own. Now they are more commonly seen as capacities rather than independent entities.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:68" href="#fn:68">68</a>

According to <a href="/facts/Substance_dualism/IbrW6R7C">substance dualism</a>, minds or souls exist as independent <a href="/facts/Substance_theory/KI4rGFH6">entities</a> in addition to material things. This view implies that, at least in principle, minds can exist without bodies.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:69" href="#fn:69">69</a> <a href="/facts/Property_dualism/Im4K2m2j">Property dualism</a> is another view, saying that mind and matter are not independent entities but different <a href="/facts/Property_(philosophy)/mejP0slr">properties</a> that apply to the same individual.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:70" href="#fn:70">70</a> <a href="/facts/Monism/eskX5hbg">Monist</a> views, by contrast, state that reality is made up of only one kind. According to metaphysical <a href="/facts/Idealism/w8JAlhjG">idealists</a>, for instance, everything is mental.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:71" href="#fn:71">71</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:72" href="#fn:72">72</a> They understand material things as mental phenomena, for example, as ideas or perceptions.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:73" href="#fn:73">73</a> According to <a href="/facts/Neutral_monism/Gsd5mKRw">neutral monists</a>, by contrast, the world is at its most fundamental level neither physical nor mental but neutral. They see physical and mental concepts as convenient but superficial ways to describe reality.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:74" href="#fn:74">74</a>
The monist view most influential since the 20th century has been <a href="/facts/Physicalism/NGMqWorP">physicalism</a>, also referred to as <a href="/facts/Materialism/VKAovnPt">materialism</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:75" href="#fn:75">75</a> which states that everything is physical.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:76" href="#fn:76">76</a> According to <a href="/facts/Eliminative_materialism/79zhrwr0">eliminative physicalism</a>, there are no mental phenomena, meaning that things like beliefs and desires do not form part of reality.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:77" href="#fn:77">77</a> <a href="/facts/Reductive_physicalism/NGMqWorP">Reductive physicalists</a> defend a less radical position: they say that mental states exist but can, at least in principle, be completely described by physics without the need for special sciences like psychology. For example, <a href="/facts/Behaviorism/8DHljqrh">behaviorists</a> aim to analyze mental concepts in terms of observable behavior without resorting to internal mental states.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:78" href="#fn:78">78</a> <a href="/facts/Type_identity_theory/lXeE8Jkm">Type identity theory</a> also belongs to reductive physicalism and says that mental states are the same as brain states.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:79" href="#fn:79">79</a> While <a href="/facts/Non-reductive_physicalism/NGMqWorP">non-reductive physicalists</a> agree that everything is physical, they say that mental concepts describe physical reality on a more abstract level that cannot be articulated by physics.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:80" href="#fn:80">80</a> According to <a href="/facts/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)/o5doIVHb">functionalism</a>, mental concepts do not describe the internal constitution of physical substances but functional roles within a system.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:81" href="#fn:81">81</a> One consequence of this view is that mind does not depend on brains but can also be <a href="/facts/Multiple_realizability/TkAeWXPy">realized by other systems</a> that implement the corresponding functional roles, possibly also computers.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:82" href="#fn:82">82</a> A different approach, found in the tradition of <a href="/facts/Phenomenology_(philosophy)/AILzLkKx">phenomenology</a>, aims to dissolve the mind–body problem by arguing that it is based on an artificial dichotomy not present in the phenomenological description of experience.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:83" href="#fn:83">83</a>
The <a href="/facts/Hard_problem_of_consciousness/Um6k4wz6">hard problem of consciousness</a> is a central aspect of the mind–body problem: it is the challenge of explaining how physical states can give rise to conscious experience. Its main difficulty lies in the <a href="/facts/Subjectivity_and_objectivity_(philosophy)/YhXxVe8g">subjective</a> and qualitative nature of consciousness, which is unlike typical physical processes. The hard problem of consciousness contrasts with the "easy problems" of explaining how certain aspects of consciousness function, such as perception, memory, or learning.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:84" href="#fn:84">84</a>

<h3>Brain areas and processes</h3>
Another approach to the relation between mind and matter uses empirical observation to study how the brain works and which brain areas and processes are associated with specific mental phenomena.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:85" href="#fn:85">85</a> The brain is the central organ of the <a href="/facts/Nervous_system/CDxRKU2U">nervous system</a> and is present in all <a href="/facts/Vertebrates/tT54FSTT">vertebrates</a> and the majority of <a href="/facts/Invertebrates/3CyqCVnN">invertebrates</a>. The <a href="/facts/Human_brain/qfSwSB8K">human brain</a> is of particular complexity and consists of about 86 billion <a href="/facts/Neuron/G7CyTVdH">neurons</a>, which communicate with one another via <a href="/facts/Synapse/vdMRJCUn">synapses</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:86" href="#fn:86">86</a> They form a complex <a href="/facts/Neural_network_(biology)/FUsCYvF7">neural network</a> and cognitive processes emerge from their electrical and chemical interactions.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:87" href="#fn:87">87</a> The human brain is divided into regions that are associated with different functions. The main regions are the <a href="/facts/Hindbrain/TetkheNT">hindbrain</a>, <a href="/facts/Midbrain/NXpE9WXV">midbrain</a>, and <a href="/facts/Forebrain/X3H1IqLq">forebrain</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:88" href="#fn:88">88</a> Many biological functions associated with basic survival are the responsibility of the hindbrain and midbrain. Higher mental functions, ranging from thoughts to motivation, are primarily localized in the forebrain.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:89" href="#fn:89">89</a>

The primary operations of many of the main mental phenomena are located in specific areas of the forebrain. The <a href="/facts/Prefrontal_cortex/dypYIrwx">prefrontal cortex</a> is responsible for <a href="/facts/Executive_functions/QtflLj55">executive functions</a>, such as planning, decision-making, problem-solving, and working memory.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:90" href="#fn:90">90</a> The <a href="/facts/Sensory_cortex/o6xVcbts">sensory cortex</a> processes and interprets sensory information, with different subareas dedicated to different senses, like the <a href="/facts/Visual_cortex/qmF8F5Sb">visual</a> and the <a href="/facts/Auditory_area/uBWXKnyn">auditory areas</a>. A central function of the <a href="/facts/Hippocampus/X7CqbP8X">hippocampus</a> is the formation and retrieval of long-term memories. It belongs to the <a href="/facts/Limbic_system/TelEk6Jl">limbic system</a>, which plays a key role in the regulation of emotions through the <a href="/facts/Amygdala/AAy2mHb5">amygdala</a>. The <a href="/facts/Motor_cortex/oQ2w0g3S">motor cortex</a> is responsible for planning, executing, and controlling voluntary movements. <a href="/facts/Broca%2527s_area/lV3X3Yb6">Broca's area</a> is a separate region dedicated to <a href="/facts/Speech_production/dC3DPqv3">speech production</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:91" href="#fn:91">91</a> The activity of the different areas is additionally influenced by <a href="/facts/Neurotransmitter/LlpYFSU3">neurotransmitters</a>, which are <a href="/facts/Cell_signaling/6oYAVP9I">signaling molecules</a> that enhance or inhibit different types of neural communication. For example, <a href="/facts/Dopamine/5gNy8Xkd">dopamine</a> influences motivation and pleasure while <a href="/facts/Serotonin/EzY58q4a">serotonin</a> affects mood and appetite.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:92" href="#fn:92">92</a>
The close interrelation of brain processes and the mind is seen by the effect that physical changes of the brain have on the mind. For instance, the consumption of <a href="/facts/Psychoactive_drugs/dNXrUmsx">psychoactive drugs</a>, like caffeine, <a href="/facts/Antidepressants/N62ND3Fa">antidepressants</a>, alcohol, and <a href="/facts/Psychedelics/aj9GNANW">psychedelics</a>, temporarily affects <a href="/facts/Neurochemistry/yXC6EbnT">brain chemistry</a> with diverse effects on the mind, ranging from increased attention to mood changes, impaired cognitive functions, and <a href="/facts/Hallucination/5eUvLcnp">hallucinations</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:93" href="#fn:93">93</a> Long-term changes to the brain in the form of <a href="/facts/Neurodegenerative_diseases/HTDrVEqc">neurodegenerative diseases</a> and <a href="/facts/Brain_injuries/70hWCEhs">brain injuries</a> can lead to permanent alterations in mental functions. <a href="/facts/Alzheimer%2527s_disease/w7Ad6tdg">Alzheimer's disease</a> in its first stage deteriorates the hippocampus, reducing the ability to form new memories and recall existing ones.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:94" href="#fn:94">94</a> An often-cited case of the effects of brain injury is <a href="/facts/Phineas_Gage/ojLpXwkG">Phineas Gage</a>, whose prefrontal cortex was severely damaged during a work accident when an iron rod pierced through his skull and brain. Gage survived the accident but his <a href="/facts/Personality/zdkhBU5V">personality</a> and social attitude changed significantly as he became more impulsive, irritable, and anti-social while showing little regard for social conventions and an impaired ability to plan and make rational decisions.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:95" href="#fn:95">95</a> Not all these changes were permanent and Gage managed to recover and adapt in some areas.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:96" href="#fn:96">96</a>

<h2 id="development">Development</h2>
<h3>Evolution</h3>
The mind has a long evolutionary history starting with the <a href="/facts/Evolution_of_nervous_systems/dtsgjWbw">development of the nervous system</a> and <a href="/facts/Evolution_of_the_brain/SLm05RBx">the brain</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:97" href="#fn:97">97</a> While it is generally accepted today that mind is not exclusive to humans and various non-human animals have some form of mind, there is no consensus at which point exactly the mind emerged.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:98" href="#fn:98">98</a> The evolution of mind is usually explained in terms of <a href="/facts/Natural_selection/JXTte6en">natural selection</a>: <a href="/facts/Genetic_variation/f2wzYLbI">genetic variations</a> responsible for new or improved mental capacities, such as better perception or social dispositions, have an increased chance of being passed on to future generations if they are beneficial to <a href="/facts/Fitness_(biology)/MYpAGGey">survival and reproduction</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:99" href="#fn:99">99</a> 
Minimal forms of information processing are already found in the earliest forms of life 4 to 3.5 billion years ago, like the abilities of <a href="/facts/Bacteria/wC8xSCsU">bacteria</a> and <a href="/facts/Eukaryote/SkwyPLMA">eukaryotic</a> <a href="/facts/Unicellular_organism/9PQsRuHU">unicellular organisms</a> to sense the environment, store this information, and react to it. <a href="/facts/Nerve_cell/G7CyTVdH">Nerve cells</a> emerged with the development of <a href="/facts/Multicellular_organisms/rk8QBF7o">multicellular organisms</a> more than 600 million years ago as a way to process and transmit information. About 600 to 550 million years ago, an evolutionary bifurcation happened into radially symmetric organisms<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:100" href="#fn:100">100</a> with ring-shaped nervous systems or a <a href="/facts/Nerve_net/HAq2b2Rk">nerve net</a>, like <a href="/facts/Jellyfish/oLmExpvU">jellyfish</a>, and organisms with <a href="/facts/Bilaterians/nfUwVYrx">bilaterally symmetric bodies</a>, whose nervous systems tend to be more centralized. About 540 million years ago, vertebrates evolved within the group of bilaterally organized organisms. Vertebrates, like birds and <a href="/facts/Mammal/phSwTzBo">mammals</a>, have a <a href="/facts/Central_nervous_system/k8I6To97">central nervous system</a> including a complex brain with specialized functions. Invertebrates, like <a href="/facts/Clam/5BB6vVl7">clams</a> and <a href="/facts/Insect/IgDNvnUL">insects</a>, typically either have no or relatively simple brains.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:101" href="#fn:101">101</a> In the course of evolution, the brains of vertebrates tended to grow and the specialization of different brain areas tended to increase. These developments are closely related to changes in limb structures, sense organs, and living conditions with a close correspondence between the size of a brain area and the importance of its function to the organism.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:102" href="#fn:102">102</a> An important step in the evolution of mammals about 200 million years ago was the development of the <a href="/facts/Neocortex/YEVjPgGK">neocortex</a>, which is responsible for many higher-order brain functions.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:103" href="#fn:103">103</a>
The size of the brain relative to the body further increased with the development of <a href="/facts/Primate/Hl8RNE2X">primates</a>, like monkeys, about 65 million years ago and later with the emergence of the first <a href="/facts/Hominin/SflaMavS">hominins</a> about 7–5 million years ago.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:104" href="#fn:104">104</a> <a href="/facts/Anatomically_modern_humans/AxD254MP">Anatomically modern humans</a> appeared about 300,000 to 200,000 years ago.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:105" href="#fn:105">105</a> Various theories of the evolutionary processes responsible for <a href="/facts/Evolution_of_human_intelligence/HcDgaT4B">human intelligence</a> have been proposed. The social intelligence hypothesis says that the evolution of the human mind was triggered by the increased importance of social life and its emphasis on mental abilities associated with <a href="/facts/Empathy/Pak5Dvfh">empathy</a>, <a href="/facts/Knowledge_transfer/AjVXXN2N">knowledge transfer</a>, and <a href="/facts/Meta-cognition/uhWpEGtI">meta-cognition</a>. According to the ecological intelligence hypothesis, the main value of the increased mental capacities comes from their advantages in dealing with a complex physical environment through processes like behavioral flexibility, learning, and tool use. Other suggested mechanisms include the effects of a changed diet with energy-rich food and general benefits from an increased speed and efficiency of information processing.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:106" href="#fn:106">106</a> Some models propose that another major cognitive shift occurred possibly 50,000 to 40,000 years ago. Called <a href="/facts/Behavioral_modernity/YIo3m4oL">behavioral modernity</a>, it is associated with the emergence of new or improved mental abilities, such as technological innovativeness, abstract thinking, the use of <a href="/facts/Symbol/GS8mTn0h">symbols</a>, planning, and social coordination.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:107" href="#fn:107">107</a>

<h3>Individual</h3>
Besides the development of mind in general in the course of history, <a href="/facts/Developmental_psychology/Myy826TQ">individual human minds also develop</a> in the course of their lifetime. Some of the individual changes vary from person to person as a form of learning from experience, like forming specific memories or acquiring particular behavioral patterns. Others are more universal developments as psychological stages that all or most humans go through as they pass through <a href="/facts/Early_childhood/CJsN2I43">early childhood</a>, <a href="/facts/Adolescence/XUkTHFyd">adolescence</a>, <a href="/facts/Adulthood/dojHcGa2">adulthood</a>, and <a href="/facts/Old_age/nEpQmo9g">old age</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:108" href="#fn:108">108</a> These developments cover various areas, including intellectual, sensorimotor, linguistic, emotional, social, and moral developments.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:109" href="#fn:109">109</a> Some factors affect the development of mind before birth, such as nutrition, maternal stress, and exposure to harmful substances like alcohol during pregnancy.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:110" href="#fn:110">110</a>
Early childhood is marked by rapid developments as <a href="/facts/Infant/gaEL1QL4">infants</a> learn voluntary control over their bodies and interact with their environment on a basic level. Typically after about one year, this covers abilities like walking, recognizing familiar faces, and producing individual words.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:111" href="#fn:111">111</a> On the emotional and social levels, they develop attachments with their primary caretakers and express emotions ranging from joy and surprise to fear and anger.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:112" href="#fn:112">112</a> An <a href="/facts/Piaget%2527s_theory_of_cognitive_development/2BfVnk1s">influential theory</a> by <a href="/facts/Jean_Piaget/gQQBtbCU">Jean Piaget</a> divides the cognitive development of children into four stages. The sensorimotor stage from birth until two years is concerned with sensory impressions and motor activities while learning that objects remain in existence even when not observed. In the preoperational stage until seven years, children learn to interpret and use symbols in an intuitive manner. They start employing <a href="/facts/Logical_reasoning/NwR4hQva">logical reasoning</a> to physical objects in the concrete operational stage until eleven years and extend this capacity in the following formal operational stage to <a href="/facts/Abstract_and_concrete/uNshak6S">abstract ideas</a>, <a href="/facts/Probability/fgYvMhwb">probabilities</a>, and possibilities.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:113" href="#fn:113">113</a> Other important processes shaping the mind in this period are <a href="/facts/Socialization/0vv1uDNr">socialization</a> and <a href="/facts/Enculturation/4rznztAP">enculturation</a>, at first through primary caretakers and later through peers and the schooling system.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:114" href="#fn:114">114</a>
Psychological transformations during adolescence are provoked by physiological developments and by being confronted with a different social situation in the form of new expectations from others. An important factor in this period is change to the <a href="/facts/Self-concept/Be0PEJAl">self-concept</a>, which can take the form of an <a href="/facts/Existential_crisis/yp5GkbdE">identity crisis</a>. This process typically involves developing individuality and independence from parents while at the same time seeking closeness and conformity with friends and peers. Further developments in this period include improvements to the reasoning ability and the formation of a principled moral viewpoint.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:115" href="#fn:115">115</a>
The mind also changes during adulthood but in a less rapid and pronounced manner. Reasoning and problem-solving skills improve during early and middle adulthood. Some people experience the mid-life transition as a <a href="/facts/Midlife_crisis/Futbe11X">midlife crisis</a> involving an inner conflict about <a href="/facts/Personal_identity/HRfyp7qh">personal identity</a>, associated with anxiety, a sense of a lack of accomplishments in life, or an awareness of mortality. Intellectual faculties tend to decline in later adulthood, specifically the ability to learn complex unfamiliar tasks and later also the ability to remember. At the same time, people tend to become more inward-looking and cautious.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:116" href="#fn:116">116</a>

<h2 id="non-human">Non-human</h2>
<h3>Animal</h3>
It is commonly acknowledged today that animals have some form of mind, but it is controversial to which animals this applies and how their mind differs from the human mind.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:117" href="#fn:117">117</a> Different conceptions of the mind lead to different responses to this problem. When understood in a very wide sense as the capacity to process information, the mind is present in all forms of life, including insects, plants, and individual cells.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:118" href="#fn:118">118</a> On the other side of the spectrum are views that deny the existence of mentality in most or all non-human animals based on the idea that they lack key mental capacities, like abstract <a href="/facts/Rationality/ueS0w9lk">rationality</a> and symbolic language.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:119" href="#fn:119">119</a> The status of <a href="/facts/Animal_cognition/LpP3H18I">animal minds</a> is highly relevant to the field of <a href="/facts/Ethics/wNVNgL5q">ethics</a> since it affects the treatment of animals, including the topic of <a href="/facts/Animal_rights/0MzosRCV">animal rights</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:120" href="#fn:120">120</a>
Discontinuity views state that the minds of non-human animals are fundamentally different from human minds and often point to higher mental faculties, like thinking, reasoning, and deliberate decision-making.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:121" href="#fn:121">121</a> This outlook is reflected in the traditionally influential position of defining humans as "<a href="/facts/Rational_animal/C7Flo3uw">rational animals</a>" as opposed to all other animals.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:122" href="#fn:122">122</a> Continuity views, by contrast, emphasize similarities and see cognitive differences in degree rather than kind. Central considerations for this position are the shared evolutionary origin and organic similarities on the level of the brain and nervous system. Observable behavior is another key factor, such as problem-solving skills, <a href="/facts/Animal_communication/nHBjVw3c">animal communication</a>, and reactions to and expressions of pain and pleasure. Of particular importance are the questions of consciousness and <a href="/facts/Sentience/LQwKbI6F">sentience</a>, that is, to what extent non-human animals have a subjective experience of the world and are capable of suffering and feeling joy.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:123" href="#fn:123">123</a>

<h3>Artificial</h3>
Main article: <a href="/facts/Philosophy_of_artificial_intelligence/wlxbtGjL">Philosophy of artificial intelligence</a>
Some of the difficulties of assessing animal minds are also reflected in the topic of artificial minds. It includes the question of whether computer systems implementing <a href="/facts/Artificial_intelligence/lJGauQwX">artificial intelligence</a> should be considered a form of mind.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:124" href="#fn:124">124</a> This idea is consistent with some theories of the nature of mind, such as functionalism and its claim that mental concepts describe functional roles. It asserts that the functions implemented by biological brains could in principle also be implemented by artificial devices.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:125" href="#fn:125">125</a>

The <a href="/facts/Turing_test/wEvf9DIr">Turing test</a>, proposed by <a href="/facts/Alan_Turing/klov9b6g">Alan Turing</a> (1912–1954), is a traditionally influential procedure to test artificial intelligence: a person exchanges messages with two parties, one of them a human and the other a computer. The computer passes the test if it is not possible to reliably tell which party is the human and which one the computer. While there are computer programs today that may pass the Turing test, this alone is usually not accepted as conclusive proof of mindedness.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:126" href="#fn:126">126</a> For some aspects of mind, it is controversial whether computers can, in principle, implement them, such as desires, feelings, consciousness, and free will.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:127" href="#fn:127">127</a>
This problem is often discussed through the contrast between <a href="/facts/Weak_artificial_intelligence/UVzAT21X">weak</a> and strong artificial intelligence. Weak or narrow artificial intelligence is limited to specific mental capacities or functions. It focuses on a particular task or a narrow set of tasks, like <a href="/facts/Vehicular_automation/hhmnmpcu">autonomous driving</a>, <a href="/facts/Speech_recognition/z7S7Pgk6">speech recognition</a>, or <a href="/facts/Automated_theorem_proving/vKGvuKFI">theorem proving</a>. The goal of strong AI, also termed <a href="/facts/Artificial_general_intelligence/vbxwaq8t">artificial general intelligence</a>, is to create a complete artificial person that has all the mental capacities of humans, including consciousness, emotion, and reason.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:128" href="#fn:128">128</a> It is controversial whether strong AI is possible; influential arguments against it include <a href="/facts/John_Searle/YDMljSH7">John Searle</a>'s <a href="/facts/Chinese_Room_Argument/YeKegsxS">Chinese Room Argument</a> and <a href="/facts/Hubert_Dreyfus/EkD4QzkL">Hubert Dreyfus</a>'s critique based on <a href="/facts/Martin_Heidegger/VSvHqhcj">Heideggerian</a> philosophy.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:129" href="#fn:129">129</a>

<h2 id="mental-health-and-disorder">Mental health and disorder</h2>
Main articles: <a href="/facts/Mental_health/QIszfk6D">Mental health</a>, <a href="/facts/Mental_disorder/EPNjFtFf">Mental disorder</a>, and <a href="/facts/Psychopathology/QcHKDX2n">Psychopathology</a>
Mental health is a state of mind characterized by internal equilibrium and <a href="/facts/Well-being/h1dsU4VU">well-being</a> in which mental capacities function as they should. Some theorists emphasize positive features such as the abilities of a person to realize their potential, express and modulate emotions, cope with adverse life situations, and fulfill their social role. Negative definitions, by contrast, see mental health as the absence of <a href="/facts/Mental_disorders/EPNjFtFf">mental disorders</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:130" href="#fn:130">130</a> Mental disorders are abnormal patterns of thought, emotion, or behavior. These patterns deviate not only from how a mental capacity works on average but from how it should work while usually causing some form of <a href="/facts/Mental_distress/asVAzoeI">distress</a>. The content of those norms is controversial and there are differences from culture to culture. For instance, <a href="/facts/Homosexuality/gNy8Nvl0">homosexuality</a> was historically considered a mental disorder by medical professionals, a view which only changed in the second half of the 20th century.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:131" href="#fn:131">131</a>

