Conservatism in Pakistan

<h2 id="idea-of-pakistan-conception-and-conservatism">Idea of Pakistan, conception, and conservatism</h2>
Main articles: <a href="/facts/Political_Islam/VzojFnNS">Political Islam</a>, <a href="/facts/Conception_of_Pakistan/hvHYVJXt">Conception of Pakistan</a>, and <a href="/facts/Pakistan_Movement/zWMjHHTe">Pakistan Movement</a>

Since the 1930s, the <a href="/facts/All-India_Muslim_League/wozcm8j6">Muslim League</a> had been lobbying and pushing its politics for a separate homeland for the Muslims of India, known as <a href="/facts/Pakistan/cbIsvJy1">Pakistan</a>.
The constitution and principles of the Muslim League were contained in the Green Book, written by conservative thinker and cleric, Maulana <a href="/facts/Maulana_Mohammad_Ali/anKkUNc8">Muhammad Ali</a>. Its goals at this stage did not include establishing an independent Muslim state, but rather concentrated on protecting Muslim liberties and rights, promoting understanding between the Muslim community and other Indians, educating the Muslim and Indian community at large on the actions of the government, and discouraging violence. However, several factors over the next thirty years, including sectarian violence, led to a re-evaluation of the Muslim League's aims.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8">8</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9">9</a>
With <a href="/facts/Muhammad_Ali_Jinnah/CCxlj4CJ">Muhammad Ali Jinnah</a> becoming the <a href="/facts/Party_chair/55BJx149">President</a> of the <a href="/facts/All-India_Muslim_League/wozcm8j6">Muslim League</a>, the party gradually became the leading representative body of <a href="/facts/Indian_Muslim/uIEMAxJ8">Indian Muslims</a>. A fresh call for a separate state was then made by the famous writer, poet, and philosopher Allama <a href="/facts/Muhammad_Iqbal/J2KhPdT5">Muhammad Iqbal</a>, who in his presidential address to the 1930 convention of the Muslim League said that he felt that a separate Muslim state was essential in an otherwise Hindu-dominated South Asia.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10">10</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11">11</a> The name was coined by <a href="/facts/University_of_Cambridge/0la7aX9o">Cambridge</a> student and Muslim <a href="/facts/Nationalism/IECpIhm0">nationalist</a> <a href="/facts/Choudhary_Rahmat_Ali/Ulcb2aJs">Choudhary Rahmat Ali</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12">12</a> and was published on 28 January 1933 in the pamphlet Now or Never.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13">13</a> After a long political struggle and party meetings with the people of the <a href="/facts/North_West_India/tIUqMm15">North-West India</a>, the <a href="/facts/British_Empire/hrsz0j7A">British Empire</a> granted the establishment of <a href="/facts/Pakistan/cbIsvJy1">Pakistan</a> and independence of India; both countries joined the <a href="/facts/British_Commonwealth/TcIRQnNq">British Commonwealth</a> organization.
The Muslim League was not the only conservative movement in the erstwhile region of British India that became Pakistan. Others included the <a href="/facts/Congress_Nationalist_Party/zulyyqBI">Congress Nationalist Party</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14">14</a> the <a href="/facts/Unionist_Party_(Punjab)/cblKKyhR">Punjab Unionist Party</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15">15</a> the <a href="/facts/Hindu_Mahasabha/1lkRKkt2">Hindu Mahasabha</a> and the <a href="/facts/Shiromani_Akali_Dal/ullU7w5M">Akali Dal</a>.
In addition, a number of figures within the <a href="/facts/Indian_National_Congress/Im1gQksb">Indian National Congress</a>, such as <a href="/facts/Sardar_Vallabhai_Patel/XXpFDPoI">Sardar Vallabhai Patel</a> were conservative.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16">16</a>
After <a href="/facts/Muhammad_Ali_Jinnah/CCxlj4CJ">Jinnah</a> died in 1948, <a href="/facts/Prime_Minister_of_Pakistan/CvFb0wBc">Prime Minister</a> <a href="/facts/Liaquat_Ali_Khan/krxjwmcY">Liaquat Ali Khan</a>'s constitutional policies were directed to work on constitution.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17">17</a> On 12 March 1949, Prime Minister Ali Khan had the <a href="/facts/Parliament_of_Pakistan/RTL4S1mf">State parliament</a> passing and promulgating the <a href="/facts/Objectives_Resolution/qlkHfuYA">Objectives Resolution</a>, which ultimately declared <a href="/facts/Islam/zDLbL45C">Islam</a> as <a href="/facts/State_religion/K7E28FLL">state religion</a> of the country.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18">18</a> The main objective of Resolution was the "declaration of <a href="/facts/State_of_Pakistan/cbIsvJy1">State</a>'s submitting to the democratic faith of Islam and to the sovereignty of <a href="/facts/Allah/7U7KpU9p">God</a>".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19">19</a> Such resolution was met with great resistance in the state parliament when <a href="/facts/Law_Minister_of_Pakistan/duERNUI7">Law minister</a> <a href="/facts/Jogendra_Nath_Mandal/8KnATcDA">J.N. Mandal</a> resigned from his ministry and gave great criticism to Prime Minister Liaquat Ali Khan. Politicization of Islam in the country further tighten its support when ultra-conservative <a href="/facts/Ulema/7vMcAgBV">Clerics</a> passed a "demand draft", called 22 Points which called for the preparation of constitution according to <a href="/facts/Objectives_Resolution/qlkHfuYA">Objectives Resolution</a>, in 1950.
In 1977, the government of <a href="/facts/Zulfiqar_Ali_Bhutto/nFGDV8hH">Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto</a> outlawed alcohol and drugs and changed the weekend from Sunday to Friday, but no substantive Islamic reform program was implemented prior to General <a href="/facts/Zia-ul-Haq%2527s_Islamization/anafwAzC">Zia-ul-Haq's Islamization</a> program. Starting in February 1979, new penal measures based on Islamic principles of justice went into effect. These carried considerably greater implications for women than for men. A welfare and taxation system based on <a href="/facts/Zakat/yLQ4Mygk">Zakat</a> and a profit-and-loss banking system were also established in accordance with Islamic prohibitions against <a href="/facts/Usury/y2JtDofJ">usury</a> but were inadequate.