There is a great variety of mental disorders, each associated with a different form of malfunctioning. <a href="/facts/Anxiety_disorder/wh9zFH1V">Anxiety disorders</a> involve intense and persistent fear that is disproportionate to the actual threat and significantly impairs everyday life. An example is <a href="/facts/Social_phobia/25XIzJ0o">social phobia</a>, which involves irrational fear of certain social situations. Anxiety disorders also include <a href="/facts/Obsessive%25E2%2580%2593compulsive_disorder/bIhDh4dz">obsessive–compulsive disorder</a>, for which the <a href="/facts/Anxiety/Geekl883">anxiety</a> manifests in the form of <a href="/facts/Intrusive_thought/ucTDdT9l">intrusive thoughts</a> that the person tries to alleviate by following <a href="/facts/Compulsive_behavior/89bgqdzs">compulsive rituals</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:132" href="#fn:132">132</a> <a href="/facts/Mood_disorders/Y0Mjq3QR">Mood disorders</a> cause intense moods or mood swings that are inconsistent with the external circumstances and can last for long periods. For instance, people affected by <a href="/facts/Bipolar_disorder/aMDwXbV0">bipolar disorder</a> experience extreme mood swings between <a href="/facts/Manic_state/qYV8BBbt">manic states</a> of euphoria and <a href="/facts/Depressive_state/l2lQeWqr">depressive states</a> of hopelessness.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:133" href="#fn:133">133</a> <a href="/facts/Personality_disorder/SxFnlSEW">Personality disorders</a> are characterized by enduring patterns of <a href="/facts/Maladaptive/n8awwPnV">maladaptive</a> behavior that significantly impair regular life. <a href="/facts/Paranoid_personality_disorder/tULyBB9c">Paranoid personality disorder</a>, for example, leads people to be deeply suspicious of the motives of others without rational basis.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:134" href="#fn:134">134</a> <a href="/facts/Psychotic_disorder/cVGd7MKK">Psychotic disorders</a> are among the most severe mental illnesses and involve a distorted relation to reality in the form of hallucinations and <a href="/facts/Delusion/cNsg7R41">delusions</a>, as seen in <a href="/facts/Schizophrenia/FMP4lQ57">schizophrenia</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:135" href="#fn:135">135</a> Other disorders include <a href="/facts/Dissociative_disorder/HgWW3vbp">dissociative disorders</a> and <a href="/facts/Eating_disorder/3GwQ71sD">eating disorders</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:136" href="#fn:136">136</a>
The <a href="/facts/Biopsychosocial_model/bCKxyD5s">biopsychosocial model</a> identifies three types of causes of mental disorders: biological, cognitive, and environmental factors. Biological factors include bodily causes, in particular neurological influences and genetic predispositions. On the cognitive level, maladaptive beliefs and patterns of thought can be responsible. Environmental factors involve cultural influences and social events that may trigger the onset of a disorder.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:137" href="#fn:137">137</a> There are various approaches to treating mental disorders, and the most suitable treatment usually depends on the type of disorder, its cause, and the individual's overall condition. <a href="/facts/Psychotherapy/n2hDjaop">Psychotherapeutic methods</a> use personal interaction with a therapist to change patterns of thinking, feeling, and acting.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:138" href="#fn:138">138</a> <a href="/facts/Psychoanalysis/gYCbGpPv">Psychoanalysis</a> aims to help patients resolve conflicts between the conscious and the unconscious mind.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:139" href="#fn:139">139</a> <a href="/facts/Cognitive_behavioral_therapy/LRALDkkU">Cognitive behavioral therapy</a> focuses on conscious mental phenomena to identify and change irrational beliefs and negative thought patterns.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:140" href="#fn:140">140</a> <a href="/facts/Behavior_therapy/2N1n5BKp">Behavior therapy</a> relies on <a href="/facts/Classical_conditioning/ddtohoz3">classical conditioning</a> to unlearn harmful behaviors.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:141" href="#fn:141">141</a> <a href="/facts/Humanistic_psychology/oFQsrPwv">Humanistic therapies</a> try to help people gain insight into their <a href="/facts/Self-worth/vaMskKL0">self-worth</a> and empower them to resolve their problems.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:142" href="#fn:142">142</a> <a href="/facts/Pharmacotherapy/bEX4Xo3y">Drug therapies</a> use medication to alter the brain chemistry involved in the disorder through substances like <a href="/facts/Antidepressants/N62ND3Fa">antidepressants</a>, <a href="/facts/Antipsychotics/7bNTg7T3">antipsychotics</a>, <a href="/facts/Mood_stabilizers/9sj4E0wx">mood stabilizers</a>, and <a href="/facts/Anxiolytics/uEWpGca9">anxiolytics</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:143" href="#fn:143">143</a>

<h2 id="fields-and-methods-of-inquiry">Fields and methods of inquiry</h2>
Various fields of inquiry study the mind, including psychology, neuroscience, philosophy, and cognitive science. They differ from each other in the aspects of mind they investigate and the <a href="/facts/Methodology/dk5X9Hxx">methods</a> they employ.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:144" href="#fn:144">144</a> The study of the mind poses various problems since it is difficult to directly examine, manipulate, and measure it. Trying to circumvent this problem by investigating the brain comes with new challenges of its own, mainly because of the brain's complexity as a neural network consisting of billions of neurons, each with up to 10,000 links to other neurons.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:145" href="#fn:145">145</a>

<h3>Psychology</h3>
Main article: <a href="/facts/Psychology/duoqW7Sz">Psychology</a>
Psychology is the scientific study of mind and behavior. It investigates conscious and unconscious mental phenomena, including perception, memory, feeling, thought, decision, intelligence, and <a href="/facts/Personality/zdkhBU5V">personality</a>. It is further interested in their outward manifestation in the form of observable behavioral patterns, studying how these patterns depend on external circumstances and are shaped by learning.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:146" href="#fn:146">146</a> Psychology is a wide discipline that includes many subfields. <a href="/facts/Cognitive_psychology/GnzIgx2I">Cognitive psychology</a> is interested in higher-order mental activities like thinking, problem-solving, reasoning, and concept formation.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:147" href="#fn:147">147</a> <a href="/facts/Biological_psychology/RxUYHETg">Biological psychology</a> seeks to understand the underlying mechanisms on the physiological level and how they depend on genetic transmission and the environment.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:148" href="#fn:148">148</a> <a href="/facts/Developmental_psychology/Myy826TQ">Developmental psychology</a> studies the development of the mind from childhood to old age while <a href="/facts/Social_psychology/VfEKM8U0">social psychology</a> examines the influence of social contexts on mind and behavior.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:149" href="#fn:149">149</a> <a href="/facts/Personality_psychology/AWhpI44I">Personality psychology</a> investigates personality, exploring how characteristic patterns of thought, feeling, and behavior develop and vary among individuals.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:150" href="#fn:150">150</a> Further subfields include <a href="/facts/Comparative_psychology/BQVTrJ2C">comparative</a>, <a href="/facts/Clinical_psychology/dUXP6Edt">clinical</a>, <a href="/facts/Educational_psychology/AF8VsLRy">educational</a>, <a href="/facts/Occupational_psychology/E5VJQ4Pu">occupational</a>, and <a href="/facts/Neuropsychology/eWY83ago">neuropsychology</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:151" href="#fn:151">151</a> As a scientific discipline, <a href="/facts/History_of_psychology/6U3EYjTy">psychology emerged</a> at the end of the 19th century from the experimental work of <a href="/facts/Wilhelm_Wundt/hcUsPDoA">Wilhelm Wundt</a> (1832–1920). Early schools of thought included <a href="/facts/Structuralism_(psychology)/6aGoaMd6">structuralism</a>, <a href="/facts/Psychoanalysis/gYCbGpPv">psychoanalysis</a>, <a href="/facts/Gestalt_psychology/mCFLuhYT">Gestalt psychology</a>, <a href="/facts/Functional_psychology/zavxlfdN">functionalism</a>, and <a href="/facts/Behaviorism/8DHljqrh">behaviorism</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:152" href="#fn:152">152</a>
Psychologists use a great variety of methods to study the mind. Experimental approaches set up a controlled situation, either in the laboratory or the field, in which they modify <a href="/facts/Independent_variable/dINfzIF2">independent variables</a> and measure their effects on <a href="/facts/Dependent_variable/dINfzIF2">dependent variables</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:153" href="#fn:153">153</a> This approach makes it possible to identify <a href="/facts/Causality/Swh496X7">causal relations</a> between the variables. For example, to determine whether people with similar interests (independent variable) are more likely to become friends (dependent variable), participants in a study could be paired with either similar or dissimilar participants. After giving the pairs time to interact, it is assessed whether the members of similar pairs have more positive attitudes toward one another than the members of dissimilar pairs.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:154" href="#fn:154">154</a>
<a href="/facts/Correlation/egkluAEm">Correlational</a> methods examine the strength of association between two variables without establishing a causal relationship between them.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:155" href="#fn:155">155</a> The <a href="/facts/Survey_(human_research)/6QHqlj8c">survey method</a> presents participants with a list of questions aimed at eliciting information about their mental attitudes, behavior, and other relevant factors. It analyzes how participants respond to questions and how answers to different questions correlate with one another.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:156" href="#fn:156">156</a> Surveys usually have a large number of participants in contrast to <a href="/facts/Case_studies/2gcfBbe6">case studies</a>, which focus on an in-depth examination of a single subject or a small group of subjects, often to examine rare phenomena or explore new fields.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:157" href="#fn:157">157</a> Further methods include <a href="/facts/Longitudinal_studies/snyWEsXK">longitudinal studies</a>, <a href="/facts/Naturalistic_observation/v5IGedcG">naturalistic observation</a>, and <a href="/facts/Phenomenology_(psychology)/Rse4u0LN">phenomenological</a> description of experience.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:158" href="#fn:158">158</a>

<h3>Neuroscience</h3>
Main article: <a href="/facts/Neuroscience/o5RV8Cas">Neuroscience</a>

Neuroscience is the study of the nervous system. Its primary focus is the <a href="/facts/Central_nervous_system/k8I6To97">central nervous system</a> and the brain in particular, but it also investigates the <a href="/facts/Peripheral_nervous_system/KjVpVnHU">peripheral nervous system</a> mainly responsible for connecting the central nervous system to the limbs and organs. Neuroscience examines the implementation of mental phenomena on a physiological basis, covering various levels of analysis. On the small scale, it studies the molecular and cellular basis of the mind, dealing with the constitution of and interaction between individual neurons. On the large scale, it analyzes the architecture of the brain as a whole and its division into regions with different functions.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:159" href="#fn:159">159</a> The <a href="/facts/History_of_neuroscience/zUcM7n2F">study of the nervous system began</a> in the ancient period and evolved through the centuries, including <a href="/facts/Anatomical/p8TCWJuV">anatomical</a> insights through dissections and speculative theories about brain functions. Neuroscience was recognized as a distinct academic discipline in the 20th century as technological advances, like the development of <a href="/facts/Neuroimaging/dA5Cteaf">neuroimaging</a> techniques, revolutionized the field.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:160" href="#fn:160">160</a>
In modern neuroscience, neuroimaging techniques are of particular importance as the main research methods of neuroscientists. <a href="/facts/Functional_magnetic_resonance_imaging/GIayRTAL">Functional magnetic resonance imaging</a> (fMRI) measures changes in the <a href="/facts/Magnetic_field/Ta8Ev588">magnetic field</a> of the brain associated with blood flow. Areas of increased blood flow indicate that the corresponding brain region is particularly active. <a href="/facts/Positron_emission_tomography/5SmcW6qz">Positron emission tomography</a> (PET) uses radioactive substances to detect a range of <a href="/facts/Metabolism/WxDrm8k5">metabolic changes</a> in the brain. <a href="/facts/Electroencephalography/XGvpcBl5">Electroencephalography</a> (EEG) measures the electrical activity of the brain, usually by placing <a href="/facts/Electrode/251PaKX8">electrodes</a> on the scalp and measuring the voltage differences between them. These techniques are often employed to measure brain changes under particular circumstances, for example, while engaged in a specific cognitive task. Important insights are also gained from patients and <a href="/facts/Laboratory_animal/mHMf98y8">laboratory animals</a> with <a href="/facts/Brain_damage/70hWCEhs">brain damage</a>, helping neuroscientists understand the function of the damaged area and how its absence affects the remaining brain.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:161" href="#fn:161">161</a>

<h3>Philosophy of mind</h3>
Main article: <a href="/facts/Philosophy_of_mind/o6yNRjwd">Philosophy of mind</a>
Philosophy of mind examines the nature of mental phenomena and their relation to the physical world. It seeks to understand the "mark of the mental", that is, the features that all mental states have in common. It further investigates the essence of different types of mental phenomena, such as <a href="/facts/Belief/HbPvkGT6">beliefs</a>, <a href="/facts/Desire/wGGhA9G8">desires</a>, emotions, <a href="/facts/Intentionality/IhExom05">intentionality</a>, and consciousness while exploring how they are related to one another. Philosophy of mind also examines solutions to the mind–body problem, like dualism, idealism, and physicalism, and assesses arguments for and against them.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:162" href="#fn:162">162</a> It asks whether people have a <a href="/facts/Free_will/LwkImELQ">free will</a> or the ability to choose their actions, and how this ability contrasts with the idea that <a href="/facts/Determinism/NhvNlAbe">everything is determined by preceding causes</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:163" href="#fn:163">163</a>

While philosophers of mind also include empirical considerations in their inquiry, they differ from fields like psychology and neuroscience by giving significantly more emphasis to non-empirical forms of inquiry. One such method is <a href="/facts/Conceptual_analysis/5mFCG4UP">conceptual analysis</a>, which aims to clarify the meaning of concepts, like mind and intention, by decomposing them to identify their semantic parts.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:164" href="#fn:164">164</a> <a href="/facts/Thought_experiment/GXlr0lz9">Thought experiments</a> are often used to evoke <a href="/facts/Intuition/Mshu0Vxb">intuitions</a> about abstract theories to assess their coherence and plausibility. To do so, philosophers imagine a situation relevant to a theory and employ <a href="/facts/Counterfactual_thinking/dAkwvLIB">counterfactual thinking</a> to assess the possible consequences of this theory. Influential thought experiments include <a href="/facts/Mary_the_super-scientist/tPhjvtHk">Mary the color scientist</a>, <a href="/facts/Philosophical_zombies/pe61k2GA">philosophical zombies</a>, and <a href="/facts/Brain_in_a_vat/SG08vsY6">brain in a vat</a>-scenarios.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:165" href="#fn:165">165</a> Because of the subjective nature of the mind, the <a href="/facts/Phenomenology_(philosophy)/AILzLkKx">phenomenological method</a> is also commonly used to analyze the structure of consciousness by describing experience from the first-person perspective.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:166" href="#fn:166">166</a> The philosophical discussion of the mind has a long history, reaching back to <a href="/facts/Ancient_history/P0fFQ8z5">antiquity</a>. Influential contributions were made by <a href="/facts/Plato/jGtT1UD5">Plato</a> (c. 428–347 BCE), <a href="/facts/Aristotle/U2bDlBFW">Aristotle</a> (384–322 BCE), <a href="/facts/Ren%25C3%25A9_Descartes/ohqj6DMf">René Descartes</a> (1596–1650), <a href="/facts/David_Hume/aTwlJ80V">David Hume</a> (1711–1776), <a href="/facts/Immanuel_Kant/vIxjdy6I">Immanuel Kant</a> (1724–1804), <a href="/facts/William_James/IdmT5LX7">William James</a> (1842–1910), and <a href="/facts/Gilbert_Ryle/eLBe8IXB">Gilbert Ryle</a> (1900–1976).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:167" href="#fn:167">167</a>

<h3>Cognitive science</h3>
Main article: <a href="/facts/Cognitive_science/8qoggl7r">Cognitive science</a>
Cognitive science is the interdisciplinary study of mental representations and processes. It aims to overcome the challenge of understanding something as complex as the mind by integrating research from diverse fields ranging from psychology and neuroscience to philosophy, <a href="/facts/Linguistics/oQuamvf2">linguistics</a>, and <a href="/facts/Artificial_intelligence/lJGauQwX">artificial intelligence</a>. Unlike these disciplines, it is not a unified field but a collaborative effort. One difficulty in synthesizing their insights is that each of these disciplines explores the mind from a different perspective and level of abstraction while using different research methods to arrive at its conclusion.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:168" href="#fn:168">168</a> Cognitive science emerged in the second half of the 20th century as researchers from various disciplines began to examine how mental processes represent the world and transform information. The field expanded in the 1980s following advances in neuroimaging to include a <a href="/facts/Biological/1M1ee3pB">biological</a> perspective on how computational processes are implemented by the brain.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:169" href="#fn:169">169</a>
To incorporate insights from diverse disciplines, cognitive science relies on a unified conceptualization of minds as <a href="/facts/Information_processing_(psychology)/cbNEeq06">information processors</a>. This means that mental processes are understood as computations that retrieve, transform, store, and transmit information.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:170" href="#fn:170">170</a> For example, perception retrieves sensory information from the environment and transforms it to extract meaningful patterns that can be used in other mental processes, such as planning and decision-making.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:171" href="#fn:171">171</a> Cognitive science relies on different levels of description to analyze cognitive processes. The most abstract level focuses on the basic problem the process is supposed to solve and the reasons why the organism needs to solve it. The intermediate level seeks to uncover the <a href="/facts/Algorithm/fnl5NmRt">algorithm</a> as a formal step-by-step procedure to solve the problem. The most concrete level asks how the algorithm is <a href="/facts/Implementation/IH1KXgP3">implemented</a> through physiological changes on the level of the brain.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:172" href="#fn:172">172</a> Another methodology is to analyze the mind as a complex system composed of individual subsystems that can be studied independently of one another.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:173" href="#fn:173">173</a>

<h2 id="relation-to-other-fields">Relation to other fields</h2>
The mind is relevant to many fields. In <a href="/facts/Epistemology/NsDwpcYH">epistemology</a>, the <a href="/facts/Problem_of_other_minds/em1nN1jc">problem of other minds</a> is the challenge of explaining how it is possible to know that people other than oneself have a mind. The difficulty arises from the fact that people directly experience their own minds but do not have the same access to the minds of others. According to a common view, it is necessary to rely on perception to observe the behavior of others and then infer that they have a mind based on <a href="/facts/Analogical_reasoning/LYcGaTdm">analogical</a> or <a href="/facts/Abductive_reasoning/QoHNqvKT">abductive reasoning</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:174" href="#fn:174">174</a> Closely related to this problem is <a href="/facts/Theory_of_mind/7VoeKLca">theory of mind</a> in psychology, which is the ability to understand that other people possess beliefs, desires, intentions, and feelings that may differ from one's own.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:175" href="#fn:175">175</a>
<a href="/facts/Anthropology/W6WK1C3a">Anthropology</a> is interested in how different cultures conceptualize the nature of mind and its relation to the world. These conceptualizations affect the way people understand themselves, experience illness, and interpret ritualistic practices as attempts to commune with <a href="/facts/Spirit_(supernatural_entity)/p9CH62uA">spirits</a>. Some cultures do not draw a strict boundary between mind and world by allowing that thoughts can pass directly into the world and manifest as beneficial or harmful forces. For instance, some indigenous beliefs systems, like traditional beliefs in the <a href="/facts/Azande_people/txUgplG5">Azande culture</a>, hold that angry thoughts can directly damage another person's crops or make them ill. Other cultures strictly separate the mind from external reality, seeing it as an internal phenomenon without supernatural powers.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:176" href="#fn:176">176</a> <a href="/facts/Sociology/d2Fd0N87">Sociology</a> is a related field concerned with the connections between mind, society, and behavior.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:177" href="#fn:177">177</a> Among other topics, it is interested in the phenomenon of <a href="/facts/Intersubjectivity/1cxonmG1">intersubjectivity</a>, which happens when different people have a shared understanding or experience, meaning that their cognitive perspectives overlap.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:178" href="#fn:178">178</a>
The concept of mind plays a central role in various religions. <a href="/facts/Buddhism/G0wsjrSl">Buddhists</a> say that there is no <a href="/facts/Anatta/HBtQy9lp">enduring self</a> underlying mental activity. They analyze the mind as a stream of constantly changing experiences characterized by <a href="/facts/Skandha/L5C9gdob">five aspects or "aggregates"</a>: <a href="/facts/R%25C5%25ABpa/4tyUeC7S">material form</a>, <a href="/facts/Vedan%25C4%2581/95swdavR">feelings</a>, <a href="/facts/Samjna/AuD9CvV5">perception</a>, <a href="/facts/Sa%25E1%25B9%2583sk%25C4%2581ra/bU7faVbN">volition</a>, and <a href="/facts/Vij%25C3%25B1%25C4%2581na/pg0KREU8">consciousness</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:179" href="#fn:179">179</a> <a href="/facts/Hinduism/oxV9YvQh">Hindus</a>, by contrast, affirm the existence of a <a href="/facts/%25C4%2580tman_(Hinduism)/8X7tehzj">permanent self</a>. In an influential analogy, the human mind is compared to a horse-drawn chariot: the horses are the <a href="/facts/Indriya/eRvKD3ME">senses</a>, which lure the sense mind corresponding to the reins through sensual pleasures. The senses are controlled by the charioteer embodying the <a href="/facts/Buddhi/Qnoa6sQF">intellect</a> while the self is a passenger.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:180" href="#fn:180">180</a> In traditional <a href="/facts/Christian_philosophy/Tbbcl5yv">Christian philosophy</a>, mind and soul are closely intertwined as the immaterial aspect of humans that may <a href="/facts/Afterlife/8rxbbNXE">survive bodily death</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:181" href="#fn:181">181</a> Islamic thought distinguishes between <a href="/facts/%2527Aql/A88QuH8o">mind</a>, <a href="/facts/R%25C5%25AB%25E1%25B8%25A5/0R9WBk5m">spirit</a>, <a href="/facts/Qalb/SY2f3Nfb">heart</a>, and <a href="/facts/Nafs/8xehJvXB">self</a> as interconnected aspects of the spiritual dimension of humans.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:182" href="#fn:182">182</a> <a href="/facts/Daoism/Bk79rd9J">Daoism</a> and <a href="/facts/Confucianism/Nlbwgmxw">Confucianism</a> use the concept of <a href="/facts/Xin_(heart-mind)/vVAhNjm3">heart-mind</a> as the center of cognitive and emotional life, encompassing thought, understanding, will, desire, and mood.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:183" href="#fn:183">183</a>

In the field of <a href="/facts/Education/WIwsQKF9">education</a>, the minds of students are shaped through the transmission of knowledge, skills, and character traits as a process of socialization and enculturation. This is achieved through different <a href="/facts/Teaching_methods/tjADvYgf">teaching methods</a> including the contrast between group work and individual learning and the use of instructional media.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:184" href="#fn:184">184</a> Teacher-centered education positions the teacher as the central authority controlling the learning process whereas in <a href="/facts/Student-centered_learning/yQ5JAecR">student-centered education</a>, students have a more active role in shaping classroom activities.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:185" href="#fn:185">185</a> The choice of the most effective method to develop the minds of the learners is determined by various factors, including the topic and the learner's age and skill level.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:186" href="#fn:186">186</a>
The mind is a frequent subject of <a href="/facts/Pseudoscientific/kdNzoLeS">pseudoscientific</a> inquiry. <a href="/facts/Phrenology/Te2TYuQA">Phrenology</a> was an early attempt to correlate mental functions with specific brain areas. While its central claims about predicting mental traits by measuring bumps on the skull did not survive scientific scrutiny, the underlying idea that certain mental functions are localized in particular regions of the brain is now widely accepted.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:187" href="#fn:187">187</a> <a href="/facts/Parapsychology/0cTMNMfD">Parapsychologists</a> seek to discover and study <a href="/facts/Paranormal/0BeTVPJC">paranormal</a> mental abilities ranging from <a href="/facts/Clairvoyance/qxm8dvpe">clairvoyance</a> to <a href="/facts/Telepathy/nrQsUUJQ">telepathy</a> and <a href="/facts/Telekinesis/sDhMYr6r">telekinesis</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:188" href="#fn:188">188</a>

<h2 id="see-also">See also</h2>

<ul><li><a href="/facts/Animal_consciousness/E7yw4gD3">Animal consciousness</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Biological_naturalism/8FJYYDEd">Biological naturalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Conscience/jfBNK9dN">Conscience</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Emergent_materialism/fc9rypuN">Emergent materialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Explanatory_gap/09JdyIIL">Explanatory gap</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Ideasthesia/lNzTNp2k">Ideasthesia</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/List_of_philosophers_of_mind/tBC1GWSE">List of philosophers of mind</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Mental_energy/3MwTL0G5">Mental energy</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Mind_at_Large/aNt6Krpf">Mind at Large</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Neural_Darwinism/AHQhU2no">Neural Darwinism</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Outline_of_human_intelligence/GLPbHTn6">Outline of human intelligence</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Outline_of_thought/S8Wl9xYY">Outline of thought</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Subjective_character_of_experience/EvSKRcoc">Subjective character of experience</a></li></ul>