<h3>Early foundation of conservatism</h3>
<h4>1947–59: Independence and power struggle</h4>
After the death of <a href="/facts/Muhammad_Ali_Jinnah/CCxlj4CJ">Jinnah</a>, <a href="/facts/Prime_Minister_of_Pakistan/CvFb0wBc">Prime Minister</a> <a href="/facts/Liaquat_Ali_Khan/krxjwmcY">Liaquat Ali Khan</a> successfully authored and passed the <a href="/facts/Objectives_Resolution/qlkHfuYA">Objectives Resolution</a> from the <a href="/facts/Parliament_of_Pakistan/RTL4S1mf">state parliament</a>, roughly declaring <a href="/facts/Islam/zDLbL45C">Islam</a> as <a href="/facts/State_religion/K7E28FLL">state religion</a>. The idea of Conservatism in Pakistan identifies several constants including the "respect for tradition, the rule of law and the Islamic religion." Proponents of <a href="/facts/Right-wing/CVoubHMm">right-wing</a> conservatism and <a href="/facts/Nationalism_in_Pakistan/tmv9mSGr">nationalist</a> agenda was supported by Prime Minister <a href="/facts/Liaquat_Ali_Khan/krxjwmcY">Ali Khan</a> as part of his internal policies. His conservative policies were met with resistance from the <a href="/facts/Socialism_in_Pakistan/l6eI4plQ">left-wing</a> which was accused of hatching the <a href="/facts/Rawalpindi_conspiracy/T3apfhyl">conspiracy</a> against <a href="/facts/Liaquat_Ali_Khan/krxjwmcY">Ali Khan</a>. In 1979, the <a href="/facts/Islamic_conservatism/2XdCcPzq">religious conservatism</a> and the state-sponsored <a href="/facts/Zia-ul-Haq%2527s_Islamization/anafwAzC">Islamization</a> became a primary policy of <a href="/facts/Zia_regime/hsu8PwTw">military government</a> of <a href="/facts/President_of_Pakistan/w1a5GFaj">President</a> General <a href="/facts/Muhammad_Zia-ul-Haq/JwDlPsce">Zia-ul-Haq</a>.
As an aftermath of <a href="/facts/Elections_in_Pakistan/N8GbTecP">1954 general elections</a>, conservatism lost its edge in <a href="/facts/East_Pakistan/muonRHJH">East-Pakistan</a> when <a href="/facts/Communism_in_Pakistan/l6eI4plQ">communism</a> deeply asserted itself following the victory of <a href="/facts/Communist_Party_of_Pakistan/zSz5V50R">Communist Party</a>. The military dictatorships of <a href="/facts/Ayub_Khan_(Field_Marshal)/C2Bppz1g">Ayub Khan</a> and <a href="/facts/Yahya_Khan/K3L8cajS">Yahya Khan</a> further limited the conservative platform. During the <a href="/facts/1970_Pakistani_general_elections/tPjvEBFj">1970 general elections</a>, the religious conservative and right-wing conservative parties participated in the election with a direct competition with left-oriented <a href="/facts/Pakistan_Peoples_Party/koC4hn71">PPP</a>. The <a href="/facts/Islamic_conservatism/2XdCcPzq">Islamic conservative</a> parties successfully pressed <a href="/facts/Pakistan_Peoples_Party/koC4hn71">PPP</a>'s <a href="/facts/Zulfikar_Ali_Bhutto/nFGDV8hH">Bhutto</a> to declare <a href="/facts/Ahmadiyya_Muslim_Community/z8p7s0FC">Ahmadiyya sect</a> as <a href="/facts/Second_Amendment_to_the_Constitution_of_Pakistan/MeHXEEUk">Non-Muslim domination</a>. The right-wing mass made its notable comeback in a response to <a href="/facts/Nationalization_in_Pakistan/Wo0kjcaK">nationalization program</a> of Bhutto, and called for right-wing alliance, <a href="/facts/Pakistan_National_Alliance/9nXkJsv1">PNA</a>, against PPP.

<h3>National building</h3>
<h4>1960–78: Religious right and nationalism</h4>
In the 1960s, the conservative movements in the country had emphasized Islamic roots and values in the society but ultimately it did not have any lasting effects in an opposition to <a href="/facts/President_of_Pakistan/w1a5GFaj">President</a> <a href="/facts/Ayub_Khan_(field_marshal)/C2Bppz1g">Ayub Khan</a> aggressive policies to put the <a href="/facts/Agrarianism/wqrNlmje">agrarian</a> country into the roads of <a href="/facts/Industry_of_Pakistan/rDFnc2Nb">industrialization</a>.
In 1965, the conservative movements prudently went out to gather their support for <a href="/facts/Fatima_Jinnah/BKHDsIIr">Fatima Jinnah</a>, sister of <a href="/facts/Muhammad_Ali_Jinnah/CCxlj4CJ">Muhammad Ali Jinnah</a>, had initially campaigned on Islamic tradition and promotion of nationalistic society.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20">20</a> During the <a href="/facts/1965_Pakistani_presidential_election/F8zVPIU8">1965 presidential election</a>, President <a href="/facts/Ayub_Khan_(Field_Marshal)/C2Bppz1g">Ayub Khan</a> used the hard-line Islamic conservative groups to get <a href="/facts/Fatima_Jinnah/BKHDsIIr">Fatima Jinnah</a> disqualified from the <a href="/facts/Elections_in_Pakistan/N8GbTecP">elections</a>; nonetheless, this scheme failed when the huge public voted for Fatima Jinnah's bid for presidency.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21">21</a> It is noted by historians that without the usage of state machinery, President Ayub Khan had almost lost the elections.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22">22</a>
The religious right was dismayed when President Ayub Khan abrogated his deal with the orthodoxy religious parties, the <a href="/facts/Jamaat-e-Islami_Pakistan/nmkjxwl3">JeI</a>, in 1966.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23">23</a> Its right-wing populism was one of many factor that made the party popular, though it was short-lived. In 1967, the leftist ideas dominated by <a href="/facts/Pakistan_Peoples_Party/koC4hn71">PPP</a> gained much support from the public.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24">24</a> The conservative parties produced a performed poor electoral performance during the <a href="/facts/1970_Pakistani_general_elections/tPjvEBFj">general elections</a> held in 1970.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25">25</a> Only <a href="/facts/Pakistan_Muslim_League_(N)/0GY6EH9A">Pakistan Muslim League</a> (PML) led by <a href="/facts/Nurul_Amin/PEUDAXyP">Nurul Amin</a> had gained considerable votes from all over the country; the <a href="/facts/Jamaat-e-Islami_Pakistan/nmkjxwl3">JeI</a> faced with an embarrassing election result winning only four out of 300 seats.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26">26</a>
After a <a href="/facts/Indo-Pakistani_war_of_1971/HcrcqGlX">bitter war</a> with India and the <a href="/facts/Bangladesh_Liberation_War/gTshjg0R">loss</a> of <a href="/facts/East_Pakistan/muonRHJH">East Pakistan</a>, the conservative movements were seen as the last blow to their vision at that time. The left-oriented <a href="/facts/Pakistan_Peoples_Party/koC4hn71">PPP</a> initiated a <a href="/facts/Nationalization_in_Pakistan/Wo0kjcaK">nationalization</a> process to hamper the <a href="/facts/Privatization_in_Pakistan/KE4UeJu3">private-ownership</a> of the industries in the country. In 1973, a violent disturbances instigated by JeI forced the PPP to pass the <a href="/facts/Second_Amendment_to_the_Constitution_of_Pakistan/MeHXEEUk">Second Amendment</a> law to declare <a href="/facts/Ahmadiyya_Muslim_Community/z8p7s0FC">Ahmadiyya</a> domination as Non-Muslim. Much of the <a href="/facts/Constitution_of_Pakistan/JD5AlMfJ">Constitution</a> was philosophically leaning towards conservative roots and foundations.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27">27</a> The JeI lost all of its support during this time, and a new conservative party, <a href="/facts/Pakistan_Muslim_League_(N)/0GY6EH9A">Pakistan Muslim League</a> had found its own support provided by influential capitalist thinkers, investors, and wealthy donors who resisted the nationalization program.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28">28</a> Although, the JeI was the major contributory of right-wing <a href="/facts/Pakistan_National_Alliance/9nXkJsv1">Pakistan National Alliance</a> (PNA), it was the <a href="/facts/Pakistan_Muslim_League_(N)/0GY6EH9A">Pakistan Muslim League</a> who was the most resource party of all.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29">29</a> Despite populism and mass financial capital spent in favor of <a href="/facts/Pakistan_National_Alliance/9nXkJsv1">Pakistan National Alliance</a> (PNA), the alliance performed poorly during the <a href="/facts/1977_Pakistani_general_elections/NV6xh4LY">general elections</a> held in 1977.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30">30</a> A massive <a href="/facts/Civil_disobedience/jaNFkCLY">civil disobedience</a> acts, right-wing violence and calls for martial law led up to be dismissal of <a href="/facts/Pakistan_Peoples_Party/koC4hn71">PPP</a>'s government in 1977 after a <a href="/facts/Operation_Fair_Play/Jy9nbSAu">martial law</a> took advance.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31">31</a>