<h3>Notes</h3>

<h3>Citations</h3>

<h3>Sources</h3>

<ul><li>Abel, Ernest L. (2003). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=j77OEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA231">"Fetal Alcohol Syndrome"</a>. In Blocker, Jack S.; Fahey, David M.; Tyrrell, Ian R. (eds.). Alcohol and Temperance in Modern History: An International Encyclopedia. Bloomsbury Publishing. pp. 231–232. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-57607-834-1.</li>
<li>Aboitiz, F.; Montiel, J. F. (2007). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=N4HB0Sw-4u8C&pg=PA7">Origin and Evolution of the Vertebrate Telencephalon, with Special Reference to the Mammalian Neocortex</a>. Springer. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-3-540-49761-5.</li>
<li>Aboitiz, F.; Montiel, J. F. (2012). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NZ19UiDPosEC&pg=PA14">"From Tetrapods to Primates: Conserved Developmental Mechanisms in Diverging Ecological Adaptations"</a>. In Hofman, Michel A.; Falk, Dean (eds.). Evolution of the Primate Brain: From Neuron to Behavior. Elsevier. pp. 3–24. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-444-53860-4.</li>
<li>Adams, Fred; Beighley, Steve (2015). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DlU6CQAAQBAJ&pg=PA54">"The Mark of the Mental"</a>. In Garvey, James (ed.). The Bloomsbury Companion to Philosophy of Mind. Bloomsbury Publishing. pp. 54–72. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-4742-4391-9.</li>
<li>Alexander, Robin (2013). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MNvQENpKy2AC&pg=PA109">Essays on Pedagogy</a>. Routledge. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-136-02790-1.</li>
<li>Alston, William P. (2018). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4JNlDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA97">"What Metaphysical Realism is not"</a>. In Alston, William P. (ed.). Realism and Antirealism. Cornell University Press. pp. 97–118. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-5017-2056-7.</li>
<li>American Psychological Association (2018). <a href="https://dictionary.apa.org">"APA Dictionary of Psychology"</a>. American Psychological Association.</li>
<li>Anderson, Neal G.; Piccinini, Gualtiero (2024). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=o68FEQAAQBAJ&pg=PA233">The Physical Signature of Computation: A Robust Mapping Account</a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-19-883364-2.</li>
<li>Athreya, Balu H.; Mouza, Chrystalla (2016). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Uc3BDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA52">Thinking Skills for the Digital Generation: The Development of Thinking and Learning in the Age of Information</a>. Springer. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-3-319-12364-6.</li>
<li>Audi, Robert (1993). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pfLzbG5VjscC&pg=PA167">The Structure of Justification</a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-521-44612-9.</li>
<li>Audi, Robert (2006). <a href="https://www.encyclopedia.com/philosophy-and-religion/philosophy/philosophy-terms-and-concepts/philosophy">"Philosophy"</a>. In Borchert, Donald M. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 7: Oakeshott - Presupposition (2. ed.). Thomson Gale, Macmillan Reference. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-02-865787-5. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220214235128/https://www.encyclopedia.com/philosophy-and-religion/philosophy/philosophy-terms-and-concepts/philosophy">Archived</a> from the original on 14 February 2022.</li>
<li>Avramides, Anita (2023). <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/other-minds/">"Other Minds"</a>. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190523145926/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/other-minds/">Archived</a> from the original on 23 May 2019. Retrieved 7 May 2024.</li>
<li>Aydede, Murat (2017). <a href="https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/display/document/obo-9780195396577/obo-9780195396577-0151.xml">"Language of Thought"</a>. Oxford Bibliographies. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2FOBO%2F9780195396577-0151">10.1093/OBO/9780195396577-0151</a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240513102714/https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/display/document/obo-9780195396577/obo-9780195396577-0151.xml">Archived</a> from the original on 13 May 2024. Retrieved 17 April 2024.</li>
<li>Ball, Linden J. (2013). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lu3aMe6kRowC">"Thinking"</a>. In Pashler, Harold (ed.). Encyclopedia of the Mind. Sage. pp. 739–742. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-4129-5057-2.</li>
<li>Bansal, Mukesh (2022). No Limits: The Art and Science of High Performance. Penguin Random House India. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-93-5492-611-2.</li>
<li>Barrett, Lisa Feldman (2009). <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2763392">"The Future of Psychology: Connecting Mind to Brain"</a>. Perspectives on Psychological Science. 4 (4): 326–339. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1745-6924.2009.01134.x">10.1111/j.1745-6924.2009.01134.x</a>. <a href="/facts/PMC_(identifier)/dX1zMt71">PMC</a> <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2763392">2763392</a>. <a href="/facts/PMID_(identifier)/JlHAvMHt">PMID</a> <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19844601">19844601</a>.</li>
<li>Bartlett, Gary (2018). "Occurrent States". Canadian Journal of Philosophy. 48 (1): 1–17. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00455091.2017.1323531">10.1080/00455091.2017.1323531</a>.</li>
<li>Bartlett, Steve; Burton, Diana (2007). Introduction to Education Studies (2nd ed.). Sage. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-4129-2193-0.</li>
<li>Bayne, Tim (2022). Philosophy of Mind: An Introduction. Routledge. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-415-66984-9.</li>
<li>Beatty, Andrew (2019). <a href="https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/display/document/obo-9780199766567/obo-9780199766567-0124.xml">"Psychological Anthropology"</a>. Oxford Bibliographies. Oxford University Press. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2FOBO%2F9780199766567-0124">10.1093/OBO/9780199766567-0124</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-19-976656-7. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230315100006/https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/display/document/obo-9780199766567/obo-9780199766567-0124.xml">Archived</a> from the original on 15 March 2023. Retrieved 7 May 2024.</li>
<li>Benarroch, Eduardo E. (2021). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ekwwEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA437">Neuroscience for Clinicians: Basic Processes, Circuits, Disease Mechanisms, and Therapeutic Implications</a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-19-094891-7.</li>
<li>Berman, Steven L.; Weems, Carl F.; Stickle, Timothy R. (2006). "Existential Anxiety in Adolescents: Prevalence, Structure, Association with Psychological Symptoms and Identity Development". Journal of Youth and Adolescence. 35 (3): 285–292. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10964-006-9032-y">10.1007/s10964-006-9032-y</a>.</li>
<li>Bermúdez, José Luis (2014). Cognitive Science: An Introduction to the Science of the Mind (2. ed.). Cambridge University Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-107-05162-1.</li>
<li>Bernstein, Douglas; Nash, Peggy W. (2006). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4Do-bFrt9tUC">Essentials of Psychology</a>. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-618-71312-7.</li>
<li>Biever, Celeste (2023). "ChatGPT Broke the Turing Test — the Race Is on for New Ways to Assess AI". Nature. 619 (7971): 686–689. <a href="/facts/Bibcode_(identifier)/9HtdQSGB">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2023Natur.619..686B">2023Natur.619..686B</a>. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fd41586-023-02361-7">10.1038/d41586-023-02361-7</a>. <a href="/facts/PMID_(identifier)/JlHAvMHt">PMID</a> <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37491395">37491395</a>.</li>
<li>Bigaj, Tomasz; Wüthrich, Christian (2015). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1bW9CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA357">Metaphysics in Contemporary Physics</a>. Brill. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-90-04-31082-7.</li>
<li>Birch, Ann; Malim, Tony (2017). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dzRIEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA205">Introductory Psychology</a>. Palgrave. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-349-14186-9.</li>
<li>Blackmore, Susan (2013). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WycuAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA33">Consciousness: An Introduction</a>. Routledge. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-4441-2827-7.</li>
<li>Bringsjord, Selmer; Govindarajulu, Naveen Sundar (2024). <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/artificial-intelligence/">"Artificial Intelligence"</a>. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240513103532/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/artificial-intelligence/">Archived</a> from the original on 13 May 2024. Retrieved 6 May 2024.</li>
<li>Broome, John (2021). <a href="https://direct.mit.edu/books/oa-edited-volume/5525/chapter/4090443/Reasons-and-Rationality">"Reasons and Rationality"</a>. In Knauff, Markus; Spohn, Wolfgang (eds.). The Handbook of Rationality. MIT Press. pp. 129–136. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-262-36185-9.</li>
<li>Brown, James Robert; Fehige, Yiftach (2019). <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/thought-experiment/">"Thought Experiments"</a>. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171121022040/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/thought-experiment/">Archived</a> from the original on 21 November 2017. Retrieved 29 October 2021.</li>
<li>Bunge, Mario (2014). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AnKoBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA18">The Mind–Body Problem: A Psychobiological Approach</a>. Elsevier. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-4831-5012-3.</li>
<li>Butz, Martin V. (2021). <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs13218-021-00705-x">"Towards Strong AI"</a>. KI - Künstliche Intelligenz. 35 (1): 91–101. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs13218-021-00705-x">10.1007/s13218-021-00705-x</a>.</li>
<li>Campbell, William W.; Barohn, Richard J. (2019). Ranganathan, Lakshmi Narasimhan (ed.). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=x4vvDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA94">Dejong's The Neurologic Examinations</a>. Wolters Kluwer India. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-93-89702-13-2.</li>
<li>Carel, Havi (2006). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3iUMevXETJ8C&pg=PA176">Life and Death in Freud and Heidegger</a>. Rodopi. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-90-420-1659-0.</li>
<li>Carruthers, Peter (2004). The Nature of the Mind: An Introduction (1 ed.). Routledge. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-415-29994-7.</li>
<li>Carruthers, Peter (2019). Human and Animal Minds: The Consciousness Questions Laid to Rest (1 ed.). Oxford University Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-19-884370-2.</li>
<li>Chan, Eva Oi Wah (2020). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=szfpDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA105">"Development of Care Models in Community Mental Health Care"</a>. In Fong, Ben Yuk Fai; Law, Vincent Tin Sing; Lee, Albert (eds.). Primary Care Revisited: Interdisciplinary Perspectives for a New Era. Springer Nature Singapore. pp. 99–114. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-981-15-2521-6.</li>
<li>Chandler, Daniel; Munday, Rod (2011). <a href="https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100008603">"Intersubjectivity"</a>. A Dictionary of Media and Communication. Oxford University Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-19-956875-8.</li>
<li>Chazan, Barry (2022). "What Is "Education"?". Principles and Pedagogies in Jewish Education. Springer. pp. 13–21. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-030-83925-3_3">10.1007/978-3-030-83925-3_3</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-3-030-83925-3. <a href="/facts/S2CID_(identifier)/ldJsHa2Y">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:239896844">239896844</a>.</li>
<li>Chen, Zhaoman (2023). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=C8vAEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1141">"Exploration of Youth Social Work Model Driven by Artificial Intelligence"</a>. In Hung, Jason C.; Yen, Neil Y.; Chang, Jia-Wei (eds.). Frontier Computing: Theory, Technologies and Applications (FC 2022). Springer. pp. 1138–1146. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-981-99-1428-9.</li>
<li>Chowdhary, K. R. (2020). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8SfbDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA27">Fundamentals of Artificial Intelligence</a>. Springer Nature India. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-81-322-3972-7.</li>
<li>Clark, Kelly James; Lints, Richard; Smith, James K. A. (2004). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=H81iiiPtuGsC&pg=PA52">"Mind/Soul/Spirit"</a>. 101 Key Terms in Philosophy and Their Importance for Theology. Westminster John Knox Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-664-22524-7.</li>
<li>Coall, David A.; Callan, Anna C.; Dickins, Thomas E.; Chisholm, James S. (2015). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Fg3QBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA57">"Evolution and Prenatal Development: An Evolutionary Perspective"</a>. In Lamb, Michael E. (ed.). Handbook of Child Psychology and Developmental Science, Socioemotional Processes. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 57–105. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-118-95387-7.</li>
<li>Coseru, Christian (2017). <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/mind-indian-buddhism/">"Mind in Indian Buddhist Philosophy"</a>. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190803061924/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/mind-indian-buddhism/">Archived</a> from the original on 3 August 2019. Retrieved 8 May 2024.</li>
<li>Costall, Alan; Leuda, Ivan (2009). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5C4WDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA41">"'Theory of Mind': The Madness in the Method"</a>. In Leudar, I.; Costall, A. (eds.). Against Theory of Mind. Springer. pp. 39–55. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-230-23438-3.</li>
<li>Cowan, W. Maxwell; Harter, Donald H.; Kandel, Eric R. (2000). "The Emergence of Modern Neuroscience: Some Implications for Neurology and Psychiatry". Annual Review of Neuroscience. 23 (1): 343–391. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.neuro.23.1.343">10.1146/annurev.neuro.23.1.343</a>. <a href="/facts/PMID_(identifier)/JlHAvMHt">PMID</a> <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10845068">10845068</a>.</li>
<li>Cowart, Monica. <a href="https://iep.utm.edu/embodied-cognition/">"Embodied Cognition"</a>. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 2 December 2024.</li>
<li>Crane, Tim (1998). "Intentionality as the Mark of the Mental". In O'Hear, Anthony (ed.). Current Issues in Philosophy of Mind. Cambridge University Press. pp. 229–252. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-521-63927-9.</li>
<li>Crane, Tim; Patterson, Sarah (2000). "Introduction". In Crane, Tim; Patterson, Sarah (eds.). History of the Mind-body Problem. Routledge. pp. 1–12. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-415-40831-8.</li>
<li>Cresswell, Julia (2010). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=J4i3zV4vnBAC&pg=PA275">Oxford Dictionary of Word Origins</a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-19-954793-7.</li>
<li>Cunningham, Suzanne (2000). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ubdiw-ALgo0C&pg=PA40">What Is a Mind?: An Integrative Introduction to the Philosophy of Mind</a>. Hackett Publishing. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-87220-518-5.</li>
<li>Dash, Paul; Villemarette-Pitman, Nicole (2005). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=M1jSCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA30">Alzheimer's Disease</a>. Demos Medical Publishing. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-934559-49-9.</li>
<li>Davies, Martin (2001). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-wt1aZrGXLYC&pg=PA191">"Consciousness"</a>. In Wilson, Robert A.; Keil, Frank C. (eds.). The MIT Encyclopedia of the Cognitive Sciences (MITECS). MIT Press. pp. 190–193. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-262-73144-7.</li>
<li>Dawson, Michael R. W. (2022). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QGeEEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA161">What Is Cognitive Psychology?</a>. Athabasca University Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-77199-342-5.</li>
<li>Deutsch, Eliot (2013). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WfRXAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA354">"The Self in Advaita Vedanta"</a>. In Perrett, Roy W. (ed.). Metaphysics: Indian Philosophy. Routledge. pp. 343–360. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-135-70266-3.</li>
<li>Dixon, Thomas; Shapiro, Adam (2022). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=T81kEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT126">"5. Mind, Brain, and Morality"</a>. Science and Religion: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. pp. 95–110. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-19-256677-5.</li>
<li>Driscoll, Joan Riley; Easterbrooks, M. Ann (2007). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cOPNEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA256">"Development, Emotional"</a>. In Cochran, Moncrieff; New, Rebecca S. (eds.). Early Childhood Education: An International Encyclopedia. Bloomsbury Publishing. pp. 256–259. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-313-01448-2.</li>
<li>Dumont, K. (2008). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MP5X2SK2DCgC&pg=PA48">"2. Research Methods and Statistics"</a>. In Nicholas, Lionel (ed.). Introduction to Psychology. University of Capetown Press. pp. 9–48. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-919895-02-4.</li>
<li>Dunbar, Robin I. M. (2007). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ly0TDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA30">"Brain and Cognition in Evolutionary Perspective;"</a>. In Platek, Steven; Keenan, Julian; Shackelford, Todd Kennedy (eds.). Evolutionary Cognitive Neuroscience. MIT Press. pp. 21–46. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-262-16241-8.</li>
<li>Duncan, Stewart; LoLordo, Antonia (2013). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7VDbAAAAQBAJ&pg=PR16">"Introduction"</a>. In Duncan, Stewart; LoLordo, Antonia (eds.). Debates in Modern Philosophy: Essential Readings and Contemporary Responses. Routledge. pp. xi–xxi. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-135-13660-4.</li>
<li>Emaliana, Ive (2017). <a href="https://doi.org/10.12962%2Fj24433527.v10i2.2161">"Teacher-Centered or Student-Centered Learning Approach To Promote Learning?"</a>. Jurnal Sosial Humaniora. 10 (2): 59. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.12962%2Fj24433527.v10i2.2161">10.12962/j24433527.v10i2.2161</a>. <a href="/facts/S2CID_(identifier)/ldJsHa2Y">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:148796695">148796695</a>.</li>
<li>Engelmann, Jan B.; Mulckhuyse, Manon; Ting, Chih-Chung (2019). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uC2jDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA159">"Brain Measurement and Manipulation Methods;"</a>. In Schram, Arthur; Ule, Aljaž (eds.). Handbook of Research Methods and Applications in Experimental Economics. Edward Elgar Publishing. pp. 142–172. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-78811-056-3.</li>
<li>Erulkar, Solomon D.; Lentz, Thomas L. (2024). <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/nervous-system">"Nervous System"</a>. Encyclopædia Britannica. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150613024640/https://www.britannica.com/science/nervous-system">Archived</a> from the original on 13 June 2015. Retrieved 2 May 2024.</li>
<li>Evans, Christopher (2004). "Parapsychology: A History of Research". In Gregory, Richard Langton (ed.). The Oxford Companion to the Mind. Oxford University Press. pp. 584–585. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-19-866224-2.</li>
<li>Fagan, Brian M.; Durrani, Nadia (2021). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NNFKEAAAQBAJ">"3. Enter Homo Sapiens (c. 300,000 Years Ago and Later)"</a>. World Prehistory: The Basics. Routledge. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-000-46679-9.</li>
<li>Finlay, Barbara L.; Innocenti, Giorgio M.; Scheich, Henning (2013). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9BsGCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA3">"Evolutionary and Developmental Syntheses: Introduction"</a>. In Finlay, Barbara L.; Innocenti, Giorgio M.; Scheich, Henning (eds.). The Neocortex: Ontogeny and Phylogeny. Springer. pp. 3–5. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-4899-0652-6.</li>
<li>Fischer, Bob (2021). Animal Ethics: A Contemporary Introduction. Routledge. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-138-48440-5.</li>
<li>Fjelland, Ragnar (2020). "Why General Artificial Intelligence Will Not Be Realized". Humanities and Social Sciences Communications. 7 (1). <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1057%2Fs41599-020-0494-4">10.1057/s41599-020-0494-4</a>. <a href="/facts/Hdl_(identifier)/rdebSxmC">hdl</a>:<a href="https://hdl.handle.net/11250%2F2726984">11250/2726984</a>. <a href="/facts/ISSN_(identifier)/DPAflDvU">ISSN</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2662-9992">2662-9992</a>.</li>
<li>Flanagan, Owen (2005). "Mind, History of the Philosophy of". In Honderich, Ted (ed.). The Oxford Companion to Philosophy. Oxford University Press. pp. 603–607. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-19-926479-7.</li>
<li>Frankish, Keith; Kasmirli, Maria (2009). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5Himf4mFKskC&pg=PA107">"8. Mind and Consciousness"</a>. In Shand, John (ed.). Central Issues of Philosophy. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 107–120. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-4051-6270-8.</li>
<li>Franklin, Stan (1995). Artificial Minds. MIT Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-262-06178-0.</li>
<li>Franks, David D. (2007). "Mind". In Ritzer, George (ed.). The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Sociology. Blackwell. pp. 3055–3057. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-4051-2433-1.</li>
<li>Freeman, Derek (1975). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TFjf4mUHqv4C&pg=PA114">"Kinship, Attachment Behaviour and the Primary Bond"</a>. In Goody, Jack (ed.). The Character of Kinship. Cambridge University Press. pp. 109–120. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-521-29002-9.</li>
<li>Friedenberg, Jay; Silverman, Gordon; Spivey, Michael (2022). Cognitive Science: An Introduction to the Study of Mind (4 ed.). Sage. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-5443-8015-5.</li>
<li>Galandí, Javier Alejandro (2023). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7bfrEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA437">"The Mind–Body Problem: An Overview of Proposed Solutions"</a>. In Lopez-Soto, Teresa; Garcia-Lopez, Alvaro; Salguero-Lamillar, Francisco J. (eds.). The Theory of Mind Under Scrutiny: Psychopathology, Neuroscience, Philosophy of Mind and Artificial Intelligence. Springer. pp. 435–468. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-3-031-46742-4.</li>
<li>Gennaro, Rocco J. <a href="https://iep.utm.edu/consciousness/">"Consciousness"</a>. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240406132436/https://iep.utm.edu/consciousness/">Archived</a> from the original on 6 April 2024. Retrieved 19 April 2024.</li>
<li>Getz, Glen E. (2023). <a href="https://connect.springerpub.com/highwire_display/entity_view/node/57243/content_details">"History of Neurobiology"</a>. Applied Biological Psychology. Springer. pp. 1–12. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-8261-0922-4.</li>
<li>Giannopulu, Irini (2019). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Z8uJDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA6">Neuroscience, Robotics and Virtual Reality: Internalised Vs Externalised Mind/Brain</a>. Springer. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-3-319-95558-2.</li>
<li>Gillett, Eric (1996). "Searle and the "Deep Unconscious"". Philosophy, Psychiatry, & Psychology. 3 (3): 191–200. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fppp.1996.0027">10.1353/ppp.1996.0027</a>.</li>
<li>Goffi, Jean-Yves; <a href="/facts/Sophie_Roux/CBKy91g6">Roux, Sophie</a> (2011). <a href="https://philpapers.org/rec/GOFOTV">"On the Very Idea of a Thought Experiment"</a>. In Ierodiakonou, Katerina; Roux, Sophie (eds.). <a href="https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-00807059/file/TE_Gofrou_ffinal.pdf">Thought Experiments in Methodological and Historical Contexts</a> (PDF). Brill. pp. 165–191. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2Fej.9789004201767.i-233.35">10.1163/ej.9789004201767.i-233.35</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-90-04-20177-4. <a href="/facts/S2CID_(identifier)/ldJsHa2Y">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:260640180">260640180</a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211030152653/https://philpapers.org/rec/GOFOTV">Archived</a> from the original on 30 October 2021.</li>
<li>Graham, George (2023). <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/behaviorism/">"Behaviorism"</a>. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180709040248/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/behaviorism/">Archived</a> from the original on 9 July 2018. Retrieved 11 May 2024.</li>
<li>Greif, Hajo (2017). <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5686289">"What Is the Extension of the Extended Mind?"</a>. Synthese. 194 (11): 4311–4336. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11229-015-0799-9">10.1007/s11229-015-0799-9</a>. <a href="/facts/PMC_(identifier)/dX1zMt71">PMC</a> <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5686289">5686289</a>. <a href="/facts/PMID_(identifier)/JlHAvMHt">PMID</a> <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29200511">29200511</a>.</li>
<li>Griffin, Donald R. (1998). "Mind, Animal". In Hobson, J. Allan (ed.). States of Brain and Mind. Springer. pp. 53–55. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-4899-6773-2.</li>
<li>Griffin, Donald R. (2013). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=K2uXAwAAQBAJ&pg=PR9">Animal Minds: Beyond Cognition to Consciousness</a>. University of Chicago Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-226-22712-2.</li>
<li>Groarke, Louis F. <a href="https://iep.utm.edu/aristotle-logic/">"Aristotle: Logic"</a>. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240313235336/https://iep.utm.edu/aristotle-logic/">Archived</a> from the original on 13 March 2024. Retrieved 17 April 2024.</li>
<li>Gross, Richard (2020). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Z7TsDwAAQBAJ">Psychology: The Science of Mind and Behaviour</a> (8 ed.). Hodder Education. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-5104-6846-7.</li>
<li>Grünberg, David (2007). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=44YzwTjH2goC&pg=PA237">"Husserl's Transcendental Phenomenology and the Mind-body Problem"</a>. In Tymieniecka, Anna-Teresa (ed.). Phenomenology of Life - From the Animal Soul to the Human Mind: Book II. The Human Soul in the Creative Transformation of the Mind. Springer. pp. 237–258. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-4020-5182-1.</li>
<li>Guyer, Paul; Horstmann, Rolf-Peter (2023). <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/idealism/">"Idealism"</a>. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Retrieved 31 December 2024.</li>
<li>Hall, David L.; Ames, Roger T. (1998). <a href="https://www.rep.routledge.com/articles/thematic/xin-heart-and-mind/v-1">"Xin (Heart-and-mind)"</a>. Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Routledge. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9780415249126-G021-1">10.4324/9780415249126-G021-1</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-415-25069-6. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240508021312/https://www.rep.routledge.com/articles/thematic/xin-heart-and-mind/v-1">Archived</a> from the original on 8 May 2024.</li>
<li>Harman, Gilbert (2013). <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/9781444367072.wbiee181">"Rationality"</a>. In Hugh, LaFollette (ed.). The International Encyclopedia of Ethics (1 ed.). Wiley. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9781444367072.wbiee181">10.1002/9781444367072.wbiee181</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-4051-8641-4. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220814153621/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/9781444367072.wbiee181">Archived</a> from the original on 14 August 2022.</li>
<li>HarperCollins (2022). <a href="https://www.ahdictionary.com">"The American Heritage Dictionary"</a>. HarperCollins. Retrieved 9 May 2024.</li>
<li>HarperCollins (2024). <a href="https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/mind">"Definition of Mind"</a>. Collins Dictionary. HarperCollins. Retrieved 21 May 2024.</li>
<li>Harrell, Stevan (2018). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lQDFDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA478">Human Families</a>. Routledge. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-8133-3622-0.</li>
<li>Hatfield, Gary (2013). "Introduction: The Evolution of Mind, Brain, and Culture". In Hatfield, Gary; Pittman, Holly (eds.). Evolution of Mind, Brain, and Culture. University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology. pp. 1–44. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-934536-49-0.</li>
<li>Hawkins, Spencer (2023). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yEm8EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA167">German Philosophy in English Translation: Postwar Translation History and the Making of the Contemporary Anglophone Humanities</a>. Taylor & Francis. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-000-87684-0.</li>
<li>Hellier, Jennifer L. (2014). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FOTNEAAAQBAJ&pg=PR31">"Introduction: Neuroscience Overview"</a>. In Hellier, Jennifer L. (ed.). The Brain, the Nervous System, and Their Diseases. Bloomsbury Publishing. pp. xxxi–xxxvi. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-61069-338-7.</li>
<li>Helms, Marilyn M., ed. (2000). <a href="https://www.encyclopedia.com/management/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/motivation-and-motivation-theory">"Motivation and Motivation Theory"</a>. Encyclopedia of Management (4. ed.). Gale Group. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-7876-3065-2. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210429193353/https://www.encyclopedia.com/management/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/motivation-and-motivation-theory">Archived</a> from the original on 29 April 2021.</li>
<li>Hickey, Lance P. <a href="https://iep.utm.edu/brain-in-a-vat-argument/">"Brain in a Vat Argument, The"</a>. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 10 January 2025.</li>
<li>Higgs, Suzanne; Cooper, Alison; Lee, Jonathan (2019). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rkewDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA3">Biological Psychology</a>. Sage. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-5264-8278-5.</li>
<li>Hoad, T. F. (1993). The Concise Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology. Oxford University Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-19-283098-2.</li>
<li>Hodges, Andrew (2013). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cgqrCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA3">"Alan Turing: An Introductory Biography"</a>. In Teuscher, Christof (ed.). Alan Turing: Life and Legacy of a Great Thinker. Springer. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-3-662-05642-4.</li>
<li>Hoff, Eva V. (2020). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7zm6DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA617">"Imagination"</a>. In Runco, Mark A.; Pritzker, Steven R. (eds.). Encyclopedia of Creativity. Academic Press. pp. 617–623. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-12-815615-5.</li>
<li>Hood, Ralph W. (2013). <a href="https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007/978-1-4020-8265-8_695">"Methodology in Psychology"</a>. In Runehov, Anne L. C.; Oviedo, Lluis (eds.). Encyclopedia of Sciences and Religions. Springer. pp. 1314–1322. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4020-8265-8_695">10.1007/978-1-4020-8265-8_695</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-4020-8265-8. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240513103913/https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007/978-1-4020-8265-8_695">Archived</a> from the original on 13 May 2024.</li>
<li>Howitt, Dennis; Cramer, Duncan (2011). Introduction to Research Methods in Psychology (3 ed.). Pearson Education. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-273-73499-4.</li>
<li>Hufendiek, Rebekka; Wild, Markus (2015). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=78C6BwAAQBAJ&pg=PA3">"6. Faculties and Modularity"</a>. In Perler, Dominik (ed.). The Faculties: A History. Oxford University Press. pp. 254–298. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-19-993527-7.</li>
<li>Jacob, Pierre (2023). <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/intentionality/">"Intentionality"</a>. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180829135343/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/intentionality/">Archived</a> from the original on 29 August 2018. Retrieved 11 May 2024.</li>
<li>Jacobs, George M.; Renandya, Willy A. (2019). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5QaWDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA3">Student Centered Cooperative Learning: Linking Concepts in Education to Promote Student Learning</a>. Springer Nature Singapore. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-981-13-7213-1.</li>
<li>Jaworski, William (2011). Philosophy of Mind: A Comprehensive Introduction (1 ed.). Wiley-Blackwell. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-4443-3367-1.</li>
<li>Jerison, H. J. (2013). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9BsGCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA3">"Fossil Brains and the Evolution of the Neocortex"</a>. In Finlay, Barbara L.; Innocenti, Giorgio M.; Scheich, Henning (eds.). The Neocortex: Ontogeny and Phylogeny. Springer. pp. 5–20. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-4899-0652-6.</li>
<li>Karunamuni, Nandini D. (2015). <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F2158244015583860">"The Five-Aggregate Model of the Mind"</a>. SAGE Open. 5 (2). <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F2158244015583860">10.1177/2158244015583860</a>.</li>
<li>Kenny, Anthony (1992). "5. Abilities, Faculties, Powers, and Dispositions". The Metaphysics of Mind. pp. 66–85. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facprof%3Aoso%2F9780192830708.003.0005">10.1093/acprof:oso/9780192830708.003.0005</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-19-167052-7.</li>
<li>Khatoon, Naima, ed. (2012). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ha1KBZm9CXQC&pg=PA308">General Psychology</a>. Pearson Education India. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-81-317-5999-8.</li>
<li>Khurana, Indu; Khurana, Arushi (2018). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tpxYDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA462">Concise Textbook of Human Physiology</a>. RELX India. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-81-312-5300-7.</li>
<li>Khushboo; Kumar, Abishek; Sharma, Bechan (2020). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CQXaDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA116">"Phytochemicals as Antidepressants"</a>. In Patra, Jayanta Kumar; Shukla, Amritesh C.; Das, Gitishree (eds.). Advances in Pharmaceutical Biotechnology: Recent Progress and Future Applications. Springer Nature Singapore. pp. 115–132. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-981-15-2195-9.</li>
<li>Kihlstrom, John F.; Tobias, Betsy A. (1991). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GwxnDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA212">"Anosognosia, Consciousness, and the Self"</a>. In Prigatano, George P.; Schacter, Daniel L. (eds.). Awareness of Deficit After Brain Injury: Clinical and Theoretical Issues. Oxford University Press. pp. 198–223. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-19-505941-0.</li>
<li>Kim, Jaegwon (2005). <a href="https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780199264797.001.0001/acref-9780199264797-e-1610">"Mind, Problems of the Philosophy of"</a>. In Honderich, Ted (ed.). The Oxford Companion to Philosophy. Oxford University Press. pp. 607–612. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-19-926479-7. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240411165434/https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780199264797.001.0001/acref-9780199264797-e-1608?rskey=jqUtkA&result=1601">Archived</a> from the original on 11 April 2024.</li>
<li>Kim, Jaegwon (2011). Philosophy of Mind (3rd ed.). Westview Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-8133-4458-4.</li>
<li>Kind, Amy (2017). <a href="https://www.rep.routledge.com/articles/thematic/imagination/v-2">"Imagination"</a>. Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9780415249126-V017-2">10.4324/9780415249126-V017-2</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-415-25069-6. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240418122057/https://www.rep.routledge.com/articles/thematic/imagination/v-2">Archived</a> from the original on 18 April 2024.</li>
<li>Kind, Amy (2018). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oDhjDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA2010-IA3">"The Mind–Body Problem in 20th-Century Philosophy"</a>. In Kind, Amy (ed.). Philosophy of Mind in the Twentieth and Twenty-First Centuries. The History of the Philosophy of Mind. Vol. 6. Routledge. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-429-01938-8.</li>
<li>Kind, Amy (2020). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=saPSDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT62">Philosophy of Mind: The Basics</a>. Routledge. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-317-61354-1.</li>
<li>Kind, Amy (2023). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_VC_EAAAQBAJ&pg=PT25">"1. The Mind-Body Problem: Dualism Rebooted"</a>. In Kind, Amy; Stoljar, Daniel (eds.). What Is Consciousness?: A Debate. Taylor & Francis. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-000-86666-7.</li>
<li>Kind, Amy; Stoljar, Daniel (2023). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_VC_EAAAQBAJ&pg=PT19">What is Consciousness?: A Debate</a>. Routledge. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-000-86666-7.</li>