<h3>Activism and authoritarianism</h3>
<h4>1979-1980s: Conservatism ascent</h4>
Main article: <a href="/facts/Zia-ul-Haq%2527s_Islamization/anafwAzC">Zia-ul-Haq's Islamization</a>
See also: <a href="/facts/Islamic_economics_in_Pakistan/mDl1314f">Islamic economics in Pakistan</a>

With the successful <a href="/facts/1977_Pakistani_coup_d%2527%25C3%25A9tat/Jy9nbSAu">coup d'état</a> against the <a href="/facts/Socialism_in_Pakistan/l6eI4plQ">left-wing</a> government of <a href="/facts/Pakistan_Peoples_Party/koC4hn71">Pakistan Peoples Party</a> (PPP), the modern conservatism movement took over the control of state's affairs under President <a href="/facts/Muhammad_Zia-ul-Haq/JwDlPsce">Zia-ul-Haq</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32">32</a> The conservative principles dominated Zia's economic and foreign policies, including the <a href="/facts/Islamization_of_Economy/mDl1314f">interest-free system</a> and <a href="/facts/Operation_Cyclone/JAdv0qeL">strict opposition</a> to <a href="/facts/Ideology_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union/D2SLaJGA">Soviet Communism</a> defining his military administration's political philosophy.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33">33</a>
<a href="/facts/President_of_Pakistan/w1a5GFaj">President</a> <a href="/facts/Muhammad_Zia-ul-Haq/JwDlPsce">Zia-ul-Haq</a> largely depended on the <a href="/facts/Council_of_Islamic_Ideology/1XfQo4D8">Council of Islamic Ideology</a> (CII) for work and political recommendation for policy guidance issue. On legal philosophical issues, the <a href="/facts/Federal_Shariat_Court/89buhlsL">Federal Shariat Court</a> was greatly espoused and extended its activities at federal level judiciary.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34">34</a> President Zia is credited with the success of modern conservatism movement in the country, by his supporters; some galvanizing the Zia's directives prevented the wider <a href="/facts/Cold_War/spJdJQ3q">Soviet incursions</a> into the region as well as economic prosperity.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35">35</a> President Zia's military administration brought a fury of conservative economists; conservative foreign policy practitioners; and social conservatives, who identified with his religious and social ideals.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36">36</a> Zia was attacked by <a href="/facts/Socialism_in_Pakistan/l6eI4plQ">left-wing personalities</a> at the time as being a "source of fundamentalism", but conservative historians asserted that he decisively limited <a href="/facts/Soviet_Union/m7wWsPto">Soviet Union</a> to <a href="/facts/Afghanistan/v63Auu1C">Afghanistan</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37">37</a>
In defining the conservatism, President Zia once described to British journalist Ian Stephen that: "The basis of Pakistan was Islam. The basis of Pakistan were Muslims in <a href="/facts/South_Asia/7gTqe3hY">South Asia</a> are a separate culture. It was the <a href="/facts/Two-Nation_Theory/Flhe2fKQ">Two-Nation Theory</a> that lead to the independence of Pakistan."<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38">38</a> The <a href="/facts/Education_in_Pakistan/klkuxbq8">university curriculum</a> in the country was upgraded by President Zia-ul-Haq, that includes the teaching of <a href="/facts/Islamic_Studies/kNWshAlX">Islamic Studies</a> and <a href="/facts/Arabic_language/A1e66hVV">Arabic</a> languages courses, which were made compulsory for students to get their degrees in arts and social sciences.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39">39</a> The <a href="/facts/Pakistan_Studies/3qngMz6W">Pakistan Studies</a> were made compulsorily for <a href="/facts/Engineering/RFVg8H3I">engineering</a>, medical education, commerce, law and nursing education. Extra educational certificates and diplomas were given to people who were <a href="/facts/Hafiz_(Quran)/PhG0j3PD">Hafiz</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40">40</a> On national priorities, the <a href="/facts/Pakistan_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction/sfNPnK3S">atomic bomb project</a> was aggressively put forwarded by President Zia-ul-Haq to counter Indian threat on East and Soviet threat on West.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:41" href="#fn:41">41</a>

During his eleven years in office, President Zia's conservative reforms and economic policies pushed the country's national economic <a href="/facts/Gross_domestic_product/zQRgyFKc">GDP</a> percent rate reached to 5.88%, surpassing the economic record of President Ayub Khan in the 1960s.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:42" href="#fn:42">42</a> The <a href="/facts/Gross_National_Product/KeJVJcR5">GNP</a> was rated at 6.8%; both rates, the <a href="/facts/Gross_domestic_product/zQRgyFKc">GDP</a> and the <a href="/facts/Gross_national_product/KeJVJcR5">GNP</a>, were highest in the world at that time.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:43" href="#fn:43">43</a> His policies had hard-hitting impact on Pakistan and some of his economic policies were continued by the successive governments. According to the historians, his policies were directed towards making Pakistan the citadel of Islam so that it could play an honorable and prominent role for the Islamic world.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:44" href="#fn:44">44</a> Leftist historians maintained that his legacy remains a most toxic, enduring, and tamper-proof legacy,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:45" href="#fn:45">45</a> but to point of view of conservative thinkers, Zia credited by some for preventing wider Soviet incursions into the region as well as economic prosperity.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:46" href="#fn:46">46</a>
Despite Zia's tough rhetoric and his <a href="/facts/Rightwing_authoritarianism/sQn5FDM2">authoritarianism</a>, the country's <a href="/facts/Pakistani_society/T6h1qsQS">society</a> continued to move forward towards the enlightenment, and the sense of moderation.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:47" href="#fn:47">47</a> According to the critic of Zia and leftist cultural writer, <a href="/facts/Nadeem_F._Paracha/e7Bbx3yw">Nadeem Paracha</a>, further wrote that in 2013 that it was the "conservative regime of Zia when the <a href="/facts/Western_world/UQl4e7du">Western</a> <a href="/facts/1980s_in_fashion/d2KSHKw7">1980's fashion</a> wear and hairstyle was popularized, and the rock music bands that were gaining momentum under his regime.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:48" href="#fn:48">48</a> Paracha further wrote that: "Ironically, it was these <a href="/facts/Movement_of_restoration_of_Democracy/KQCUolS0">political</a> and <a href="/facts/Islamization_of_Economy/mDl1314f">economic tensions</a> and pretensions, heavy metal, rock music power plays and the economic prosperity that also propelled the gradual expansion of the country's urban middle and lower-middle-classes.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:49" href="#fn:49">49</a> According to the leftist cultural critic, <a href="/facts/Nadeem_F._Paracha/e7Bbx3yw">Nadeem F. Paracha</a>: "The youth culture at that emerged from these classes that launched the first shots of the kind of pop culture, scene and music we now call modern <a href="/facts/Pakistani_pop/u5TDcj17">Pakistani pop</a> and rock."<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:50" href="#fn:50">50</a>

<h3>Moderation and Competition</h3>
<h4>1990s–2000s: The New Right and conservative democracy</h4>

After Zia's <a href="/facts/Death_of_Zia-ul-Haq/Effau4El">death</a> in 1988, the left-oriented <a href="/facts/Pakistan_Peoples_Party/koC4hn71">Pakistan Peoples Party</a> (PPP) came in <a href="/facts/Power_(politics)/Q4feTyU6">national power</a> through <a href="/facts/1988_Pakistani_general_elections/RLFGyHmv">general elections</a> held in 1988.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:51" href="#fn:51">51</a> The 1990–2000s is a period of intense and fierce competition between <a href="/facts/Socialism_in_Pakistan/l6eI4plQ">leftist sphere</a> led by <a href="/facts/Benazir_Bhutto/kJELEhWK">Benazir Bhutto</a> and conservative circle led by <a href="/facts/Nawaz_Sharif/4f8ecboB">Nawaz Sharif</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:52" href="#fn:52">52</a> In less than two years, the <a href="/facts/Pakistan_Peoples_Party/koC4hn71">PPP</a> government was dismissed in by the usage of <a href="/facts/Eighth_Amendment_to_the_Constitution_of_Pakistan/pXgAoBu7">Eighth Amendment</a> in mere two years.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:53" href="#fn:53">53</a> In 1990, the conservative mass led by <a href="/facts/Nawaz_Sharif/4f8ecboB">Nawaz Sharif</a> won the <a href="/facts/1990_Pakistani_general_elections/INhR9Fhh">general elections</a>; the elections were controversial with <a href="/facts/Supreme_Court_of_Pakistan/pkHuhkCy">judicial inquiries</a> revealing the role of <a href="/facts/Pakistani_intelligence_services/J07l998n">intelligence community</a> playing a vital role in support for <a href="/facts/Pakistan_Muslim_League_(N)/0GY6EH9A">Pakistan Muslim League (N)</a> (PML(N)) during the 1990 general elections.
The Conservatives led by <a href="/facts/Prime_Minister_of_Pakistan/CvFb0wBc">Prime Minister</a> <a href="/facts/Nawaz_Sharif/4f8ecboB">Nawaz Sharif</a> came in national prominence for the first time in the history, under a <a href="/facts/Elections_in_Pakistan/N8GbTecP">democratic transition</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:54" href="#fn:54">54</a> Immediately, the PML(N) government launched <a href="/facts/Privatization_in_Pakistan/KE4UeJu3">privatization</a> and reforms towards the <a href="/facts/Economic_liberalisation_in_Pakistan/DFkkPIP9">economic liberalization</a> in the country. Key proponents of <a href="/facts/Sharia_law/H9cG0yCF">Sharia</a> was made part of <a href="/facts/Pakistan_Penal_Code/twnTm1yh">Penal Code</a> in 1993.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:55" href="#fn:55">55</a> Islamic values were emphasized as a part of the social conservative reforms by the PML(N) government which support at a mainstream level.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:56" href="#fn:56">56</a>
In 1997, the <a href="/facts/Pakistan_Muslim_League_(N)/0GY6EH9A">PML(N)</a> came back to power with an <a href="/facts/Exclusive_mandate/VEmkbvla">exclusive mandate</a> during the <a href="/facts/1997_Pakistani_general_elections/rcsmVjJs">general election</a> which saw <a href="/facts/Pakistan_Muslim_League_(N)/0GY6EH9A">PML(N)</a> struck its overwhelming <a href="/facts/Supermajority/UrN29DaU">two-third</a> majority in the <a href="/facts/Parliament_of_Pakistan/RTL4S1mf">parliament</a> for the first time in the <a href="/facts/History_of_Pakistan/hsu8PwTw">history</a> of Pakistan.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:57" href="#fn:57">57</a> Despite the confrontation with leftist president <a href="/facts/Farooq_Leghari/7HYGjXlc">Farooq Leghari</a> and liberal <a href="/facts/Chief_Justice_of_Pakistan/0fg9kY1l">Chief Justice</a>, <a href="/facts/Sajjad_Ali_Shah/1FnGgopj">Sajjad Ali</a> in 1997, <a href="/facts/Pakistan_Muslim_League_(N)/0GY6EH9A">PML(N)</a> decisively consolidated its authoritative position by appointing the <a href="/facts/National_conservative/tGWpzQoY">national conservative</a> jurist, <a href="/facts/Saeeduzzaman_Siddiqui/I2mvs8Wv">Saeeduzzaman Siddiqui</a>, as <a href="/facts/Chief_Justice_of_Pakistan/0fg9kY1l">Chief Justice</a>, and religiously conservative, <a href="/facts/Rafiq_Tarar/4BIR39oT">Rafiq Tarrar</a>, as <a href="/facts/President_of_Pakistan/w1a5GFaj">President</a> in 1997.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:58" href="#fn:58">58</a>