<li>Kiverstein, Julian; Farina, Mirko; Clark, Andy (2013). <a href="https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/display/document/obo-9780195396577/obo-9780195396577-0099.xml">"The Extended Mind Thesis"</a>. Oxford Bibliographies. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240201104018/https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/display/document/obo-9780195396577/obo-9780195396577-0099.xml">Archived</a> from the original on 1 February 2024. Retrieved 11 May 2024.</li>
<li>Knauff, Markus; Spohn, Wolfgang (2021). <a href="https://direct.mit.edu/books/oa-edited-volume/5525/chapter/4090435/Psychological-and-Philosophical-Frameworks-of">"Psychological and Philosophical Frameworks of Rationality—A Systematic Introduction"</a>. In Knauff, Markus; Spohn, Wolfgang (eds.). The Handbook of Rationality. MIT Press. pp. 1–65. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-262-36185-9.</li>
<li>Koenig, Oliver (2004). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gi-PAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA274">"Modularity: Neuroscience"</a>. In Houdé, Olivier; Kayser, Daniel; Koenig, Olivier; Proust, Joëlle; Rastier, François (eds.). Dictionary of Cognitive Science: Neuroscience, Psychology, Artificial Intelligence, Linguistics, and Philosophy. Routledge. pp. 273–275. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-135-45635-1.</li>
<li>Kriegel, Uriah (2014). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ICf-AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA384">"Intentionality"</a>. In Bayne, Tim; Cleeremans, Axel; Wilken, Patrick (eds.). The Oxford Companion to Consciousness. Oxford University Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-19-102103-9.</li>
<li>Kriegel, Uriah (2015). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MgDWBgAAQBAJ">The Varieties of Consciousness</a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-19-984612-2.</li>
<li>Laine, Joy (1998). <a href="https://www.rep.routledge.com/articles/thematic/mind-indian-philosophy-of/v-1">"Mind, Indian Philosophy of"</a>. Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Routledge. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9780415249126-F070-1">10.4324/9780415249126-F070-1</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-415-25069-6. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240508165417/https://www.rep.routledge.com/articles/thematic/mind-indian-philosophy-of/v-1">Archived</a> from the original on 8 May 2024.</li>
<li>Levin, Janet (2023). <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/functionalism/">"Functionalism"</a>. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210418140903/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/functionalism/">Archived</a> from the original on 18 April 2021. Retrieved 22 April 2024.</li>
<li>Lindeman, David. <a href="https://iep.utm.edu/prop-ati/">"Propositional Attitudes"</a>. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240221023024/https://iep.utm.edu/prop-ati/">Archived</a> from the original on 21 February 2024. Retrieved 19 April 2024.</li>
<li>Luhrmann, Tanya Marie (2023). Stein, Felix (ed.). <a href="https://www.anthroencyclopedia.com/entry/mind">"Mind"</a>. The Open Encyclopedia of Anthropology. Cambridge University Press. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240507133242/https://www.anthroencyclopedia.com/entry/mind">Archived</a> from the original on 7 May 2024. Retrieved 7 May 2024.</li>
<li>Lurz, Robert. <a href="https://iep.utm.edu/animal-mind/">"Minds, Animal"</a>. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240506082341/https://iep.utm.edu/animal-mind/">Archived</a> from the original on 6 May 2024. Retrieved 6 May 2024.</li>
<li>Macmillan, Malcolm; Lena, Matthew L. (2010). "Rehabilitating Phineas Gage". Neuropsychological Rehabilitation. 20 (5): 641–658. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F09602011003760527">10.1080/09602011003760527</a>. <a href="/facts/PMID_(identifier)/JlHAvMHt">PMID</a> <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20480430">20480430</a>.</li>
<li>Majkić, Ana (2024). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4dPrEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA97">"Behavioral Modernity, Evolutionary Synergies, and the Symbolic Species"</a>. In Gontier, Nathalie; Lock, Andy; Sinha, Chris (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Human Symbolic Evolution. Oxford University Press. pp. 97–132. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-19-881378-1.</li>
<li>Mandalaywala, Tara; Fleener, Christine; Maestripieri, Dario (2014). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ylzEBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA28">"Intelligence in Nonhuman Primates"</a>. In Goldstein, Sam; Princiotta, Dana; Naglieri, Jack A. (eds.). Handbook of Intelligence: Evolutionary Theory, Historical Perspective, and Current Concepts. Springer. pp. 11–26. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-4939-1562-0.</li>
<li>Mandik, Pete (2014). This Is Philosophy of Mind: An Introduction. Wiley-Blackwell. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-470-67447-5.</li>
<li>Marcum, James A. (2008). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1arGI9NZcAkC&pg=PA19">An Introductory Philosophy of Medicine: Humanizing Modern Medicine</a>. Springer. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-4020-6797-6.</li>
<li>Marcus, Elliott M.; Jacobson, Stanley (2012). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=II3lBwAAQBAJ&pg=SA1-PA3">Integrated Neuroscience: A Clinical Problem Solving Approach</a>. Springer. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-4615-1077-2.</li>
<li>Marsh, Ian; Melvill, Gaynor; Morgan, Keith; Norris, Gareth; Walkington, Zoe (2007). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Q6B-AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA44">Theories of Crime</a>. Routledge. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-134-19842-9.</li>
<li>Martin, M. G. F. (1998). <a href="https://www.rep.routledge.com/articles/thematic/perception/v-1">"Perception"</a>. Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Routledge. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-415-07310-3. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240326091535/https://www.rep.routledge.com/articles/thematic/perception/v-1">Archived</a> from the original on 26 March 2024.</li>
<li>Maruyama, Yoshihiro (2020). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YlvwDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA172">"Rationality, Cognitive Bias, and Artificial Intelligence: A Structural Perspective on Quantum Cognitive Science"</a>. In Harris, Don; Li, Wen-Chin (eds.). Engineering Psychology and Cognitive Ergonomics: Cognition and Design. Vol. 2. Springer. pp. 172–188. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-3-030-49183-3.</li>
<li>Matheson, Benjamin (2017). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6dM5DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA12">"Introduction"</a>. In Nagasawa, Yujin; Matheson, Benjamin (eds.). The Palgrave Handbook of the Afterlife. Springer. pp. 1–20. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-137-48609-7.</li>
<li>McClelland, Tom (2021). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=viQqEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT81">What Is Philosophy of Mind?</a>. John Wiley & Sons. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-5095-3878-2.</li>
<li>McLear, Colin. <a href="https://iep.utm.edu/kantmind/">"Kant: Philosophy of Mind"</a>. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231209114253/https://iep.utm.edu/kantmind/">Archived</a> from the original on 9 December 2023. Retrieved 16 April 2024.</li>
<li>McPeek, Robert M. (2009). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LlN2AwAAQBAJ&pg=PA98">"Attention: Physiological"</a>. In Goldstein, E. Bruce (ed.). Encyclopedia of Perception. Sage. pp. 97–100. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-4522-6615-2.</li>
<li>McQueen, Paddy; McQueen, Hilary (2010). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ho5KEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA135">Key Concepts in Philosophy</a>. Bloomsbury Publishing. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-137-09339-4.</li>
<li>Melis, Giacomo; Monsó, Susana (2023). "Are Humans the Only Rational Animals?". The Philosophical Quarterly. 74 (3): 844–864. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fpq%2Fpqad090">10.1093/pq/pqad090</a>.</li>
<li>Merriam-Webster (2024). <a href="https://www.merriam-webster.com">"Merriam-Webster Dictionary"</a>. Merriam-Webster. Retrieved 11 May 2024.</li>
<li>Meyer, Jerrold S.; Meyer, Jerry; Farrar, Andrew M.; Biezonski, Dominik; Yates, Jennifer R. (2022). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8fhgEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA27">Psychopharmacology: Drugs, the Brain, and Behavior</a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-60535-987-8.</li>
<li>Mijoia, Alain de (2005). "The Unconscious". International Dictionary of Psychoanalysis. Macmillan Reference. pp. 1818–1820. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-02-865927-5.</li>
<li>Morton, Adam (2005). "Mind". In Honderich, Ted (ed.). The Oxford Companion to Philosophy (2 ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 603. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-19-926479-7.</li>
<li>Müller, Jörg P. (1996). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kcEOhEWYDCgC&pg=PA14">The Design of Intelligent Agents: A Layered Approach</a>. Springer. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-3-540-62003-7.</li>
<li>Munroe, Paul T. (2007). <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/9781405165518.wbeosi067.pub2">"Intersubjectivity"</a>. In Ritzer, George (ed.). The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Sociology (1 ed.). John Wiley & Sons. pp. 1–3. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9781405165518.wbeosi067.pub2">10.1002/9781405165518.wbeosi067.pub2</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-4051-2433-1.</li>
<li>Murphy, Patricia (2003). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BjqQAgAAQBAJ">"1. Defining Pedagogy"</a>. In Gipps, Caroline V. (ed.). Equity in the Classroom: Towards Effective Pedagogy for Girls and Boys. Routledge. pp. 9–22. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-135-71682-0.</li>
<li>Murphy, Dominic; Donovan, Caitrin; Smart, Gemma Lucy (2020). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=of75DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA103">"Mental Health and Well-Being in Philosophy"</a>. In Sholl, Jonathan; Rattan, Suresh I. S. (eds.). Explaining Health Across the Sciences. Springer. pp. 97–114. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-3-030-52663-4.</li>
<li>Nairne, James S. (2011). Psychology (5 ed.). Cengage Learning. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-8400-3310-9.</li>
<li>Nolfi, Kate (2015). "Which Mental States Are Rationally Evaluable, And Why?". Philosophical Issues. 25 (1): 41–63. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fphis.12051">10.1111/phis.12051</a>.</li>
<li>Noll, Richard (2009). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jzoJxps189IC&pg=PA122">The Encyclopedia of Schizophrenia and Other Psychotic Disorders</a>. Infobase Publishing. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-8160-7508-9.</li>
<li>Nunes, Terezinha (2011). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xZuSxo4JxoAC">"Logical Reasoning and Learning"</a>. In Seel, Norbert M. (ed.). Encyclopedia of the Sciences of Learning. Springer. pp. 2066–2069. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-4419-1427-9.</li>
<li>Oakley, Lisa (2004). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iSOCAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1">Cognitive Development</a>. Routledge. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-134-54743-2.</li>
<li>Olson, Eric T. (2013). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=T7W7BAAAQBAJ&pg=PT111">"There Is No Problem of the Self"</a>. In Gallagher, Shaun; Shear, Jonathan (eds.). Models of the Self. Andrews UK Limited. pp. 49–62. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-84540-723-0.</li>
<li>Opris, Ioan; Casanova, Manuel F.; Lebedev, Mikhail A.; Popescu, Aurel I. (2017). "Prefrontal Cortical Microcircuits Support the Emergence of Mind". In Opris, Ioan (ed.). The Physics of the Mind and Brain Disorders: Integrated Neural Circuits Supporting the Emergence of Mind. Springer. pp. 69–94. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-3-319-29672-2.</li>
<li>Overgaard, Søren (2010). <a href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-90-481-2646-0_14">"The Problem of Other Minds"</a>. In Schmicking, Daniel; Gallagher, Shaun (eds.). Handbook of Phenomenology and Cognitive Science. Springer. pp. 254–268. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-90-481-2646-0_14">10.1007/978-90-481-2646-0_14</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-90-481-2646-0. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240513103943/https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-90-481-2646-0_14">Archived</a> from the original on 13 May 2024.</li>
<li>O’Madagain, Cathal. <a href="https://iep.utm.edu/intentio/">"Intentionality"</a>. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240428121740/https://iep.utm.edu/intentio/">Archived</a> from the original on 28 April 2024. Retrieved 10 May 2024.</li>
<li>Packer, Martin J. (2017). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=V5NBDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA7">Child Development: Understanding A Cultural Perspective</a>. Sage. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-5264-1311-6.</li>
<li>Paivio, Allan (2014). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FaGYAgAAQBAJ&pg=PR6">Mind and Its Evolution: A Dual Coding Theoretical Approach</a>. Psychology Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-317-71690-7.</li>
<li>Pal, G. K. (2021). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FdBcEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA145">Textbook of Medical Physiology</a> (4 ed.). RELX India. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-81-312-6600-7.</li>
<li>Pashler, Harold (2013). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lu3aMe6kRowC">"Introduction"</a>. In Pashler, Harold (ed.). Encyclopedia of the Mind. Sage. pp. xxix–xxxi. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-4129-5057-2.</li>
<li>Penn, Derek C.; Holyoak, Keith J.; Povinelli, Daniel J. (2008). "Darwin's Mistake: Explaining the Discontinuity Between Human and Nonhuman Minds". Behavioral and Brain Sciences. 31 (2): 109–130. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0140525X08003543">10.1017/S0140525X08003543</a>. <a href="/facts/PMID_(identifier)/JlHAvMHt">PMID</a> <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18479531">18479531</a>.</li>
<li>Perler, Dominik (2015). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=78C6BwAAQBAJ&pg=PA3">"Introduction"</a>. In Perler, Dominik (ed.). The Faculties: A History. Oxford University Press. pp. 3–18. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-19-993527-7.</li>
<li>Polger, Thomas W. <a href="https://iep.utm.edu/functism/">"Functionalism"</a>. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190519120233/https://www.iep.utm.edu/functism/">Archived</a> from the original on 19 May 2019. Retrieved 11 May 2024.</li>
<li>Popescu, Aurel I.; Opris, Ioan (2017). "Introduction: From Neurons to the Mind". In Opris, Ioan (ed.). The Physics of the Mind and Brain Disorders: Integrated Neural Circuits Supporting the Emergence of Mind. Springer. pp. 23–54. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-3-319-29672-2.</li>
<li>Priest, Stephen (2002). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zaWJAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA66">Merleau-Ponty</a>. Routledge. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-134-92460-8.</li>
<li>Rao, A. Venkoba (2002). <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2955300">"'Mind' in Indian Philosophy"</a>. Indian Journal of Psychiatry. 44 (4): 315–325. <a href="/facts/ISSN_(identifier)/DPAflDvU">ISSN</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0019-5545">0019-5545</a>. <a href="/facts/PMC_(identifier)/dX1zMt71">PMC</a> <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2955300">2955300</a>. <a href="/facts/PMID_(identifier)/JlHAvMHt">PMID</a> <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21206593">21206593</a>.</li>
<li>Rassool, G. Hussein (2021). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_oobEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA74">Islamic Psychology: Human Behaviour and Experience from an Islamic Perspective</a>. Routledge. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-000-36292-3.</li>
<li>Ravenscroft, Ian (2005). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=f1EAEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA47">Philosophy of Mind: A Beginner's Guide</a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-19-925254-1.</li>
<li>Reisyan, Garo D. (2015). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=k_3NCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA91">Neuro-Organizational Culture: A New Approach to Understanding Human Behavior and Interaction in the Workplace</a>. Springer. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-3-319-22147-2.</li>
<li>Rescorla, Michael (2020). <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/computational-mind/">"The Computational Theory of Mind"</a>. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201218211337/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/computational-mind/">Archived</a> from the original on 18 December 2020. Retrieved 11 May 2024.</li>
<li>Rescorla, Michael (2023). <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/language-thought/">"The Language of Thought Hypothesis"</a>. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240513103754/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/language-thought/">Archived</a> from the original on 13 May 2024. Retrieved 17 April 2024.</li>
<li>Reyes, Laura D.; Sherwood, Chet C. (2014). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=I1kqBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA12">"Neuroscience and Human Brain Evolution"</a>. In Bruner, Emiliano (ed.). Human Paleoneurology. Springer. pp. 11–38. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-3-319-08500-5.</li>
<li>Robbins, Philip (2017). <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/modularity-mind/">"Modularity of Mind"</a>. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210212012915/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/modularity-mind/">Archived</a> from the original on 12 February 2021. Retrieved 16 April 2024.</li>
<li>Roth, Gerhard (2013). The Long Evolution of Brains and Minds. Springer. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-94-007-6258-9.</li>
<li>Rothman, Abdallah (2021). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DWbwEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA2010">Developing a Model of Islamic Psychology and Psychotherapy: Islamic Theology and Contemporary Understandings of Psychology</a>. Taylor & Francis. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-000-41621-3.</li>
<li>Rowlands, Mark (2009). "Enactivism and the Extended Mind". Topoi. 28 (1): 53–62. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11245-008-9046-z">10.1007/s11245-008-9046-z</a>.</li>
<li>Rowlands, Mark; Lau, Joe; Deutsch, Max (2020). <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/content-externalism/">"Externalism About the Mind"</a>. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210413163023/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/content-externalism/">Archived</a> from the original on 13 April 2021. Retrieved 25 February 2024.</li>
<li>Rysiew, Patrick (2012). <a href="https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/display/document/obo-9780195396577/obo-9780195396577-0175.xml">"Rationality"</a>. Oxford Bibliographies. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221223011314/https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/display/document/obo-9780195396577/obo-9780195396577-0175.xml">Archived</a> from the original on 23 December 2022. Retrieved 6 May 2024.</li>
<li>Saab, Carl Y. (2009). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EFu-_qZiEN4C&pg=PA1">The Hindbrain</a>. Infobase Publishing. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-4381-1965-6.</li>
<li>Sanderson, Catherine A.; Huffman, Karen R. (2019). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gmfDDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA59">Real World Psychology</a>. John Wiley & Sons. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-119-57775-1.</li>
<li>Sayers, Janet (2020). Sigmund Freud: The Basics. Routledge. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-000-17872-2.</li>
<li>Scanlon, Valerie C.; Sanders, Tina (2018). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hXR0DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA178">Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology</a>. F. A. Davis. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-8036-9006-6.</li>
<li>Scharff, Lauren Fruh VanSickle (2008). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mqcvrd7rKc0C&pg=PA270">"Sensation and Perception Research Methods"</a>. In Davis, Stephen F. (ed.). Handbook of Research Methods in Experimental Psychology. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 263–284. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-470-75672-0.</li>
<li>Schoenberg, Mike R.; Marsh, Patrick J.; Lerner, Alan J. (2011). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=67SDJTaAIwIC&pg=PA76">"Neuroanatomy Primer: Structure and Function of the Human Nervous System"</a>. In Schoenberg, Mike R.; Scott, James G. (eds.). The Little Black Book of Neuropsychology: A Syndrome-Based Approach. Springer. pp. 59–126. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-387-76978-3.</li>
<li>Schweizer, Paul (1993). "Mind/Consciousness Dualism in Sankhya-Yoga Philosophy". Philosophy and Phenomenological Research. 53 (4). <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2108256">10.2307/2108256</a>. <a href="/facts/JSTOR_(identifier)/YTeVmaJ7">JSTOR</a> <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2108256">2108256</a>.</li>
<li>Schwitzgebel, Eric (2024). <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/belief/">"Belief"</a>. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191115080001/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/belief/">Archived</a> from the original on 15 November 2019. Retrieved 20 April 2024.</li>
<li>Searle, John R. (1991). "Consciousness, Unconsciousness and Intentionality". Philosophical Issues. 1: 45–66. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1522923">10.2307/1522923</a>. <a href="/facts/JSTOR_(identifier)/YTeVmaJ7">JSTOR</a> <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1522923">1522923</a>.</li>
<li>Searle, John R. (2004). Mind: A Brief Introduction. Oxford University Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-19-515733-8.</li>
<li>Shaffer, Michael J. (2015). <a href="https://philpapers.org/rec/SHATPO-64">"The Problem of Necessary and Sufficient Conditions and Conceptual Analysis"</a>. Metaphilosophy. 46 (4–5): 555–563. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fmeta.12158">10.1111/meta.12158</a>. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160710090121/http://philpapers.org/rec/SHATPO-64">Archived</a> from the original on 10 July 2016. Retrieved 13 May 2024.</li>
<li>Shapiro, Lawrence A. (2019). Embodied Cognition (2 ed.). Routledge. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-138-74698-5.</li>
<li>Shapiro, Lawrence; Spaulding, Shannon (2024). <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/embodied-cognition/">"Embodied Cognition"</a>. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University.</li>
<li>Sharma, Manoj; Branscum, Paul (2020). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rC7yDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA122">Foundations of Mental Health Promotion</a>. Jones & Bartlett Learning. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-284-19975-8.</li>
<li>Sharma, Rajendra Kumar; Sharma, Rachana (1997). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8k7kK_J_MM4C&pg=PA7">Social Psychology</a>. Atlantic Publishers & Distributors. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-81-7156-707-2.</li>
<li>Sharov, Alexei A. (2012). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oQ5HAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA343">"Minimal Mind"</a>. In Swan, Liz (ed.). Origins of Mind. Springer. pp. 343–360. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-94-007-5419-5.</li>
<li>Shields, Christopher (2020). <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-psychology/">"Aristotle's Psychology"</a>. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Retrieved 5 December 2024.</li>
<li>Siegel, Harvey (2017). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6WEwDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA157">Education's Epistemology: Rationality, Diversity, and Critical Thinking</a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-19-068267-5.</li>
<li>Singer, Jerome L. (2000). "Imagination". In Kazdin, Alan E. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Psychology. Vol. 4. American Psychological Association. pp. 227–230. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-55798-187-5.</li>
<li>Smith, Basil. <a href="https://iep.utm.edu/int-ex-ml/">"Internalism and Externalism in the Philosophy of Mind and Language"</a>. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210506234940/https://iep.utm.edu/int-ex-ml/">Archived</a> from the original on 6 May 2021. Retrieved 25 February 2024.</li>
<li>Smith, Jeremy J. (1996). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pl0Cgb4IMKUC&pg=PA105">An Historical Study of English: Function, Form and Change</a>. Psychology Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-415-13273-2.</li>
<li>Smith, David Woodruff (2004). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ayBv_ywapFEC&pg=PA124">Mind World: Essays in Phenomenology and Ontology</a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-521-53973-9.</li>
<li>Smith, David Woodruff (2013). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6a03AAAAQBAJ&pg=PT359">"Phenomenological Methods in Philosophy of Mind"</a>. In Haug, Matthew (ed.). Philosophical Methodology: The Armchair or the Laboratory?. Routledge. pp. 335–352. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-135-10710-9.</li>
<li>Smith, David Woodruff (2018). <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/phenomenology/">"Phenomenology"</a>. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200623203855/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/phenomenology/">Archived</a> from the original on 23 June 2020. Retrieved 27 April 2024.</li>
<li>Smithies, Declan (2019). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=s7emDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA83">The Epistemic Role of Consciousness</a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-19-094853-5.</li>
<li>Smitsman, Ad W.; Corbetta, Daniela (2011). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8WrqZaqtzgUC&pg=PA169">"Action in Infancy – Perspectives, Concepts, and Challenges"</a>. In Bremner, J. Gavin; Wachs, Theodore D. (eds.). The Wiley-Blackwell Handbook of Infant Development, Volume 1: Basic Research. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 167–203. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-4443-5183-5.</li>
<li>Spradlin, W. W.; Porterfield, P. B. (2012). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=aynUBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA17">The Search for Certainty</a>. Springer. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-4612-5212-2.</li>
<li>Spruit, Leen (2008). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8dM6T86QreYC&pg=PA203">"Renaissance Views of Active Perception"</a>. In Knuuttila, Simo; Kärkkäinen, Pekka (eds.). Theories of Perception in Medieval and Early Modern Philosophy. Springer. pp. 203–224. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-4020-6125-7.</li>
<li>Stairs, Allen (1998). <a href="https://www.rep.routledge.com/articles/thematic/parapsychology/v-1">"Parapsychology"</a>. Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Routledge. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9780415249126-W029-1">10.4324/9780415249126-W029-1</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-415-25069-6. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230513204043/https://www.rep.routledge.com/articles/thematic/parapsychology/v-1">Archived</a> from the original on 13 May 2023.</li>
<li>Steinberg Gould, Carol (2020). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yAT1DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA151">"6. Psychoanalysis, Imagination, and Imaginative Resistance: A Genesis of the Post-Freudian World"</a>. In Moser, Keith; Sukla, Ananta (eds.). Imagination and Art: Explorations in Contemporary Theory. Brill. pp. 139–154. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-90-04-43635-0.</li>
<li>Steiner, Gary (2014). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nHBEBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA93">"Cognition and Community"</a>. In Petrus, Klaus; Wild, Markus (eds.). Animal Minds & Animal Ethics: Connecting Two Separate Fields. transcript Verlag. pp. 83–112. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-3-8394-2462-9.</li>
<li>Sterelny, Kim (2011). <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3048993">"From hominins to humans: how sapiens became behaviourally modern"</a>. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 366 (1566): 809–822. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frstb.2010.0301">10.1098/rstb.2010.0301</a>. <a href="/facts/PMC_(identifier)/dX1zMt71">PMC</a> <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3048993">3048993</a>. <a href="/facts/PMID_(identifier)/JlHAvMHt">PMID</a> <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21320896">21320896</a>.</li>
<li>Stich, Stephen P.; Warfield, Ted A. (2008). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NEGK_ZStddkC&pg=PR7">"Introduction"</a>. In Stich, Stephen P.; Warfield, Ted A. (eds.). The Blackwell Guide to Philosophy of Mind. John Wiley & Sons. pp. vii–xi. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-470-99875-5.</li>
<li>Stoljar, Daniel (2010). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iqGLAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA10">Physicalism</a>. Routledge. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-135-14922-2.</li>
<li>Stoljar, Daniel (2024). <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/physicalism/">"Physicalism"</a>. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191103205051/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/physicalism/">Archived</a> from the original on 3 November 2019. Retrieved 22 April 2024.</li>
<li>Swinburne, Richard (1998). <a href="https://www.rep.routledge.com/articles/thematic/soul-nature-and-immortality-of-the/v-1">"Soul, Nature and Immortality of the"</a>. Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Routledge. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9780415249126-K096-1">10.4324/9780415249126-K096-1</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-415-25069-6. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230928035227/https://www.rep.routledge.com/articles/thematic/soul-nature-and-immortality-of-the/v-1">Archived</a> from the original on 28 September 2023.</li>
<li>Swinburne, Richard (2013). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GxCSBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA72">Mind, Brain, and Free Will</a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-19-105744-1.</li>
<li>Sysling, Fenneke (2022). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hIuFEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA407">"Human Sciences and Technologies of the Self Since the Nineteenth Century"</a>. In McCallum, David (ed.). The Palgrave Handbook of the History of Human Sciences. Springer. pp. 401–422. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-981-16-7255-2.</li>
<li>Tanney, Julia (2022). <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ryle/">"Gilbert Ryle"</a>. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Retrieved 11 January 2025.</li>
<li>Tappolet, Christine (2023). Philosophy of Emotion: A Contemporary Introduction. Routledge. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-138-68743-1.</li>
<li>Thagard, Paul (2023). <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/cognitive-science/">"Cognitive Science"</a>. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Retrieved 15 January 2025.</li>
<li>Thomas, Evan (2020). "Descartes on the Animal Within, and the Animals Without". Canadian Journal of Philosophy. 50 (8): 999–1014. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fcan.2020.44">10.1017/can.2020.44</a>. <a href="/facts/ISSN_(identifier)/DPAflDvU">ISSN</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0045-5091">0045-5091</a>.</li>
<li>Thornton, Stephanie; Gliga, Teodora (2020). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_h9HEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA35">Understanding Developmental Psychology</a>. Bloomsbury Publishing. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-137-00669-1.</li>
<li>Timpe, Kevin. <a href="https://iep.utm.edu/freewill/">"Free Will"</a>. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190406052436/https://www.iep.utm.edu/freewill/">Archived</a> from the original on 6 April 2019. Retrieved 28 March 2024.</li>
<li>Toren, Christina (2010). "Psychological Anthropology". In Barnard, Alan; Spencer, Jonathan (eds.). The Routledge Encyclopedia of Social and Cultural Anthropology. Routledge. pp. 577–583. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-415-40978-0.</li>
<li>Tsien, Joe Z. (2005). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Af0IyHtGCMUC&pg=PA861">"Learning and Memory"</a>. In Albers, R. Wayne; Price, Donald L. (eds.). Basic Neurochemistry: Molecular, Cellular and Medical Aspects. Elsevier. pp. 859–874. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-08-047207-2.</li>
<li>Tulving, Endel (2001). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-wt1aZrGXLYC&pg=PA278">"Episodic Vs. Semantic Memory"</a>. In Wilson, Robert A.; Keil, Frank C. (eds.). The MIT Encyclopedia of the Cognitive Sciences (MITECS). MIT Press. pp. 278–280. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-262-73144-7.</li>
<li>Turkington, Carol; Mitchell, Deborah R. (2010). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SA2X3ZHUZaEC&pg=PT133">"Hippocampus"</a>. The Encyclopedia of Alzheimer's Disease. Infobase Publishing. p. 115. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-4381-2858-0.</li>
<li>Uttal, William R. (2011). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lAyVX1KVI1oC&pg=PA1">Mind and Brain: A Critical Appraisal of Cognitive Neuroscience</a>. MIT Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-262-01596-7.</li>
<li>Uttal, William R. (2020). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WSbxDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT98">Neural Theories of Mind: Why the Mind-Brain Problem May Never Be Solved</a>. Psychology Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-000-14940-1.</li>
<li>Vanderwolf, Case H. (2013). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=78m9BwAAQBAJ&pg=PA155">An Odyssey Through the Brain, Behavior and the Mind</a>. Springer. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-4757-3779-0.</li>
<li>Vogler, Candace A. (2016). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zNIeDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA30">John Stuart Mill's Deliberative Landscape: An Essay in Moral Psychology</a>. Routledge Revivals. Routledge. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-317-20617-0.</li>
<li>Weekley, Ernest (2012) [1967]. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VigsBojU2c4C&pg=PA931">An Etymological Dictionary of Modern English, Vol. 2</a>. Courier Corporation. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-486-12286-1. <a href="/facts/OCLC_(identifier)/Yqad8waq">OCLC</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/898422797">898422797</a>.</li>
<li>Weiner, Bernard (2000). "Motivation: An Overview". In Kazdin, Alan E. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Psychology. Vol. 5. American Psychological Association. pp. 314–317. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-55798-187-5.</li>
<li>Weisberg, Josh. <a href="https://iep.utm.edu/hard-problem-of-conciousness/">"Hard Problem of Consciousness"</a>. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230719172212/https://iep.utm.edu/hard-problem-of-conciousness/">Archived</a> from the original on 19 July 2023. Retrieved 22 April 2024.</li>
<li>Weiskopf, Daniel; Adams, Fred (2015). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hKoPBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA127">An Introduction to the Philosophy of Psychology</a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-521-51929-8.</li>
<li>Westphal, Jonathan (2016). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EY0nDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA12">The Mind-Body Problem</a>. MIT Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-262-52956-3.</li>
<li>Wilkes, K. V. (2012). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jtArBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA412">"Mind and Body: Some Forms of Reductionism"</a>. In Parkinson, G. H. R. (ed.). An Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Routledge. pp. 402–426. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-134-98816-7.</li>
<li>Williams, Robert R. (1992). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8LyJ1I3GhcUC&pg=PA2">Recognition: Fichte and Hegel on the Other</a>. State University of New York Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-4384-2412-5.</li>
<li>Winkelman, Michael J. (2011). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SxfOEAAAQBAJ&pg=RA1-PA24">"A Paradigm for Understanding Altered Consciousness: The Integrative Mode of Consciousness"</a>. In Cardeña, Etzel; Winkelman, Michael J. (eds.). Altering Consciousness: Multidisciplinary Perspectives. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 23–44. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-313-38309-0.</li>
<li>Wong, David (2023). <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/chinese-mind/">"Mind (Heart-Mind) in Chinese Philosophy"</a>. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240513104321/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/chinese-mind/">Archived</a> from the original on 13 May 2024. Retrieved 8 May 2024.</li>
<li>Wragg-Sykes, Rebecca (2016). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tbbjDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA183">"Humans Evolve"</a>. Big History: Our Incredible Journey, from Big Bang to Now. Dorling Kindersley. pp. 180–222. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-241-22590-5.</li>
<li>Yeomans, Jane; Arnold, Christopher (2013). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mDL1eR1VrcIC&pg=PT31">"Child Development"</a>. Teaching, Learning and Psychology. Routledge. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-135-05633-9.</li>
<li>Yukalov, V. I.; Sornette, D. (2014). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NMslBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA38">"How Brains Make Decisions"</a>. In Freund, Friedemann; Langhoff, Stephanie (eds.). Universe of Scales: From Nanotechnology to Cosmology: Symposium in Honor of Minoru M. Freund. Springer. pp. 37–54. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-3-319-02207-9.</li></ul>