Upon resolving the authority issue, the <a href="/facts/Pakistan_Muslim_League_(N)/0GY6EH9A">PML(N)</a> made notable constitutional reforms towards the constitutional conservatism when the <a href="/facts/Pakistan_Muslim_League_(N)/0GY6EH9A">PML(N)</a> government oversaw the passages of <a href="/facts/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_Constitution_of_Pakistan/T0cm83kT">thirteenth</a>, <a href="/facts/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_Constitution_of_Pakistan/WRkCYkyE">fourteenth</a>, <a href="/facts/Amendments_to_the_Constitution_of_Pakistan/7tm9atRT">fifteenth amendment</a> in the <a href="/facts/National_Assembly_of_Pakistan/UWXYFunH">national assembly</a>, a lower house.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:59" href="#fn:59">59</a> However, the <a href="/facts/Amendments_to_the_Constitution_of_Pakistan/7tm9atRT">fifteenth amendment</a> failed to passed from the <a href="/facts/Senate_of_Pakistan/r6SC3z3q">Senate</a> as Prime Minister <a href="/facts/Nawaz_Sharif/4f8ecboB">Sharif</a> never brought the bill to senate.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:60" href="#fn:60">60</a> A projection of strong military defence was supported at the <a href="/facts/Media_of_Pakistan/F6Pc99py">mainstream media</a>, finally the conservative <a href="/facts/Pakistan_Muslim_League_(N)/0GY6EH9A">PML(N)</a> ordered the activation of country's <a href="/facts/Chagai-I/8LaQAvda">nuclear testing program</a> in 1998 for the first time in the history of the country.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:61" href="#fn:61">61</a> The <a href="/facts/Chagai-I/8LaQAvda">nuclear testing program</a> authorized by Prime Minister <a href="/facts/Nawaz_Sharif/4f8ecboB">Sharif</a> was used as "<a href="/facts/Tit_for_tat/YQ2HshrX">tit for tat</a>" policy in a direct response to Indian <a href="/facts/Pokhran-II/xRhJSWkk">nuclear tests</a> in 1998.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:62" href="#fn:62">62</a> The nuclear tests in competition with India was highly popular in the country at that time, the conservative <a href="/facts/Pakistan_Muslim_League_(N)/0GY6EH9A">PML(N)</a> government had an uttermost public support over that issue.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:63" href="#fn:63">63</a> The <a href="/facts/Pakistan_Muslim_League_(N)/0GY6EH9A">PML(N)</a> further used its political position after <a href="/facts/Prime_Minister_of_Pakistan/CvFb0wBc">Prime Minister</a> <a href="/facts/Nawaz_Sharif/4f8ecboB">Sharif</a> <a href="/facts/Dismissal_of_General_Jehangir_Karamat/89Tc9rKb">dismissed</a> the <a href="/facts/Chairman_Joint_Chiefs_of_Staff_Committee/DSBRY3eK">Chairman joint chiefs</a> and <a href="/facts/Chief_of_Army_Staff_(Pakistan)/09oY7CRh">chief of army staff</a>, General <a href="/facts/Jehangir_Karamat/zYMf4sIY">Jehangir Karamat</a>, marking the perception of <a href="/facts/Civilian_control_of_the_military/WvSQuhdL">civilian control</a> of the <a href="/facts/Pakistan_Military/KrR6tTG3">military</a> in 1998.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:64" href="#fn:64">64</a> The same year, the <a href="/facts/Pakistan_Muslim_League_(N)/0GY6EH9A">PML(N)</a> government cancelled the <a href="/facts/Friday/UdAEfqkh">Friday</a> holidays, despite exacerbated concerns of the conservatives.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:65" href="#fn:65">65</a> Major education reforms were carried out by <a href="/facts/Pakistan_Muslim_League_(N)/0GY6EH9A">PML(N)</a> government, emphasizing on scientific research and religious studies.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:66" href="#fn:66">66</a>
In 1999, <a href="/facts/Prime_Minister_of_Pakistan/CvFb0wBc">Prime Minister</a> <a href="/facts/Nawaz_Sharif/4f8ecboB">Sharif</a> struck another political achievement after holding the <a href="/facts/Lahore_Declaration/qgS5r6UR">Lahore Summit</a>, in which, his <a href="/facts/Prime_Minister_of_India/htYDwX0a">Indian counterpart</a>, <a href="/facts/Atal_Bihari_Vajpayee/ttlfHQI3">Atal Bihari Vajpayee</a> was delegated to <a href="/facts/Lahore/cjHrUPaD">Lahore</a>, <a href="/facts/Punjab%2c_Pakistan/ppTkKUTS">Punjab</a>, via a <a href="/facts/Delhi-Lahore_Bus/hBDhNzwT">Bus service</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:67" href="#fn:67">67</a> Despite peace initiatives with <a href="/facts/India/QW4TV4sy">India</a>, the <a href="/facts/Pakistan_Muslim_League_(N)/0GY6EH9A">PML(N)</a> government lost all its prestige after becoming <a href="/facts/Kargil_War/64vnlUYF">militarily involved</a> with India in <a href="/facts/Kargil_district/tIz2no1s">Kargil sector</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:68" href="#fn:68">68</a> Despite his authoritative actions, his economic programmes were failed during the period of worldwide economic growth, especially his attempts to exert intense control over the military ultimately led to his undoing.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:69" href="#fn:69">69</a> In 1999, the <a href="/facts/Pakistan_Muslim_League_(N)/0GY6EH9A">PML(N)</a> government was dismissed by the <a href="/facts/Chairman_Joint_Chiefs_of_Staff_Committee/DSBRY3eK">Chairman joint chiefs</a> General <a href="/facts/Pervez_Musharraf/D6hhCwqL">Pervez Musharraf</a> in a bloodless, rather self-<a href="/facts/1999_Pakistani_coup_d%2527%25C3%25A9tat/Bo2bB8bt">coup d'état</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:70" href="#fn:70">70</a> At the time of staging of the coup d'état, conservatism was at its lowest level of support from the public. Further, the support for the <a href="/facts/Pakistan_Muslim_League_(N)/0GY6EH9A">PML(N)</a> government and its conservatives programs were largely disapproved by the public.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:71" href="#fn:71">71</a>

<h4>2010s: Re-defining of New Right and escalations</h4>
Main article: <a href="/facts/Naya_Pakistan/8SrDa8D1">Naya Pakistan</a>

By 2000, conservatism had been its lowest point in popularity since the 1960s. Financial problems, <a href="/facts/Periods_of_stagflation_in_Pakistan/EroLzT5f">economic stagflation</a>, and social tensions had been a contributory factors in lowering of the conservatism and its opposite, the <a href="/facts/Socialism_in_Pakistan/l6eI4plQ">socialism</a> at once. Searching for a new political philosophy, <a href="/facts/President_of_Pakistan/w1a5GFaj">President</a> <a href="/facts/Pervez_Musharraf/D6hhCwqL">Pervez Musharraf</a> called for a "<a href="/facts/Third_Way/q9bbL37a">Third Way</a>" after forming the <a href="/facts/Pakistan_Muslim_League_(Q)/MTDWfwC4">PML(Q)</a> group, totally hostile towards the <a href="/facts/Pakistan_Muslim_League_(N)/0GY6EH9A">Pakistan Muslim League</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:72" href="#fn:72">72</a>
President Musharraf brought a new generation of liberal thinkers to power in <a href="/facts/Islamabad/3xUNDt3g">Islamabad</a>. Musharraf pioneered the liberal idea of "<a href="/facts/Enlightened_Moderation/KXzo7H0t">Enlightened Moderation</a>" and launched a successful <a href="/facts/Economic_liberalisation_in_Pakistan/DFkkPIP9">liberalization</a> programs in the country.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:73" href="#fn:73">73</a> The <a href="/facts/September_11_attacks/PfWQcQNx">9/11 attacks</a> in the <a href="/facts/United_States/P0sCdLe5">United States</a> and launch of the <a href="/facts/War_in_Afghanistan_(2001%25E2%2580%2593present)/vKbbttLN">Afghanistan war</a> in 2001 lead to re-defining moments for the <a href="/facts/Socialism_in_Pakistan/l6eI4plQ">left-wing</a> politics as well as right-wing politics. The <a href="/facts/2002_Pakistani_general_elections/SjBL8G7f">2002 general elections</a> held in 2002 marked the liberals coming into the power, with <a href="/facts/Pakistan_Muslim_League_(Q)/MTDWfwC4">PML(Q)</a> and <a href="/facts/Muttahida_Qaumi_Movement_%25E2%2580%2593_Pakistan/uEMWKKs2">MQM</a> forming the government. The religious orthodoxies, under a massive <a href="/facts/Muttahida_Majlis-e-Amal/ASd40K2W">MMA alliance</a>, struck its notable victory in the <a href="/facts/Parliament_of_Pakistan/RTL4S1mf">parliament</a>, securing a considerable number of seats in the parliaments.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:74" href="#fn:74">74</a> In 2002, a massive <a href="/facts/Communist_Party_of_Pakistan/zSz5V50R">communist party</a> demonstration against the <a href="/facts/United_States/P0sCdLe5">United States</a> and the fierce joint-opposition of <a href="/facts/Pakistan_Peoples_Party/koC4hn71">PPP</a> and <a href="/facts/Pakistan_Muslim_League_(N)/0GY6EH9A">PMLN</a> had politically weakened the government. Historians of Pakistan also noted that the fact that the <a href="/facts/Nuclear_proliferation/f8dSJyAR">atomic proliferation</a> debriefings had enraged and outraged the leftists and conservatives alike of their national hero, Dr. <a href="/facts/Abdul_Qadeer_Khan/j2wWPY3X">Qadeer Khan</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:75" href="#fn:75">75</a> Overall, <a href="/facts/Social_conservatism/96NpePX8">social conservatism</a> and hard leftist ideas grew in an opposition against President <a href="/facts/Pervez_Musharraf/D6hhCwqL">Pervez Musharraf</a>, including a <a href="/facts/War_in_North-West_Pakistan/CkMDFNml">far-right insurgency</a> in the country.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:76" href="#fn:76">76</a>

<h4>Influence in popular culture, literary, arts and science</h4>
The religious identities, nationalism, and rightist ideas has greatly influenced the <a href="/facts/Literature_of_Pakistan/J9fdzdQd">literature</a>, <a href="/facts/Pakistani_drama/mvnd3HXk">theatre</a>, <a href="/facts/Pakistani_architecture/HRACGtGA">architecture</a>, and popular culture.

<h2 id="online-sources">Online sources</h2>
<h3>Bibliography and references</h3>

Scholarly books
<ul><li>Gerges, James Wynbrandt ; foreword by Fawaz A. (2008). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xQGwgJnCPZgC&q=A+Brief+history+of+Pakistan">A brief history of Pakistan</a>. New York: Facts On File. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0816061846.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)</li>
<li>Singh, R.S.N. (2008). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wCm2DFZblOYC&q=The+military+factor+in+Pakistan">The military factor in Pakistan</a>. New Delhi: Frankfort, IL. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0981537894.</li>
<li>LeVine, Mark (2008). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DY9TBRXDi40C&q=Heavy+metal+Islam+rock%2C+resistance%2C+and+the+struggle+for+the+soul+of+Islam">Heavy metal Islam rock, resistance, and the struggle for the soul of Islam</a>. New York: Crown Publishing Group. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0307449603.</li>
<li>Zaman, Hasan; Husain, Syed Sajjad. (1964). <a href="http://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/001249274">Pakistan: an anthology</a>. Dacca, Society for Pakistan Studies.</li>
<li>Ajay Garg (2010). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=z9gIaSHQ0XwC&q=conservatism+in+pakistan&pg=PA65">Angels of the Lost World</a>. New Delhi: Ajay Garg.</li></ul>
<h2 id="see-also">See also</h2>
<ul><li><a href="/facts/Socialism_in_Pakistan/l6eI4plQ">Socialism in Pakistan</a></li></ul>
<h2 id="external-links">External links</h2>
<ul><li><a href="http://electionpakistan2013.blogspot.com/2013/05/pakistan-muslim-league-nawaz-pml-n.html">Pakistan Muslim League</a></li></ul>