<h2 id="external-links">External links</h2>

Wikibooks has a book on the topic of: Consciousness studies

<h2 id="references">References</h2>

<ol>
<li id="fn:1">Kim 2011, pp. 2, 6American Psychological Association 2018, § MindHarperCollins 2022, § MindHarperCollins 2024Morton 2005, p. 603Paivio 2014, pp. vi–vii - Kim, Jaegwon (2011). Philosophy of Mind (3rd ed.). Westview Press. ISBN 978-0-8133-4458-4. <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:2">Sharov 2012, pp. 343–344Carruthers 2019, pp. ix, 29–30Griffin 1998, pp. 53–55 - Sharov, Alexei A. (2012). "Minimal Mind". In Swan, Liz (ed.). Origins of Mind. Springer. pp. 343–360. ISBN 978-94-007-5419-5. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oQ5HAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA343" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=oQ5HAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA343</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:3">Stich & Warfield 2008, pp. ix–x - Stich, Stephen P.; Warfield, Ted A. (2008). "Introduction". In Stich, Stephen P.; Warfield, Ted A. (eds.). The Blackwell Guide to Philosophy of Mind. John Wiley & Sons. pp. vii–xi. ISBN 978-0-470-99875-5. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NEGK_ZStddkC&pg=PR7" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=NEGK_ZStddkC&pg=PR7</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:4">Pashler 2013, pp. xxix–xxxFriedenberg, Silverman & Spivey 2022, pp. 14–17 - Pashler, Harold (2013). "Introduction". In Pashler, Harold (ed.). Encyclopedia of the Mind. Sage. pp. xxix–xxxi. ISBN 978-1-4129-5057-2. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lu3aMe6kRowC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=lu3aMe6kRowC</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:5">American Psychological Association 2018, § Mind, § PsycheMerriam-Webster 2024, § MentalityKim 2011, p. 7 - American Psychological Association (2018). "APA Dictionary of Psychology". American Psychological Association. <a href="https://dictionary.apa.org" target="_blank">https://dictionary.apa.org</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:6">HarperCollins 2022, § SoulKim 2011, pp. 5, 31Swinburne 1998, Lead Section - HarperCollins (2022). "The American Heritage Dictionary". HarperCollins. Retrieved 9 May 2024. <a href="https://www.ahdictionary.com" target="_blank">https://www.ahdictionary.com</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:7">HarperCollins 2022, § SpiritMerriam-Webster 2024, § Spirit - HarperCollins (2022). "The American Heritage Dictionary". HarperCollins. Retrieved 9 May 2024. <a href="https://www.ahdictionary.com" target="_blank">https://www.ahdictionary.com</a> <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:8">HarperCollins 2022, § CognitionBermúdez 2014, p. 16 - HarperCollins (2022). "The American Heritage Dictionary". HarperCollins. Retrieved 9 May 2024. <a href="https://www.ahdictionary.com" target="_blank">https://www.ahdictionary.com</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:9">HarperCollins 2022, § IntellectMerriam-Webster 2024, § Intellect - HarperCollins (2022). "The American Heritage Dictionary". HarperCollins. Retrieved 9 May 2024. <a href="https://www.ahdictionary.com" target="_blank">https://www.ahdictionary.com</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:10">Bernstein & Nash 2006, pp. 273–274Nairne 2011, p. 312Merriam-Webster 2024, § Intelligence - Bernstein, Douglas; Nash, Peggy W. (2006). Essentials of Psychology. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. ISBN 978-0-618-71312-7. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4Do-bFrt9tUC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=4Do-bFrt9tUC</a> <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:11">American Psychological Association 2018, § MindUttal 2020, pp. 96–97Jaworski 2011, p. 4 - American Psychological Association (2018). "APA Dictionary of Psychology". American Psychological Association. <a href="https://dictionary.apa.org" target="_blank">https://dictionary.apa.org</a> <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:12">Hoad 1993, p. 294Smith 1996, p. 105Cresswell 2010, p. 275Weekley 2012, p. 931Giannopulu 2019, p. 6 - Hoad, T. F. (1993). The Concise Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-283098-2. <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:13">Not all languages have a word that directly corresponds to the English word mind. For example, German uses the word Geist, which can mean both 'mind' or 'spirit'.[13] <a href="/wiki/German_language" target="_blank">/wiki/German_language</a> <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:14">Sharov 2012, pp. 343–344Pashler 2013, pp. xxix–xxxPaivio 2014, pp. vi–viiVanderwolf 2013, p. 155 - Sharov, Alexei A. (2012). "Minimal Mind". In Swan, Liz (ed.). Origins of Mind. Springer. pp. 343–360. ISBN 978-94-007-5419-5. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oQ5HAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA343" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=oQ5HAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA343</a> <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:15">Bernstein & Nash 2006, pp. 85–86, 123–125Martin 1998, Lead sectionGross 2020, pp. 74–76 - Bernstein, Douglas; Nash, Peggy W. (2006). Essentials of Psychology. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. ISBN 978-0-618-71312-7. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4Do-bFrt9tUC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=4Do-bFrt9tUC</a> <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:16">Bernstein & Nash 2006, pp. 208–209, 241American Psychological Association 2018, § Memory - Bernstein, Douglas; Nash, Peggy W. (2006). Essentials of Psychology. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. ISBN 978-0-618-71312-7. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4Do-bFrt9tUC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=4Do-bFrt9tUC</a> <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:17">Bernstein & Nash 2006, pp. 210, 241Tulving 2001, p. 278Tsien 2005, p. 861Campbell & Barohn 2019, p. 94 - Bernstein, Douglas; Nash, Peggy W. (2006). Essentials of Psychology. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. ISBN 978-0-618-71312-7. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4Do-bFrt9tUC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=4Do-bFrt9tUC</a> <a href="#fnref:17" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:18">Bernstein & Nash 2006, pp. 214–217, 241Tsien 2005, p. 861Khurana & Khurana 2018, p. 462 - Bernstein, Douglas; Nash, Peggy W. (2006). Essentials of Psychology. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. ISBN 978-0-618-71312-7. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4Do-bFrt9tUC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=4Do-bFrt9tUC</a> <a href="#fnref:18" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:19">Bernstein & Nash 2006, pp. 249, 290Ball 2013, pp. 739–740 - Bernstein, Douglas; Nash, Peggy W. (2006). Essentials of Psychology. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. ISBN 978-0-618-71312-7. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4Do-bFrt9tUC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=4Do-bFrt9tUC</a> <a href="#fnref:19" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:20">Nunes 2011, p. 2066Groarke, § 9. The SyllogismBall 2013, pp. 739–740Bernstein & Nash 2006, p. 254Chowdhary 2020, p. 27 - Nunes, Terezinha (2011). "Logical Reasoning and Learning". In Seel, Norbert M. (ed.). Encyclopedia of the Sciences of Learning. Springer. pp. 2066–2069. ISBN 978-1-4419-1427-9. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xZuSxo4JxoAC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=xZuSxo4JxoAC</a> <a href="#fnref:20" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:21">Ball 2013, pp. 739–740Bernstein & Nash 2006, pp. 257–258, 290–291 - Ball, Linden J. (2013). "Thinking". In Pashler, Harold (ed.). Encyclopedia of the Mind. Sage. pp. 739–742. ISBN 978-1-4129-5057-2. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lu3aMe6kRowC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=lu3aMe6kRowC</a> <a href="#fnref:21" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:22">Bernstein & Nash 2006, pp. 265–266, 291 - Bernstein, Douglas; Nash, Peggy W. (2006). Essentials of Psychology. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. ISBN 978-0-618-71312-7. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4Do-bFrt9tUC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=4Do-bFrt9tUC</a> <a href="#fnref:22" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:23">Bernstein & Nash 2006, p. 269Rescorla 2023, Lead SectionAydede 2017 - Bernstein, Douglas; Nash, Peggy W. (2006). Essentials of Psychology. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. ISBN 978-0-618-71312-7. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4Do-bFrt9tUC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=4Do-bFrt9tUC</a> <a href="#fnref:23" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:24">Singer 2000, pp. 227–228Kind 2017, Lead SectionAmerican Psychological Association 2018, § ImaginationHoff 2020, pp. 617–618 - Singer, Jerome L. (2000). "Imagination". In Kazdin, Alan E. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Psychology. Vol. 4. American Psychological Association. pp. 227–230. ISBN 978-1-55798-187-5. <a href="#fnref:24" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:25">Weiner 2000, pp. 314–315Helms 2000, lead sectionBernstein & Nash 2006, pp. 298, 336–337Müller 1996, p. 14 - Weiner, Bernard (2000). "Motivation: An Overview". In Kazdin, Alan E. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Psychology. Vol. 5. American Psychological Association. pp. 314–317. ISBN 978-1-55798-187-5. <a href="#fnref:25" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:26">Bernstein & Nash 2006, pp. 322–323, 337American Psychological Association 2018, § Emotion - Bernstein, Douglas; Nash, Peggy W. (2006). Essentials of Psychology. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. ISBN 978-0-618-71312-7. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4Do-bFrt9tUC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=4Do-bFrt9tUC</a> <a href="#fnref:26" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:27">Bernstein & Nash 2006, pp. 126–127, 131American Psychological Association 2018, § AttentionMcPeek 2009, Attention: Physiological - Bernstein, Douglas; Nash, Peggy W. (2006). Essentials of Psychology. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. ISBN 978-0-618-71312-7. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4Do-bFrt9tUC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=4Do-bFrt9tUC</a> <a href="#fnref:27" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:28">Bernstein & Nash 2006, pp. 171, 202American Psychological Association 2018, § Learning - Bernstein, Douglas; Nash, Peggy W. (2006). Essentials of Psychology. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. ISBN 978-0-618-71312-7. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4Do-bFrt9tUC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=4Do-bFrt9tUC</a> <a href="#fnref:28" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:29">Bernstein & Nash 2006, pp. 137–138Davies 2001, pp. 190–192Gennaro, Lead Section, § 1. Terminological Matters: Various Concepts of Consciousness - Bernstein, Douglas; Nash, Peggy W. (2006). Essentials of Psychology. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. ISBN 978-0-618-71312-7. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4Do-bFrt9tUC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=4Do-bFrt9tUC</a> <a href="#fnref:29" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:30">Davies 2001, pp. 191–192Smithies 2019, pp. 83–84Gennaro, § 1. Terminological Matters: Various Concepts of Consciousness - Davies, Martin (2001). "Consciousness". In Wilson, Robert A.; Keil, Frank C. (eds.). The MIT Encyclopedia of the Cognitive Sciences (MITECS). MIT Press. pp. 190–193. ISBN 978-0-262-73144-7. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-wt1aZrGXLYC&pg=PA191" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=-wt1aZrGXLYC&pg=PA191</a> <a href="#fnref:30" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:31">Bernstein & Nash 2006, pp. 137–138Kihlstrom & Tobias 1991, p. 212American Psychological Association 2018, § Unconscious - Bernstein, Douglas; Nash, Peggy W. (2006). Essentials of Psychology. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. ISBN 978-0-618-71312-7. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4Do-bFrt9tUC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=4Do-bFrt9tUC</a> <a href="#fnref:31" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:32">The precise differences between these concepts are disputed. In Freud's psychoanalysis, the preconscious mind lies outside current awareness but can easily be accessed, whereas the unconscious mind is further removed from deliberate access. The word subconscious is sometimes used as a synonym of preconscious.[32] <a href="#fnref:32" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:33">Gennaro, Lead Section, § 1. Terminological Matters: Various Concepts of ConsciousnessKind 2023, § 2.1 Phenomenal Consciousness - Gennaro, Rocco J. "Consciousness". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Archived from the original on 6 April 2024. Retrieved 19 April 2024. <a href="https://iep.utm.edu/consciousness/" target="_blank">https://iep.utm.edu/consciousness/</a> <a href="#fnref:33" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:34">Mijoia 2005, pp. 1818–1819Bernstein & Nash 2006, pp. 137–138Steinberg Gould 2020, p. 151American Psychological Association 2018, § UnconsciousCarel 2006, p. 176 - Mijoia, Alain de (2005). "The Unconscious". International Dictionary of Psychoanalysis. Macmillan Reference. pp. 1818–1820. ISBN 978-0-02-865927-5. <a href="#fnref:34" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:35">Kim 2005, pp. 607–608Swinburne 2013, pp. 72–73Lindeman, § 1. General Characterization of the Propositional Attitudes - Kim, Jaegwon (2005). "Mind, Problems of the Philosophy of". In Honderich, Ted (ed.). The Oxford Companion to Philosophy. Oxford University Press. pp. 607–612. ISBN 978-0-19-926479-7. Archived from the original on 11 April 2024. <a href="https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780199264797.001.0001/acref-9780199264797-e-1610" target="_blank">https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780199264797.001.0001/acref-9780199264797-e-1610</a> <a href="#fnref:35" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:36">Some mental states, like perceptions and emotions, may have both qualitative and propositional aspects.[36] <a href="#fnref:36" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:37">Harman 2013, pp. 1–2Broome 2021, § 1. Normativity and Reasons, §2. The Meaning of "Rationality"Siegel 2017, p. 157Maruyama 2020, pp. 172–173 - Harman, Gilbert (2013). "Rationality". In Hugh, LaFollette (ed.). The International Encyclopedia of Ethics (1 ed.). Wiley. doi:10.1002/9781444367072.wbiee181. ISBN 978-1-4051-8641-4. Archived from the original on 14 August 2022. <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/9781444367072.wbiee181" target="_blank">https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/9781444367072.wbiee181</a> <a href="#fnref:37" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:38">Nolfi 2015, pp. 41–42Tappolet 2023, pp. 137–138Knauff & Spohn 2021, § 2.2 Basic Concepts of Rationality Assessment, § 4.2 Descriptive TheoriesVogler 2016, pp. 30–31 - Nolfi, Kate (2015). "Which Mental States Are Rationally Evaluable, And Why?". Philosophical Issues. 25 (1): 41–63. doi:10.1111/phis.12051. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fphis.12051" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fphis.12051</a> <a href="#fnref:38" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:39">Bartlett 2018, pp. 1, 4–5Schwitzgebel 2024, § 2.1 Occurrent Versus Dispositional BeliefWilkes 2012, p. 412 - Bartlett, Gary (2018). "Occurrent States". Canadian Journal of Philosophy. 48 (1): 1–17. doi:10.1080/00455091.2017.1323531. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00455091.2017.1323531" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00455091.2017.1323531</a> <a href="#fnref:39" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:40">Kenny 1992, pp. 71–72Perler 2015, pp. 3–6, 11Hufendiek & Wild 2015, pp. 264–265 - Kenny, Anthony (1992). "5. Abilities, Faculties, Powers, and Dispositions". The Metaphysics of Mind. pp. 66–85. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780192830708.003.0005. ISBN 978-0-19-167052-7. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facprof%3Aoso%2F9780192830708.003.0005" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facprof%3Aoso%2F9780192830708.003.0005</a> <a href="#fnref:40" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:41">Kenny 1992, p. 75Perler 2015, pp. 5–6 - Kenny, Anthony (1992). "5. Abilities, Faculties, Powers, and Dispositions". The Metaphysics of Mind. pp. 66–85. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780192830708.003.0005. ISBN 978-0-19-167052-7. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facprof%3Aoso%2F9780192830708.003.0005" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facprof%3Aoso%2F9780192830708.003.0005</a> <a href="#fnref:41" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:42">Kenny 1992, pp. 75–76Perler 2015, pp. 5–6 - Kenny, Anthony (1992). "5. Abilities, Faculties, Powers, and Dispositions". The Metaphysics of Mind. pp. 66–85. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780192830708.003.0005. ISBN 978-0-19-167052-7. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facprof%3Aoso%2F9780192830708.003.0005" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facprof%3Aoso%2F9780192830708.003.0005</a> <a href="#fnref:42" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:43">Kenny 1992, pp. 78–79Perler 2015, pp. 5–6McLear, § 1i. Sensibility, Understanding, and Reason - Kenny, Anthony (1992). "5. Abilities, Faculties, Powers, and Dispositions". The Metaphysics of Mind. pp. 66–85. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780192830708.003.0005. ISBN 978-0-19-167052-7. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facprof%3Aoso%2F9780192830708.003.0005" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facprof%3Aoso%2F9780192830708.003.0005</a> <a href="#fnref:43" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:44">Mental faculties also play a central role in the Indian tradition, such as the contrast between the sense mind (manas) and intellect (buddhi).[44] <a href="/wiki/Buddhi" target="_blank">/wiki/Buddhi</a> <a href="#fnref:44" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:45">Robbins 2017, Lead Section, § 1. What Is a Mental Module?Perler 2015, p. 7Hufendiek & Wild 2015, pp. 264–265Bermúdez 2014, p. 277 - Robbins, Philip (2017). "Modularity of Mind". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Archived from the original on 12 February 2021. Retrieved 16 April 2024. <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/modularity-mind/" target="_blank">https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/modularity-mind/</a> <a href="#fnref:45" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:46">Robbins 2017, § 1. What Is a Mental Module?Hufendiek & Wild 2015, pp. 265–268Bermúdez 2014, pp. 288–290 - Robbins, Philip (2017). "Modularity of Mind". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Archived from the original on 12 February 2021. Retrieved 16 April 2024. <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/modularity-mind/" target="_blank">https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/modularity-mind/</a> <a href="#fnref:46" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:47">A different perspective is proposed by the massive modularity hypothesis, which states that the mind is entirely composed of modules with high-level modules establishing the connection between low-level modules.[48] <a href="#fnref:47" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:48">Robbins 2017, § 1. What Is a Mental Module?Hufendiek & Wild 2015, pp. 266–267 - Robbins, Philip (2017). "Modularity of Mind". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Archived from the original on 12 February 2021. Retrieved 16 April 2024. <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/modularity-mind/" target="_blank">https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/modularity-mind/</a> <a href="#fnref:48" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:49">Robbins 2017, § 1. What Is a Mental Module?Bermúdez 2014, p. 289 - Robbins, Philip (2017). "Modularity of Mind". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Archived from the original on 12 February 2021. Retrieved 16 April 2024. <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/modularity-mind/" target="_blank">https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/modularity-mind/</a> <a href="#fnref:49" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:50">Olson 2013, p. 51Kim 2011, pp. 17–18O’Madagain, Lead SectionBayne 2022, pp. 8–9 - Olson, Eric T. (2013). "There Is No Problem of the Self". In Gallagher, Shaun; Shear, Jonathan (eds.). Models of the Self. Andrews UK Limited. pp. 49–62. ISBN 978-1-84540-723-0. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=T7W7BAAAQBAJ&pg=PT111" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=T7W7BAAAQBAJ&pg=PT111</a> <a href="#fnref:50" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:51">Kim 2011, pp. 18–20Bayne 2022, pp. 8–10Audi 1993, pp. 167–168 - Kim, Jaegwon (2011). Philosophy of Mind (3rd ed.). Westview Press. ISBN 978-0-8133-4458-4. <a href="#fnref:51" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:52">Kriegel 2014, p. 384Searle 1991, pp. 45–47, 50Gillett 1996, pp. 191–192 - Kriegel, Uriah (2014). "Intentionality". In Bayne, Tim; Cleeremans, Axel; Wilken, Patrick (eds.). The Oxford Companion to Consciousness. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-102103-9. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ICf-AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA384" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=ICf-AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA384</a> <a href="#fnref:52" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:53">Intentionality is to be distinguished from intention in the sense of having a plan to perform a certain action.[54] <a href="/wiki/Intention#Intention_and_intentionality" target="_blank">/wiki/Intention#Intention_and_intentionality</a> <a href="#fnref:53" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:54">O’Madagain, Lead SectionKriegel 2015, p. 141Kim 2011, pp. 23–25Kriegel 2014, pp. 383–384Crane 1998, pp. 229–230 - O’Madagain, Cathal. "Intentionality". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Archived from the original on 28 April 2024. Retrieved 10 May 2024. <a href="https://iep.utm.edu/intentio/" target="_blank">https://iep.utm.edu/intentio/</a> <a href="#fnref:54" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:55">Levin 2023, § 2.3 BehaviorismGraham 2023, § 1. What Is Behaviorism?, § 5. Why Be a BehavioristCunningham 2000, p. 40 - Levin, Janet (2023). "Functionalism". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Archived from the original on 18 April 2021. Retrieved 22 April 2024. <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/functionalism/" target="_blank">https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/functionalism/</a> <a href="#fnref:55" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:56">Levin 2023, Lead Section, § 1. What Is Functionalism?Polger, Lead SectionCunningham 2000, p. 40 - Levin, Janet (2023). "Functionalism". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Archived from the original on 18 April 2021. Retrieved 22 April 2024. <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/functionalism/" target="_blank">https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/functionalism/</a> <a href="#fnref:56" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:57">Rescorla 2020, Lead Section, § 3. The Classical Computational Theory of MindFriedenberg, Silverman & Spivey 2022, pp. 2–3Bermúdez 2014, pp. 3, 85 - Rescorla, Michael (2020). "The Computational Theory of Mind". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Archived from the original on 18 December 2020. Retrieved 11 May 2024. <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/computational-mind/" target="_blank">https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/computational-mind/</a> <a href="#fnref:57" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:58">Rowlands, Lau & Deutsch 2020, Lead Section, § 1. IntroductionSmith, Lead Section - Rowlands, Mark; Lau, Joe; Deutsch, Max (2020). "Externalism About the Mind". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Archived from the original on 13 April 2021. Retrieved 25 February 2024. <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/content-externalism/" target="_blank">https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/content-externalism/</a> <a href="#fnref:58" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:59">Rowlands, Lau & Deutsch 2020, § 1. Introduction, § 3. Content ExternalismSmith, § 1. Hilary Putnam and Natural Kind Externalism - Rowlands, Mark; Lau, Joe; Deutsch, Max (2020). "Externalism About the Mind". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Archived from the original on 13 April 2021. Retrieved 25 February 2024. <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/content-externalism/" target="_blank">https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/content-externalism/</a> <a href="#fnref:59" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:60">Shapiro & Spaulding 2024, § 2.2 Embedded CognitionWeiskopf & Adams 2015, pp. 127–128 - Shapiro, Lawrence; Spaulding, Shannon (2024). "Embodied Cognition". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/embodied-cognition/" target="_blank">https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/embodied-cognition/</a> <a href="#fnref:60" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:61">Rowlands, Lau & Deutsch 2020, § 1. Introduction, § 5. Extended MindGreif 2017, pp. 4311–4312Kiverstein, Farina & Clark 2013 - Rowlands, Mark; Lau, Joe; Deutsch, Max (2020). "Externalism About the Mind". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Archived from the original on 13 April 2021. Retrieved 25 February 2024. <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/content-externalism/" target="_blank">https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/content-externalism/</a> <a href="#fnref:61" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:62">Rowlands, Lau & Deutsch 2020, § 7. Extended Mind and the 4E MindRowlands 2009, pp. 53–56 - Rowlands, Mark; Lau, Joe; Deutsch, Max (2020). "Externalism About the Mind". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Archived from the original on 13 April 2021. Retrieved 25 February 2024. <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/content-externalism/" target="_blank">https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/content-externalism/</a> <a href="#fnref:62" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:63">Rowlands, Lau & Deutsch 2020, § 7. Extended Mind and the 4E MindShapiro & Spaulding 2024, § 2.1 Three Themes of Embodied CognitionShapiro 2019, pp. 5, 197–198 - Rowlands, Mark; Lau, Joe; Deutsch, Max (2020). "Externalism About the Mind". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Archived from the original on 13 April 2021. Retrieved 25 February 2024. <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/content-externalism/" target="_blank">https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/content-externalism/</a> <a href="#fnref:63" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:64">More generally, embodied cognition is the study of the effects of bodily phenomena on the mind. It examines, for example, how certain bodily movements improve or hinder cognitive performance and how motor capacities affect the development of cognitive abilities.[65] <a href="#fnref:64" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:65">Kim 2005, p. 608Jaworski 2011, pp. 11–12Searle 2004, pp. 3–4 - Kim, Jaegwon (2005). "Mind, Problems of the Philosophy of". In Honderich, Ted (ed.). The Oxford Companion to Philosophy. Oxford University Press. pp. 607–612. ISBN 978-0-19-926479-7. Archived from the original on 11 April 2024. <a href="https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780199264797.001.0001/acref-9780199264797-e-1610" target="_blank">https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780199264797.001.0001/acref-9780199264797-e-1610</a> <a href="#fnref:65" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:66">Westphal 2016, pp. 12–13, 21–22Crane & Patterson 2000, pp. 2–5 - Westphal, Jonathan (2016). The Mind-Body Problem. MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-52956-3. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EY0nDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA12" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=EY0nDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA12</a> <a href="#fnref:66" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:67">According to Aristotle's hylomorphism, for example, they are complementary principles: the soul is the form of the body while the body is the matter of the soul.[68] <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" target="_blank">/wiki/Aristotle</a> <a href="#fnref:67" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:68">Kim 2011, pp. 2–3, 5–6Jaworski 2011, pp. 5–8, 68–69McQueen & McQueen 2010, p. 135Morton 2005, p. 603 - Kim, Jaegwon (2011). Philosophy of Mind (3rd ed.). Westview Press. ISBN 978-0-8133-4458-4. <a href="#fnref:68" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:69">Jaworski 2011, pp. 34–36Kim 2005, p. 608Searle 2004, pp. 13, 41–42Matheson 2017, p. 12 - Jaworski, William (2011). Philosophy of Mind: A Comprehensive Introduction (1 ed.). Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4443-3367-1. <a href="#fnref:69" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:70">Jaworski 2011, pp. 5, 202–203Searle 2004, p. 44 - Jaworski, William (2011). Philosophy of Mind: A Comprehensive Introduction (1 ed.). Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4443-3367-1. <a href="#fnref:70" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:71">Jaworski 2011, p. 5Searle 2004, pp. 44, 47–48 - Jaworski, William (2011). Philosophy of Mind: A Comprehensive Introduction (1 ed.). Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4443-3367-1. <a href="#fnref:71" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:72">There are other forms of idealism that assert slightly different positions, such as transcendental idealism and absolute idealism.[74] <a href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" target="_blank">/wiki/Transcendental_idealism</a> <a href="#fnref:72" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:73">Jaworski 2011, p. 246 - Jaworski, William (2011). Philosophy of Mind: A Comprehensive Introduction (1 ed.). Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4443-3367-1. <a href="#fnref:73" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:74">Jaworski 2011, p. 256 - Jaworski, William (2011). Philosophy of Mind: A Comprehensive Introduction (1 ed.). Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4443-3367-1. <a href="#fnref:74" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:75">The two terms are usually treated as synonyms but some theorists distinguish them by holding that materialism is restricted to matter while physicalism is a wider term that includes additional physical phenomena, like forces.[77] <a href="/wiki/Matter" target="_blank">/wiki/Matter</a> <a href="#fnref:75" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:76">Jaworski 2011, p. 68Stoljar 2024, Lead SectionSearle 2004, p. 48Kind 2020, § 3. Physicalism - Jaworski, William (2011). Philosophy of Mind: A Comprehensive Introduction (1 ed.). Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4443-3367-1. <a href="#fnref:76" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:77">Jaworski 2011, pp. 71–72Searle 2004, pp. 75–76 - Jaworski, William (2011). Philosophy of Mind: A Comprehensive Introduction (1 ed.). Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4443-3367-1. <a href="#fnref:77" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:78">Jaworski 2011, pp. 72–73, 102–104Searle 2004, pp. 48–52 - Jaworski, William (2011). Philosophy of Mind: A Comprehensive Introduction (1 ed.). Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4443-3367-1. <a href="#fnref:78" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:79">Ravenscroft 2005, p. 47Stoljar 2024, § 2.2.1 Type Physicalism - Ravenscroft, Ian (2005). Philosophy of Mind: A Beginner's Guide. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-925254-1. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=f1EAEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA47" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=f1EAEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA47</a> <a href="#fnref:79" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:80">Jaworski 2011, pp. 129–130Bigaj & Wüthrich 2015, p. 357 - Jaworski, William (2011). Philosophy of Mind: A Comprehensive Introduction (1 ed.). Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4443-3367-1. <a href="#fnref:80" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:81">Levin 2023, Lead SectionSearle 2004, p. 62 - Levin, Janet (2023). "Functionalism". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Archived from the original on 18 April 2021. Retrieved 22 April 2024. <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/functionalism/" target="_blank">https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/functionalism/</a> <a href="#fnref:81" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:82">Levin 2023, § 1. What Is Functionalism?Jaworski 2011, pp. 136–137 - Levin, Janet (2023). "Functionalism". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Archived from the original on 18 April 2021. Retrieved 22 April 2024. <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/functionalism/" target="_blank">https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/functionalism/</a> <a href="#fnref:82" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:83">Grünberg 2007, p. 237Smith 2004, p. 124Priest 2002, p. 66 - Grünberg, David (2007). "Husserl's Transcendental Phenomenology and the Mind-body Problem". In Tymieniecka, Anna-Teresa (ed.). Phenomenology of Life - From the Animal Soul to the Human Mind: Book II. The Human Soul in the Creative Transformation of the Mind. Springer. pp. 237–258. ISBN 978-1-4020-5182-1. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=44YzwTjH2goC&pg=PA237" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=44YzwTjH2goC&pg=PA237</a> <a href="#fnref:83" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:84">Weisberg, Lead Section, § 1. Stating the ProblemBlackmore 2013, pp. 33–35Searle 2004, pp. 39–40 - Weisberg, Josh. "Hard Problem of Consciousness". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Archived from the original on 19 July 2023. Retrieved 22 April 2024. <a href="https://iep.utm.edu/hard-problem-of-conciousness/" target="_blank">https://iep.utm.edu/hard-problem-of-conciousness/</a> <a href="#fnref:84" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:85">Opris et al. 2017, pp. 69–70Barrett 2009, pp. 326–327 - Opris, Ioan; Casanova, Manuel F.; Lebedev, Mikhail A.; Popescu, Aurel I. (2017). "Prefrontal Cortical Microcircuits Support the Emergence of Mind". In Opris, Ioan (ed.). The Physics of the Mind and Brain Disorders: Integrated Neural Circuits Supporting the Emergence of Mind. Springer. pp. 69–94. ISBN 978-3-319-29672-2. <a href="#fnref:85" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:86">Popescu & Opris 2017, pp. 23–24Scanlon & Sanders 2018, p. 178Yukalov & Sornette 2014, p. 38Pal 2021, pp. 145 - Popescu, Aurel I.; Opris, Ioan (2017). "Introduction: From Neurons to the Mind". In Opris, Ioan (ed.). The Physics of the Mind and Brain Disorders: Integrated Neural Circuits Supporting the Emergence of Mind. Springer. pp. 23–54. ISBN 978-3-319-29672-2. <a href="#fnref:86" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:87">Athreya & Mouza 2016, pp. 52–53Schoenberg, Marsh & Lerner 2011, p. 60Benarroch 2021, pp. 437–438 - Athreya, Balu H.; Mouza, Chrystalla (2016). Thinking Skills for the Digital Generation: The Development of Thinking and Learning in the Age of Information. Springer. ISBN 978-3-319-12364-6. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Uc3BDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA52" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=Uc3BDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA52</a> <a href="#fnref:87" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:88">American Psychological Association 2018, § BrainSchoenberg, Marsh & Lerner 2011, p. 66 - American Psychological Association (2018). "APA Dictionary of Psychology". American Psychological Association. <a href="https://dictionary.apa.org" target="_blank">https://dictionary.apa.org</a> <a href="#fnref:88" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:89">Sanderson & Huffman 2019, pp. 59–61Saab 2009, pp. 1–2Scanlon & Sanders 2018, pp. 178–180 - Sanderson, Catherine A.; Huffman, Karen R. (2019). Real World Psychology. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-119-57775-1. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gmfDDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA59" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=gmfDDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA59</a> <a href="#fnref:89" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:90">Athreya & Mouza 2016, pp. 52–53Opris et al. 2017, p. 70Schoenberg, Marsh & Lerner 2011, pp. 69–72 - Athreya, Balu H.; Mouza, Chrystalla (2016). Thinking Skills for the Digital Generation: The Development of Thinking and Learning in the Age of Information. Springer. ISBN 978-3-319-12364-6. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Uc3BDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA52" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=Uc3BDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA52</a> <a href="#fnref:90" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:91">Athreya & Mouza 2016, pp. 52–53Schoenberg, Marsh & Lerner 2011, pp. 76–77Benarroch 2021, pp. 437–438 - Athreya, Balu H.; Mouza, Chrystalla (2016). Thinking Skills for the Digital Generation: The Development of Thinking and Learning in the Age of Information. Springer. ISBN 978-3-319-12364-6. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Uc3BDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA52" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=Uc3BDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA52</a> <a href="#fnref:91" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:92">Reisyan 2015, pp. 91–92American Psychological Association 2018, § NeurotransmitterKhushboo, Kumar & Sharma 2020, p. 116 - Reisyan, Garo D. (2015). Neuro-Organizational Culture: A New Approach to Understanding Human Behavior and Interaction in the Workplace. Springer. ISBN 978-3-319-22147-2. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=k_3NCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA91" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=k_3NCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA91</a> <a href="#fnref:92" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:93">Winkelman 2011, p. 24Meyer et al. 2022, p. 27Frankish & Kasmirli 2009, p. 107Bunge 2014, p. 18 - Winkelman, Michael J. (2011). "A Paradigm for Understanding Altered Consciousness: The Integrative Mode of Consciousness". In Cardeña, Etzel; Winkelman, Michael J. (eds.). Altering Consciousness: Multidisciplinary Perspectives. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 23–44. ISBN 978-0-313-38309-0. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SxfOEAAAQBAJ&pg=RA1-PA24" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=SxfOEAAAQBAJ&pg=RA1-PA24</a> <a href="#fnref:93" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:94">Dash & Villemarette-Pitman 2005, pp. 30–31Turkington & Mitchell 2010, p. 115 - Dash, Paul; Villemarette-Pitman, Nicole (2005). Alzheimer's Disease. Demos Medical Publishing. ISBN 978-1-934559-49-9. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=M1jSCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA30" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=M1jSCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA30</a> <a href="#fnref:94" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:95">Macmillan & Lena 2010, pp. 641–643Marsh et al. 2007, p. 44 - Macmillan, Malcolm; Lena, Matthew L. (2010). "Rehabilitating Phineas Gage". Neuropsychological Rehabilitation. 20 (5): 641–658. doi:10.1080/09602011003760527. PMID 20480430. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F09602011003760527" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1080%2F09602011003760527</a> <a href="#fnref:95" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:96">Macmillan & Lena 2010, p. 655 - Macmillan, Malcolm; Lena, Matthew L. (2010). "Rehabilitating Phineas Gage". Neuropsychological Rehabilitation. 20 (5): 641–658. doi:10.1080/09602011003760527. PMID 20480430. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F09602011003760527" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1080%2F09602011003760527</a> <a href="#fnref:96" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:97">Roth 2013, p. 3 - Roth, Gerhard (2013). The Long Evolution of Brains and Minds. Springer. ISBN 978-94-007-6258-9. <a href="#fnref:97" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:98">Hatfield 2013, pp. 3–4 - Hatfield, Gary (2013). "Introduction: The Evolution of Mind, Brain, and Culture". In Hatfield, Gary; Pittman, Holly (eds.). Evolution of Mind, Brain, and Culture. University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology. pp. 1–44. ISBN 978-1-934536-49-0. <a href="#fnref:98" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:99">Hatfield 2013, pp. 4–5Roth 2013, pp. 3–4 - Hatfield, Gary (2013). "Introduction: The Evolution of Mind, Brain, and Culture". In Hatfield, Gary; Pittman, Holly (eds.). Evolution of Mind, Brain, and Culture. University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology. pp. 1–44. ISBN 978-1-934536-49-0. <a href="#fnref:99" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:100">They include cnidarians and ctenophorans.[102] <a href="/wiki/Cnidarians" target="_blank">/wiki/Cnidarians</a> <a href="#fnref:100" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:101">Roth 2013, pp. 265–266Erulkar & Lentz 2024, § Evolution and Development of the Nervous SystemHatfield 2013, pp. 6–7 - Roth, Gerhard (2013). The Long Evolution of Brains and Minds. Springer. ISBN 978-94-007-6258-9. <a href="#fnref:101" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:102">Erulkar & Lentz 2024, § Evolution and Development of the Nervous SystemHatfield 2013, p. 13 - Erulkar, Solomon D.; Lentz, Thomas L. (2024). "Nervous System". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 13 June 2015. Retrieved 2 May 2024. <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/nervous-system" target="_blank">https://www.britannica.com/science/nervous-system</a> <a href="#fnref:102" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:103">Aboitiz & Montiel 2007, p. 7Aboitiz & Montiel 2012, pp. 14–15Finlay, Innocenti & Scheich 2013, p. 3Jerison 2013, pp. 7–8 - Aboitiz, F.; Montiel, J. F. (2007). Origin and Evolution of the Vertebrate Telencephalon, with Special Reference to the Mammalian Neocortex. Springer. ISBN 978-3-540-49761-5. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=N4HB0Sw-4u8C&pg=PA7" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=N4HB0Sw-4u8C&pg=PA7</a> <a href="#fnref:103" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:104">Hatfield 2013, pp. 6–8Reyes & Sherwood 2014, p. 12Wragg-Sykes 2016, p. 183 - Hatfield, Gary (2013). "Introduction: The Evolution of Mind, Brain, and Culture". In Hatfield, Gary; Pittman, Holly (eds.). Evolution of Mind, Brain, and Culture. University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology. pp. 1–44. ISBN 978-1-934536-49-0. <a href="#fnref:104" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:105">Hatfield 2013, p. 9Wragg-Sykes 2016, p. 183Fagan & Durrani 2021, 3. Enter Homo Sapiens (c. 300,000 Years Ago and Later) - Hatfield, Gary (2013). "Introduction: The Evolution of Mind, Brain, and Culture". In Hatfield, Gary; Pittman, Holly (eds.). Evolution of Mind, Brain, and Culture. University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology. pp. 1–44. ISBN 978-1-934536-49-0. <a href="#fnref:105" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:106">Roth 2013, p. 3Hatfield 2013, pp. 36–43Mandalaywala, Fleener & Maestripieri 2014, pp. 28–29 - Roth, Gerhard (2013). The Long Evolution of Brains and Minds. Springer. ISBN 978-94-007-6258-9. <a href="#fnref:106" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:107">Majkić 2024, pp. 97–99Sterelny 2011, pp. 809, 811–812 - Majkić, Ana (2024). "Behavioral Modernity, Evolutionary Synergies, and the Symbolic Species". In Gontier, Nathalie; Lock, Andy; Sinha, Chris (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Human Symbolic Evolution. Oxford University Press. pp. 97–132. ISBN 978-0-19-881378-1. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4dPrEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA97" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=4dPrEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA97</a> <a href="#fnref:107" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:108">Bernstein & Nash 2006, pp. 171, 202, 342–343, 384Gross 2020, pp. 171–172, 184Nairne 2011, pp. 131–132, 240 - Bernstein, Douglas; Nash, Peggy W. (2006). Essentials of Psychology. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. ISBN 978-0-618-71312-7. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4Do-bFrt9tUC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=4Do-bFrt9tUC</a> <a href="#fnref:108" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:109">Yeomans & Arnold 2013, p. 31Oakley 2004, p. 1Nairne 2011, pp. 131–132 - Yeomans, Jane; Arnold, Christopher (2013). "Child Development". Teaching, Learning and Psychology. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-05633-9. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mDL1eR1VrcIC&pg=PT31" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=mDL1eR1VrcIC&pg=PT31</a> <a href="#fnref:109" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:110">Coall et al. 2015, pp. 57–58Bernstein & Nash 2006, pp. 345–346Abel 2003, pp. 231–232 - Coall, David A.; Callan, Anna C.; Dickins, Thomas E.; Chisholm, James S. (2015). "Evolution and Prenatal Development: An Evolutionary Perspective". In Lamb, Michael E. (ed.). Handbook of Child Psychology and Developmental Science, Socioemotional Processes. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 57–105. ISBN 978-1-118-95387-7. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Fg3QBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA57" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=Fg3QBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA57</a> <a href="#fnref:110" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:111">Bernstein & Nash 2006, pp. 342–344, 347–348, 384Packer 2017, pp. 7–8Smitsman & Corbetta 2011, Action in Infancy – Perspectives, Concepts, and ChallengesNairne 2011, pp. 131–132 - Bernstein, Douglas; Nash, Peggy W. (2006). Essentials of Psychology. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. ISBN 978-0-618-71312-7. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4Do-bFrt9tUC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=4Do-bFrt9tUC</a> <a href="#fnref:111" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:112">Packer 2017, pp. 7–8Freeman 1975, p. 114Driscoll & Easterbrooks 2007, p. 256Bernstein & Nash 2006, p. 384 - Packer, Martin J. (2017). Child Development: Understanding A Cultural Perspective. Sage. ISBN 978-1-5264-1311-6. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=V5NBDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA7" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=V5NBDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA7</a> <a href="#fnref:112" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:113">Bernstein & Nash 2006, pp. 349–350Gross 2020, pp. 566–572Khatoon 2012, pp. 308–311 - Bernstein, Douglas; Nash, Peggy W. (2006). Essentials of Psychology. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. ISBN 978-0-618-71312-7. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4Do-bFrt9tUC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=4Do-bFrt9tUC</a> <a href="#fnref:113" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:114">Bernstein & Nash 2006, p. 384Harrell 2018, pp. 478–479 - Bernstein, Douglas; Nash, Peggy W. (2006). Essentials of Psychology. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. ISBN 978-0-618-71312-7. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4Do-bFrt9tUC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=4Do-bFrt9tUC</a> <a href="#fnref:114" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:115">Bernstein & Nash 2006, pp. 384–385Gross 2020, pp. 619–620, 625–626Berman, Weems & Stickle 2006, pp. 285–292Nairne 2011, pp. 124–125, 131–132 - Bernstein, Douglas; Nash, Peggy W. (2006). Essentials of Psychology. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. ISBN 978-0-618-71312-7. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4Do-bFrt9tUC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=4Do-bFrt9tUC</a> <a href="#fnref:115" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:116">Bernstein & Nash 2006, p. 385Gross 2020, pp. 633–638, 664Nairne 2011, pp. 124–125, 131–132 - Bernstein, Douglas; Nash, Peggy W. (2006). Essentials of Psychology. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. ISBN 978-0-618-71312-7. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4Do-bFrt9tUC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=4Do-bFrt9tUC</a> <a href="#fnref:116" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:117">Carruthers 2019, pp. ix, 29–30Griffin 1998, pp. 53–55 - Carruthers, Peter (2019). Human and Animal Minds: The Consciousness Questions Laid to Rest (1 ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-884370-2. <a href="#fnref:117" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:118">Spradlin & Porterfield 2012, pp. 17–18 - Spradlin, W. W.; Porterfield, P. B. (2012). The Search for Certainty. Springer. ISBN 978-1-4612-5212-2. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=aynUBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA17" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=aynUBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA17</a> <a href="#fnref:118" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:119">Carruthers 2019, pp. 29–30Steiner 2014, p. 93Thomas 2020, pp. 999–1000 - Carruthers, Peter (2019). Human and Animal Minds: The Consciousness Questions Laid to Rest (1 ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-884370-2. <a href="#fnref:119" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:120">Griffin 2013, p. ixCarruthers 2019, p. ixFischer 2021, pp. 28–29 - Griffin, Donald R. (2013). Animal Minds: Beyond Cognition to Consciousness. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-22712-2. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=K2uXAwAAQBAJ&pg=PR9" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=K2uXAwAAQBAJ&pg=PR9</a> <a href="#fnref:120" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:121">Fischer 2021, pp. 30–32Lurz, Lead SectionCarruthers 2019, pp. ix, 29–30Penn, Holyoak & Povinelli 2008, pp. 109–110 - Fischer, Bob (2021). Animal Ethics: A Contemporary Introduction. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-48440-5. <a href="#fnref:121" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:122">Melis & Monsó 2023, pp. 1–2Rysiew 2012 - Melis, Giacomo; Monsó, Susana (2023). "Are Humans the Only Rational Animals?". The Philosophical Quarterly. 74 (3): 844–864. doi:10.1093/pq/pqad090. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fpq%2Fpqad090" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fpq%2Fpqad090</a> <a href="#fnref:122" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:123">Fischer 2021, pp. 32–35Lurz, Lead SectionGriffin 1998, pp. 53–55Carruthers 2019, pp. ix–xPenn, Holyoak & Povinelli 2008, pp. 109–110 - Fischer, Bob (2021). Animal Ethics: A Contemporary Introduction. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-48440-5. <a href="#fnref:123" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:124">McClelland 2021, p. 81Franklin 1995, pp. 1–2Anderson & Piccinini 2024, pp. 232–233Carruthers 2004, pp. 267–268 - McClelland, Tom (2021). What Is Philosophy of Mind?. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-5095-3878-2. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=viQqEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT81" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=viQqEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT81</a> <a href="#fnref:124" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:125">Carruthers 2004, pp. 267–268Levin 2023, Lead Section, § 1. What Is Functionalism?Searle 2004, p. 62Jaworski 2011, pp. 136–137 - Carruthers, Peter (2004). The Nature of the Mind: An Introduction (1 ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-29994-7. <a href="#fnref:125" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:126">Biever 2023, pp. 686–689Carruthers 2004, pp. 248–249, 269–270Bansal 2022, § 6. The Plastic MindHodges 2013, pp. 3, 6 - Biever, Celeste (2023). "ChatGPT Broke the Turing Test — the Race Is on for New Ways to Assess AI". Nature. 619 (7971): 686–689. Bibcode:2023Natur.619..686B. doi:10.1038/d41586-023-02361-7. PMID 37491395. <a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2023Natur.619..686B" target="_blank">https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2023Natur.619..686B</a> <a href="#fnref:126" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:127">Carruthers 2004, pp. 270–273 - Carruthers, Peter (2004). The Nature of the Mind: An Introduction (1 ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-29994-7. <a href="#fnref:127" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:128">Chen 2023, p. 1141Bringsjord & Govindarajulu 2024, § 8. Philosophy of Artificial IntelligenceButz 2021, pp. 91–92 - Chen, Zhaoman (2023). "Exploration of Youth Social Work Model Driven by Artificial Intelligence". In Hung, Jason C.; Yen, Neil Y.; Chang, Jia-Wei (eds.). Frontier Computing: Theory, Technologies and Applications (FC 2022). Springer. pp. 1138–1146. ISBN 978-981-99-1428-9. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=C8vAEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1141" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=C8vAEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1141</a> <a href="#fnref:128" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:129">Bringsjord & Govindarajulu 2024, § 8. Philosophy of Artificial IntelligenceFjelland 2020, pp. 1–2 - Bringsjord, Selmer; Govindarajulu, Naveen Sundar (2024). "Artificial Intelligence". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Archived from the original on 13 May 2024. Retrieved 6 May 2024. <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/artificial-intelligence/" target="_blank">https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/artificial-intelligence/</a> <a href="#fnref:129" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:130">Murphy, Donovan & Smart 2020, pp. 97–99, 103–104, 112 - Murphy, Dominic; Donovan, Caitrin; Smart, Gemma Lucy (2020). "Mental Health and Well-Being in Philosophy". In Sholl, Jonathan; Rattan, Suresh I. S. (eds.). Explaining Health Across the Sciences. Springer. pp. 97–114. ISBN 978-3-030-52663-4. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=of75DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA103" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=of75DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA103</a> <a href="#fnref:130" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:131">Gross 2020, pp. 731–735Nairne 2011, pp. 450–453Bernstein & Nash 2006, pp. 455–457 - Gross, Richard (2020). Psychology: The Science of Mind and Behaviour (8 ed.). Hodder Education. ISBN 978-1-5104-6846-7. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Z7TsDwAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=Z7TsDwAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:131" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:132">Bernstein & Nash 2006, pp. 466–468Gross 2020, pp. 751–752Nairne 2011, pp. 459–461 - Bernstein, Douglas; Nash, Peggy W. (2006). Essentials of Psychology. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. ISBN 978-0-618-71312-7. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4Do-bFrt9tUC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=4Do-bFrt9tUC</a> <a href="#fnref:132" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:133">Bernstein & Nash 2006, pp. 473–474, 476–477Gross 2020, p. 755Nairne 2011, p. 466 - Bernstein, Douglas; Nash, Peggy W. (2006). Essentials of Psychology. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. ISBN 978-0-618-71312-7. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4Do-bFrt9tUC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=4Do-bFrt9tUC</a> <a href="#fnref:133" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:134">Nairne 2011, p. 471Bernstein & Nash 2006, pp. 485–486 - Nairne, James S. (2011). Psychology (5 ed.). Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-0-8400-3310-9. <a href="#fnref:134" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:135">Noll 2009, p. 122Sharma & Branscum 2020, p. 122Bernstein & Nash 2006, pp. 480–481Nairne 2011, pp. 468–469 - Noll, Richard (2009). The Encyclopedia of Schizophrenia and Other Psychotic Disorders. Infobase Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8160-7508-9. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jzoJxps189IC&pg=PA122" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=jzoJxps189IC&pg=PA122</a> <a href="#fnref:135" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:136">Gross 2020, p. 766Bernstein & Nash 2006, pp. 472–473 - Gross, Richard (2020). Psychology: The Science of Mind and Behaviour (8 ed.). Hodder Education. ISBN 978-1-5104-6846-7. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Z7TsDwAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=Z7TsDwAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:136" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:137">Nairne 2011, pp. 472–473, 475–478Bernstein & Nash 2006, pp. 457–460Chan 2020, pp. 105–106 - Nairne, James S. (2011). Psychology (5 ed.). Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-0-8400-3310-9. <a href="#fnref:137" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:138">Bernstein & Nash 2006, pp. 502–503Nairne 2011, pp. 485–486Gross 2020, pp. 773–774 - Bernstein, Douglas; Nash, Peggy W. (2006). Essentials of Psychology. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. ISBN 978-0-618-71312-7. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4Do-bFrt9tUC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=4Do-bFrt9tUC</a> <a href="#fnref:138" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:139">Nairne 2011, pp. 493–494Bernstein & Nash 2006, pp. 503–505Gross 2020, pp. 781–782 - Nairne, James S. (2011). Psychology (5 ed.). Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-0-8400-3310-9. <a href="#fnref:139" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:140">Nairne 2011, pp. 493, 495–496Bernstein & Nash 2006, pp. 508–509Gross 2020, pp. 789–790 - Nairne, James S. (2011). Psychology (5 ed.). Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-0-8400-3310-9. <a href="#fnref:140" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:141">Bernstein & Nash 2006, pp. 508–509Nairne 2011, pp. 502–503Gross 2020, pp. 784–785 - Bernstein, Douglas; Nash, Peggy W. (2006). Essentials of Psychology. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. ISBN 978-0-618-71312-7. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4Do-bFrt9tUC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=4Do-bFrt9tUC</a> <a href="#fnref:141" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:142">Nairne 2011, pp. 499–500Bernstein & Nash 2006, pp. 505–506 - Nairne, James S. (2011). Psychology (5 ed.). Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-0-8400-3310-9. <a href="#fnref:142" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:143">Bernstein & Nash 2006, pp. 525–527Nairne 2011, pp. 487–490Gross 2020, pp. 774–779 - Bernstein, Douglas; Nash, Peggy W. (2006). Essentials of Psychology. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. ISBN 978-0-618-71312-7. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4Do-bFrt9tUC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=4Do-bFrt9tUC</a> <a href="#fnref:143" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:144">Pashler 2013, pp. xxix–xxxFriedenberg, Silverman & Spivey 2022, pp. xix, 12–13 - Pashler, Harold (2013). "Introduction". In Pashler, Harold (ed.). Encyclopedia of the Mind. Sage. pp. xxix–xxxi. ISBN 978-1-4129-5057-2. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lu3aMe6kRowC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=lu3aMe6kRowC</a> <a href="#fnref:144" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:145">Friedenberg, Silverman & Spivey 2022, p. 1Uttal 2011, pp. 1–4 - Friedenberg, Jay; Silverman, Gordon; Spivey, Michael (2022). Cognitive Science: An Introduction to the Study of Mind (4 ed.). Sage. ISBN 978-1-5443-8015-5. <a href="#fnref:145" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:146">Gross 2020, pp. 1–3Friedenberg, Silverman & Spivey 2022, pp. 15–16 - Gross, Richard (2020). Psychology: The Science of Mind and Behaviour (8 ed.). Hodder Education. ISBN 978-1-5104-6846-7. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Z7TsDwAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=Z7TsDwAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:146" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:147">Dawson 2022, pp. 161–162Gross 2020, pp. 4–6 - Dawson, Michael R. W. (2022). What Is Cognitive Psychology?. Athabasca University Press. ISBN 978-1-77199-342-5. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QGeEEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA161" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=QGeEEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA161</a> <a href="#fnref:147" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:148">Higgs, Cooper & Lee 2019, pp. 3–4Gross 2020, pp. 4–8 - Higgs, Suzanne; Cooper, Alison; Lee, Jonathan (2019). Biological Psychology. Sage. ISBN 978-1-5264-8278-5. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rkewDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA3" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=rkewDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA3</a> <a href="#fnref:148" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:149">Gross 2020, pp. 4–6Thornton & Gliga 2020, p. 35Sharma & Sharma 1997, pp. 7–9 - Gross, Richard (2020). Psychology: The Science of Mind and Behaviour (8 ed.). Hodder Education. ISBN 978-1-5104-6846-7. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Z7TsDwAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=Z7TsDwAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:149" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:150">American Psychological Association 2018, § Personality, § Personality Psychology - American Psychological Association (2018). "APA Dictionary of Psychology". American Psychological Association. <a href="https://dictionary.apa.org" target="_blank">https://dictionary.apa.org</a> <a href="#fnref:150" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:151">Gross 2020, pp. 4–8 - Gross, Richard (2020). Psychology: The Science of Mind and Behaviour (8 ed.). Hodder Education. ISBN 978-1-5104-6846-7. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Z7TsDwAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=Z7TsDwAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:151" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:152">Nairne 2011, pp. 11–14Bernstein & Nash 2006, pp. 10–13 - Nairne, James S. (2011). Psychology (5 ed.). Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-0-8400-3310-9. <a href="#fnref:152" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:153">Psychometrics examines how to measure the mental attributes or psychological constructs underlying the variables. For example, IQ tests are one way to quantify intelligence.[156] <a href="/wiki/Psychometrics" target="_blank">/wiki/Psychometrics</a> <a href="#fnref:153" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:154">Hood 2013, pp. 1314–1315Dumont 2008, pp. 17, 48Howitt & Cramer 2011, pp. 16–17 - Hood, Ralph W. (2013). "Methodology in Psychology". In Runehov, Anne L. C.; Oviedo, Lluis (eds.). Encyclopedia of Sciences and Religions. Springer. pp. 1314–1322. doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-8265-8_695. ISBN 978-1-4020-8265-8. Archived from the original on 13 May 2024. <a href="https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007/978-1-4020-8265-8_695" target="_blank">https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007/978-1-4020-8265-8_695</a> <a href="#fnref:154" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:155">Dumont 2008, pp. 17, 48Howitt & Cramer 2011, pp. 11–12 - Dumont, K. (2008). "2. Research Methods and Statistics". In Nicholas, Lionel (ed.). Introduction to Psychology. University of Capetown Press. pp. 9–48. ISBN 978-1-919895-02-4. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MP5X2SK2DCgC&pg=PA48" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=MP5X2SK2DCgC&pg=PA48</a> <a href="#fnref:155" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:156">Howitt & Cramer 2011, pp. 232–233Dumont 2008, pp. 27–28 - Howitt, Dennis; Cramer, Duncan (2011). Introduction to Research Methods in Psychology (3 ed.). Pearson Education. ISBN 978-0-273-73499-4. <a href="#fnref:156" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:157">Howitt & Cramer 2011, pp. 232–233, 294–295Dumont 2008, pp. 29–30 - Howitt, Dennis; Cramer, Duncan (2011). Introduction to Research Methods in Psychology (3 ed.). Pearson Education. ISBN 978-0-273-73499-4. <a href="#fnref:157" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:158">Howitt & Cramer 2011, pp. 220–221, 383–384Dumont 2008, p. 28 - Howitt, Dennis; Cramer, Duncan (2011). Introduction to Research Methods in Psychology (3 ed.). Pearson Education. ISBN 978-0-273-73499-4. <a href="#fnref:158" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:159">Friedenberg, Silverman & Spivey 2022, pp. 17–18Hellier 2014, pp. 31–32Marcus & Jacobson 2012, p. 3 - Friedenberg, Jay; Silverman, Gordon; Spivey, Michael (2022). Cognitive Science: An Introduction to the Study of Mind (4 ed.). Sage. ISBN 978-1-5443-8015-5. <a href="#fnref:159" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:160">Getz 2023, pp. 1–2, 7–8Cowan, Harter & Kandel 2000, pp. 343–344 - Getz, Glen E. (2023). "History of Neurobiology". Applied Biological Psychology. Springer. pp. 1–12. ISBN 978-0-8261-0922-4. <a href="https://connect.springerpub.com/highwire_display/entity_view/node/57243/content_details" target="_blank">https://connect.springerpub.com/highwire_display/entity_view/node/57243/content_details</a> <a href="#fnref:160" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:161">Friedenberg, Silverman & Spivey 2022, pp. 17–18Engelmann, Mulckhuyse & Ting 2019, p. 159Scharff 2008, pp. 270–271Hellier 2014, pp. 31–32 - Friedenberg, Jay; Silverman, Gordon; Spivey, Michael (2022). Cognitive Science: An Introduction to the Study of Mind (4 ed.). Sage. ISBN 978-1-5443-8015-5. <a href="#fnref:161" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:162">Stich & Warfield 2008, pp. ix–xMandik 2014, pp. 1–4, 14Kind 2018, Lead SectionAdams & Beighley 2015, p. 54 - Stich, Stephen P.; Warfield, Ted A. (2008). "Introduction". In Stich, Stephen P.; Warfield, Ted A. (eds.). The Blackwell Guide to Philosophy of Mind. John Wiley & Sons. pp. vii–xi. ISBN 978-0-470-99875-5. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NEGK_ZStddkC&pg=PR7" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=NEGK_ZStddkC&pg=PR7</a> <a href="#fnref:162" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:163">Timpe, § Lead Section, § 3. Free Will and Determinism - Timpe, Kevin. "Free Will". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Archived from the original on 6 April 2019. Retrieved 28 March 2024. <a href="https://iep.utm.edu/freewill/" target="_blank">https://iep.utm.edu/freewill/</a> <a href="#fnref:163" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:164">Stich & Warfield 2008, pp. ix–xiShaffer 2015, pp. 555–556Audi 2006, § Philosophical Methods - Stich, Stephen P.; Warfield, Ted A. (2008). "Introduction". In Stich, Stephen P.; Warfield, Ted A. (eds.). The Blackwell Guide to Philosophy of Mind. John Wiley & Sons. pp. vii–xi. ISBN 978-0-470-99875-5. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NEGK_ZStddkC&pg=PR7" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=NEGK_ZStddkC&pg=PR7</a> <a href="#fnref:164" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:165">Brown & Fehige 2019, Lead SectionGoffi & Roux 2011, pp. 165, 168–169 - Brown, James Robert; Fehige, Yiftach (2019). "Thought Experiments". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Archived from the original on 21 November 2017. Retrieved 29 October 2021. <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/thought-experiment/" target="_blank">https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/thought-experiment/</a> <a href="#fnref:165" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:166">Smith 2018, Lead Section, § 1. What Is Phenomenology?, §6. Phenomenology and Philosophy of MindSmith 2013, pp. 335–336 - Smith, David Woodruff (2018). "Phenomenology". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Archived from the original on 23 June 2020. Retrieved 27 April 2024. <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/phenomenology/" target="_blank">https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/phenomenology/</a> <a href="#fnref:166" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:167">Jaworski 2011, pp. 359, 362, 371Flanagan 2005, pp. 603–604Tanney 2022, Lead section - Jaworski, William (2011). Philosophy of Mind: A Comprehensive Introduction (1 ed.). Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4443-3367-1. <a href="#fnref:167" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:168">Friedenberg, Silverman & Spivey 2022, pp. 2–3Bermúdez 2014, pp. 3, 85Thagard 2023, Lead section, § 3. Representation and Computation - Friedenberg, Jay; Silverman, Gordon; Spivey, Michael (2022). Cognitive Science: An Introduction to the Study of Mind (4 ed.). Sage. ISBN 978-1-5443-8015-5. <a href="#fnref:168" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:169">Bermúdez 2014, pp. 5–6, 29–30, 59–60Thagard 2023, Lead section, § 1. History - Bermúdez, José Luis (2014). Cognitive Science: An Introduction to the Science of the Mind (2. ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-05162-1. <a href="#fnref:169" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:170">Friedenberg, Silverman & Spivey 2022, pp. 2–3Bermúdez 2014, pp. 3, 85Thagard 2023, Lead section, § 3. Representation and Computation - Friedenberg, Jay; Silverman, Gordon; Spivey, Michael (2022). Cognitive Science: An Introduction to the Study of Mind (4 ed.). Sage. ISBN 978-1-5443-8015-5. <a href="#fnref:170" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:171">Friedenberg, Silverman & Spivey 2022, p. 2Spruit 2008, p. 203 - Friedenberg, Jay; Silverman, Gordon; Spivey, Michael (2022). Cognitive Science: An Introduction to the Study of Mind (4 ed.). Sage. ISBN 978-1-5443-8015-5. <a href="#fnref:171" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:172">Friedenberg, Silverman & Spivey 2022, pp. 8–9Bermúdez 2014, pp. 122–123 - Friedenberg, Jay; Silverman, Gordon; Spivey, Michael (2022). Cognitive Science: An Introduction to the Study of Mind (4 ed.). Sage. ISBN 978-1-5443-8015-5. <a href="#fnref:172" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:173">Bermúdez 2014, pp. 85, 129–130Koenig 2004, p. 274 - Bermúdez, José Luis (2014). Cognitive Science: An Introduction to the Science of the Mind (2. ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-05162-1. <a href="#fnref:173" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:174">Avramides 2023, Lead Section, § 1.4 Perceptual Knowledge of Other MindsOvergaard 2010, pp. 255–258 - Avramides, Anita (2023). "Other Minds". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Archived from the original on 23 May 2019. Retrieved 7 May 2024. <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/other-minds/" target="_blank">https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/other-minds/</a> <a href="#fnref:174" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:175">American Psychological Association 2018, § Theory of MindDunbar 2007, p. 30Costall & Leuda 2009, p. 41Galandí 2023, p. 437 - American Psychological Association (2018). "APA Dictionary of Psychology". American Psychological Association. <a href="https://dictionary.apa.org" target="_blank">https://dictionary.apa.org</a> <a href="#fnref:175" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:176">Luhrmann 2023, Abstract, § Introduction, § Conceptions of the mind in early ethnographies, § Conclusion: The Understanding of Mind in the West Is PeculiarToren 2010, pp. 577–580, 582Beatty 2019 - Luhrmann, Tanya Marie (2023). Stein, Felix (ed.). "Mind". The Open Encyclopedia of Anthropology. Cambridge University Press. Archived from the original on 7 May 2024. Retrieved 7 May 2024. <a href="https://www.anthroencyclopedia.com/entry/mind" target="_blank">https://www.anthroencyclopedia.com/entry/mind</a> <a href="#fnref:176" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:177">Franks 2007, pp. 3055–3056 - Franks, David D. (2007). "Mind". In Ritzer, George (ed.). The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Sociology. Blackwell. pp. 3055–3057. ISBN 978-1-4051-2433-1. <a href="#fnref:177" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:178">Munroe 2007, § AbstractChandler & Munday 2011 - Munroe, Paul T. (2007). "Intersubjectivity". In Ritzer, George (ed.). The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Sociology (1 ed.). John Wiley & Sons. pp. 1–3. doi:10.1002/9781405165518.wbeosi067.pub2. ISBN 978-1-4051-2433-1. <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/9781405165518.wbeosi067.pub2" target="_blank">https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/9781405165518.wbeosi067.pub2</a> <a href="#fnref:178" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:179">Karunamuni 2015, pp. 1–2Coseru 2017, Lead Section; § 2.3 The Five AggregatesLaine 1998, Lead Section - Karunamuni, Nandini D. (2015). "The Five-Aggregate Model of the Mind". SAGE Open. 5 (2). doi:10.1177/2158244015583860. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F2158244015583860" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1177%2F2158244015583860</a> <a href="#fnref:179" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:180">Laine 1998, § Philosophy of Mind in the UpaniṣadsRao 2002, pp. 315–316 - Laine, Joy (1998). "Mind, Indian Philosophy of". Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Routledge. doi:10.4324/9780415249126-F070-1. ISBN 978-0-415-25069-6. Archived from the original on 8 May 2024. <a href="https://www.rep.routledge.com/articles/thematic/mind-indian-philosophy-of/v-1" target="_blank">https://www.rep.routledge.com/articles/thematic/mind-indian-philosophy-of/v-1</a> <a href="#fnref:180" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:181">Clark, Lints & Smith 2004, pp. 52–53Duncan & LoLordo 2013, p. xvi - Clark, Kelly James; Lints, Richard; Smith, James K. A. (2004). "Mind/Soul/Spirit". 101 Key Terms in Philosophy and Their Importance for Theology. Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 978-0-664-22524-7. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=H81iiiPtuGsC&pg=PA52" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=H81iiiPtuGsC&pg=PA52</a> <a href="#fnref:181" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:182">Rassool 2021, p. 74Rothman 2021, p. 2010 - Rassool, G. Hussein (2021). Islamic Psychology: Human Behaviour and Experience from an Islamic Perspective. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-000-36292-3. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_oobEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA74" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=_oobEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA74</a> <a href="#fnref:182" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:183">Wong 2023, Lead SectionHall & Ames 1998 - Wong, David (2023). "Mind (Heart-Mind) in Chinese Philosophy". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Archived from the original on 13 May 2024. Retrieved 8 May 2024. <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/chinese-mind/" target="_blank">https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/chinese-mind/</a> <a href="#fnref:183" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:184">Chazan 2022, pp. 15–16Bartlett & Burton 2007, pp. 81–85Murphy 2003, pp. 5, 19–20Alexander 2013, pp. 109–110 - Chazan, Barry (2022). "What Is "Education"?". Principles and Pedagogies in Jewish Education. Springer. pp. 13–21. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-83925-3_3. ISBN 978-3-030-83925-3. S2CID 239896844. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-030-83925-3_3" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-030-83925-3_3</a> <a href="#fnref:184" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:185">Emaliana 2017, pp. 59–61 - Emaliana, Ive (2017). "Teacher-Centered or Student-Centered Learning Approach To Promote Learning?". Jurnal Sosial Humaniora. 10 (2): 59. doi:10.12962/j24433527.v10i2.2161. S2CID 148796695. <a href="https://doi.org/10.12962%2Fj24433527.v10i2.2161" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.12962%2Fj24433527.v10i2.2161</a> <a href="#fnref:185" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:186">Bartlett & Burton 2007, pp. 81–85Murphy 2003, pp. 5, 19–20Jacobs & Renandya 2019, p. 3 - Bartlett, Steve; Burton, Diana (2007). Introduction to Education Studies (2nd ed.). Sage. ISBN 978-1-4129-2193-0. <a href="#fnref:186" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:187">Sysling 2022, p. 407Dixon & Shapiro 2022, § 5. Mind, Brain, and MoralityBernstein & Nash 2006, p. 58Bermúdez 2014, pp. 285, 287 - Sysling, Fenneke (2022). "Human Sciences and Technologies of the Self Since the Nineteenth Century". In McCallum, David (ed.). The Palgrave Handbook of the History of Human Sciences. Springer. pp. 401–422. ISBN 978-981-16-7255-2. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hIuFEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA407" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=hIuFEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA407</a> <a href="#fnref:187" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:188">Stairs 1998, Lead SectionHarperCollins 2022, § ParapsychologyEvans 2004, pp. 584–585 - Stairs, Allen (1998). "Parapsychology". Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Routledge. doi:10.4324/9780415249126-W029-1. ISBN 978-0-415-25069-6. Archived from the original on 13 May 2023. <a href="https://www.rep.routledge.com/articles/thematic/parapsychology/v-1" target="_blank">https://www.rep.routledge.com/articles/thematic/parapsychology/v-1</a> <a href="#fnref:188" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
</ol>

Mind open-in-new

Mind