<h2 id="references">References</h2>

<ol>
<li id="fn:1">Cohen, Stephen P.; others (October 2011). The future of Pakistan. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press. ISBN 978-0815721819. <a href="978-0815721819" target="_blank">978-0815721819</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:2">"Religions: Islam 95%, other (includes Christian and Hindu, 2% Ahmadiyyah) 5%". CIA. The World Factbook on Pakistan. 2010. Archived from the original on 17 June 2009. Retrieved 28 August 2010. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090617014724/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2122.html?countryName=Pakistan&countryCode=PK®ionCode=sas&#pk" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20090617014724/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2122.html?countryName=Pakistan&countryCode=PK®ionCode=sas&#pk</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:3">"Pakistan, Islam in". Oxford Centre for Islamic Studies. Archived from the original on 18 June 2013. Retrieved 29 August 2010. Approximately 97 percent of Pakistanis are Muslims. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130618023219/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e1809?_hi=1&_pos=1" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20130618023219/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e1809?_hi=1&_pos=1</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:4">"Muslim Population—Statistics About the Muslim Population of the World". About.com. Archived from the original on 26 December 2018. Retrieved 27 July 2009. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181226143553/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e1809?_hi=1&_pos=1%20" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20181226143553/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e1809?_hi=1&_pos=1%20</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:5">Cohen, Stephen P. (2004). The idea of Pakistan (1. paperback ed.). Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 2004. p. 10. ISBN 0815715021. conservatism in pakistan Muslim League (N). <a href="0815715021" target="_blank">0815715021</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:6">Zaidi, S. Akbar (24 May 2013). "More than One Conservatism". Beta. Dawn Area Studies. Retrieved 29 July 2013. <a href="http://beta.dawn.com/news/1013368/more-than-one-conservatism" target="_blank">http://beta.dawn.com/news/1013368/more-than-one-conservatism</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:7">Zaidi, S. Akbar (24 May 2013). "More than One Conservatism". Beta. Dawn Area Studies. Retrieved 29 July 2013. <a href="http://beta.dawn.com/news/1013368/more-than-one-conservatism" target="_blank">http://beta.dawn.com/news/1013368/more-than-one-conservatism</a> <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:8">Talbot, Ian (1999). Pakistan: a modern history. New Delhi; New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-565073-0. <a href="978-0-19-565073-0" target="_blank">978-0-19-565073-0</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:9">Blood, Peter R. (1995). Pakistan: a country study. Washington, D.C.: Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. pp. 28–29. ISBN 978-0-8444-0834-7. Jinnah 1930. <a href="978-0-8444-0834-7" target="_blank">978-0-8444-0834-7</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:10">"Sir Muhammad Iqbal's 1930 Presidential Address". Speeches, Writings, and Statements of Iqbal. Retrieved 4 December 2007. <a href="http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00islamlinks/txt_iqbal_1930.html" target="_blank">http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00islamlinks/txt_iqbal_1930.html</a> <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:11">Mir, Mustansir (2006). Iqbal. London; New York: I. B. Tauris. p. 138. ISBN 978-1-84511-094-9. <a href="978-1-84511-094-9" target="_blank">978-1-84511-094-9</a> <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:12">Ihsan Aslam (11 February 2004). "The History Man: Cambridge remembers Rahmat Ali". Daily Times, Pakistan. Retrieved 4 December 2007. <a href="http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=story_11-2-2004_pg3_6" target="_blank">http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=story_11-2-2004_pg3_6</a> <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:13">Choudhary Rahmat Ali (28 January 1933). "Now or never: Are we to live or perish for ever?". Pakistan Movement Historical Documents. Retrieved 4 December 2007. <a href="http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00islamlinks/txt_rahmatali_1933.html" target="_blank">http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00islamlinks/txt_rahmatali_1933.html</a> <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:14">Beck, Sanderson. South Asia 1800-1950. <a href="http://www.san.beck.org/20-6-LiberatingIndia1934-50.html" target="_blank">http://www.san.beck.org/20-6-LiberatingIndia1934-50.html</a> <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:15">Hardy (1972). The Muslims of British India. CUP Archive. ISBN 978-0-521-09783-3. <a href="978-0-521-09783-3" target="_blank">978-0-521-09783-3</a> <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:16">McLeod, John (2015). The History of India (2nd ed.). Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood. p. 139. ISBN 978-1-61069-765-1. <a href="978-1-61069-765-1" target="_blank">978-1-61069-765-1</a> <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:17">"Objectives Resolution is passed". Story of Pakistan (1949). June 2003. Retrieved 12 May 2013. <a href="http://storyofpakistan.com/objectives-resolution-is-passed/" target="_blank">http://storyofpakistan.com/objectives-resolution-is-passed/</a> <a href="#fnref:17" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:18">"Objectives Resolution is passed". Story of Pakistan (1949). June 2003. Retrieved 12 May 2013. <a href="http://storyofpakistan.com/objectives-resolution-is-passed/" target="_blank">http://storyofpakistan.com/objectives-resolution-is-passed/</a> <a href="#fnref:18" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:19">"Objectives Resolution is passed". Story of Pakistan (1949). June 2003. Retrieved 12 May 2013. <a href="http://storyofpakistan.com/objectives-resolution-is-passed/" target="_blank">http://storyofpakistan.com/objectives-resolution-is-passed/</a> <a href="#fnref:19" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:20">"Presidential Election". Story of Pakistan. 1 June 2003. Retrieved 1 August 2013. <a href="http://storyofpakistan.com/presidential-election/" target="_blank">http://storyofpakistan.com/presidential-election/</a> <a href="#fnref:20" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:21">"Presidential Election". Story of Pakistan. 1 June 2003. Retrieved 1 August 2013. <a href="http://storyofpakistan.com/presidential-election/" target="_blank">http://storyofpakistan.com/presidential-election/</a> <a href="#fnref:21" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:22">"Presidential Election". Story of Pakistan. 1 June 2003. Retrieved 1 August 2013. <a href="http://storyofpakistan.com/presidential-election/" target="_blank">http://storyofpakistan.com/presidential-election/</a> <a href="#fnref:22" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:23">"Why has the Jamaat-e-Islami failed in Pakistani politics?". Irtiqa. Retrieved 1 August 2013. <a href="http://aunmkn.wordpress.com/2012/04/01/why-has-the-jamaat-e-islami-failed-in-pakistani-politics/" target="_blank">http://aunmkn.wordpress.com/2012/04/01/why-has-the-jamaat-e-islami-failed-in-pakistani-politics/</a> <a href="#fnref:23" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:24">"Why has the Jamaat-e-Islami failed in Pakistani politics?". Irtiqa. Retrieved 1 August 2013. <a href="http://aunmkn.wordpress.com/2012/04/01/why-has-the-jamaat-e-islami-failed-in-pakistani-politics/" target="_blank">http://aunmkn.wordpress.com/2012/04/01/why-has-the-jamaat-e-islami-failed-in-pakistani-politics/</a> <a href="#fnref:24" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:25">"Why has the Jamaat-e-Islami failed in Pakistani politics?". Irtiqa. Retrieved 1 August 2013. <a href="http://aunmkn.wordpress.com/2012/04/01/why-has-the-jamaat-e-islami-failed-in-pakistani-politics/" target="_blank">http://aunmkn.wordpress.com/2012/04/01/why-has-the-jamaat-e-islami-failed-in-pakistani-politics/</a> <a href="#fnref:25" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:26">"Why has the Jamaat-e-Islami failed in Pakistani politics?". Irtiqa. Retrieved 1 August 2013. <a href="http://aunmkn.wordpress.com/2012/04/01/why-has-the-jamaat-e-islami-failed-in-pakistani-politics/" target="_blank">http://aunmkn.wordpress.com/2012/04/01/why-has-the-jamaat-e-islami-failed-in-pakistani-politics/</a> <a href="#fnref:26" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:27">"The Constitution". The Constitution. June 2003. Retrieved 1 August 2013. <a href="http://storyofpakistan.com/the-constitution-of-1973/" target="_blank">http://storyofpakistan.com/the-constitution-of-1973/</a> <a href="#fnref:27" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:28">"General Elections 1977". General Elections 1977. June 2003. <a href="http://storyofpakistan.com/general-elections-1977/" target="_blank">http://storyofpakistan.com/general-elections-1977/</a> <a href="#fnref:28" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:29">"General Elections 1977". General Elections 1977. June 2003. <a href="http://storyofpakistan.com/general-elections-1977/" target="_blank">http://storyofpakistan.com/general-elections-1977/</a> <a href="#fnref:29" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:30">"General Elections 1977". General Elections 1977. June 2003. <a href="http://storyofpakistan.com/general-elections-1977/" target="_blank">http://storyofpakistan.com/general-elections-1977/</a> <a href="#fnref:30" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:31">"General Elections 1977". General Elections 1977. June 2003. <a href="http://storyofpakistan.com/general-elections-1977/" target="_blank">http://storyofpakistan.com/general-elections-1977/</a> <a href="#fnref:31" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:32">Cohen, Stephen P. (2004). The idea of Pakistan (1. paperback ed.). Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 2004. p. 10. ISBN 0815715021. conservatism in pakistan Muslim League (N). <a href="0815715021" target="_blank">0815715021</a> <a href="#fnref:32" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:33">"Afghan war settlement". Afghan war settlement. June 2003. Retrieved 29 July 2013. <a href="http://storyofpakistan.com/the-afghan-war-settlement/" target="_blank">http://storyofpakistan.com/the-afghan-war-settlement/</a> <a href="#fnref:33" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:34">"Rules of Democracy: The Zia period". Story of Pakistan Press Foundation. Foundation of Pakistan Studies. Retrieved 29 July 2013. <a href="http://storyofpakistan.com/the-rules-of-democracy/" target="_blank">http://storyofpakistan.com/the-rules-of-democracy/</a> <a href="#fnref:34" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:35">Haqqani, Hussain (2005). Pakistan:Between Mosque and Military; §From Islamic Republic to Islamic State. United States: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace (July 2005). pp. 395 pages. ISBN 978-0-87003-214-1. <a href="978-0-87003-214-1" target="_blank">978-0-87003-214-1</a> <a href="#fnref:35" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:36">"Rules of Democracy: The Zia period". Story of Pakistan Press Foundation. Foundation of Pakistan Studies. Retrieved 29 July 2013. <a href="http://storyofpakistan.com/the-rules-of-democracy/" target="_blank">http://storyofpakistan.com/the-rules-of-democracy/</a> <a href="#fnref:36" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:37">Patel, Aakar (8 August 2012). "In praise of Zia". Express Tribune, 2012. Retrieved 28 September 2013. <a href="http://tribune.com.pk/story/423864/in-praise-of-zia/" target="_blank">http://tribune.com.pk/story/423864/in-praise-of-zia/</a> <a href="#fnref:37" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:38">Haqqani, Hussain (2005). Pakistan:Between Mosque and Military; §From Islamic Republic to Islamic State. United States: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace (July 2005). pp. 395 pages. ISBN 978-0-87003-214-1. <a href="978-0-87003-214-1" target="_blank">978-0-87003-214-1</a> <a href="#fnref:38" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:39">"Rules of Democracy: The Zia period". Story of Pakistan Press Foundation. Foundation of Pakistan Studies. Retrieved 29 July 2013. <a href="http://storyofpakistan.com/the-rules-of-democracy/" target="_blank">http://storyofpakistan.com/the-rules-of-democracy/</a> <a href="#fnref:39" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:40">"Rules of Democracy: The Zia period". Story of Pakistan Press Foundation. Foundation of Pakistan Studies. Retrieved 29 July 2013. <a href="http://storyofpakistan.com/the-rules-of-democracy/" target="_blank">http://storyofpakistan.com/the-rules-of-democracy/</a> <a href="#fnref:40" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:41">Khan, Feroz Hassan (7 November 2012). Eating grass the making of the Pakistani bomb. Stanford, California: Stanford Security Studies, an imprint of Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0804784801. <a href="978-0804784801" target="_blank">978-0804784801</a> <a href="#fnref:41" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:42">Farooq Tirmizi (20 May 2012). "Setting the record straight: Not all dictators equal, nor all democrats incompetent". Express Tribune. Retrieved 29 July 2013. <a href="http://tribune.com.pk/story/381450/setting-the-record-straight-not-all-dictators-equal-nor-all-democrats-incompetent/" target="_blank">http://tribune.com.pk/story/381450/setting-the-record-straight-not-all-dictators-equal-nor-all-democrats-incompetent/</a> <a href="#fnref:42" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:43">Khanna, Sushil Khanna. "The Crisis in the Pakistan Economy". Sushil Khanna. Retrieved 16 November 2011. <a href="http://www.revolutionarydemocracy.org/rdv8n1/pakistan.htm" target="_blank">http://www.revolutionarydemocracy.org/rdv8n1/pakistan.htm</a> <a href="#fnref:43" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:44">"Rules of Democracy: The Zia period". Story of Pakistan Press Foundation. Foundation of Pakistan Studies. Retrieved 29 July 2013. <a href="http://storyofpakistan.com/the-rules-of-democracy/" target="_blank">http://storyofpakistan.com/the-rules-of-democracy/</a> <a href="#fnref:44" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:45">Nasir, Abbas (7 July 2012). "Zia's Long Shadow". Dawn Newspapers. Dawn Newspapers. Retrieved 2 December 2012. <a href="http://dawn.com/2012/07/07/zias-long-shadow/" target="_blank">http://dawn.com/2012/07/07/zias-long-shadow/</a> <a href="#fnref:45" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:46">"Pakistan's abused Ahmadis". The Economist. London. 13 January 2010. Retrieved 13 November 2011. <a href="http://www.economist.com/world/asia/displayStory.cfm?story_id=15266768" target="_blank">http://www.economist.com/world/asia/displayStory.cfm?story_id=15266768</a> <a href="#fnref:46" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:47">"Rules of Democracy: Historic 8th Amendment is passed". Historic 8th Amendment is passed. June 2003. Retrieved 29 July 2013. <a href="http://storyofpakistan.com/historic-8th-amendment-is-passed/" target="_blank">http://storyofpakistan.com/historic-8th-amendment-is-passed/</a> <a href="#fnref:47" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:48">Nadeem F. Paracha (28 March 2013). "Times of the Vital Sign". Dawn News, Nadeem F. Paracha. Archived from the original on 2 April 2013. Retrieved 3 April 2013. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130402133212/http://dawn.com/2013/03/28/times-of-the-signs/" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20130402133212/http://dawn.com/2013/03/28/times-of-the-signs/</a> <a href="#fnref:48" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:49">Nadeem F. Paracha (28 March 2013). "Times of the Vital Sign". Dawn News, Nadeem F. Paracha. Archived from the original on 2 April 2013. Retrieved 3 April 2013. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130402133212/http://dawn.com/2013/03/28/times-of-the-signs/" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20130402133212/http://dawn.com/2013/03/28/times-of-the-signs/</a> <a href="#fnref:49" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:50">Nadeem F. Paracha (28 March 2013). "Times of the Vital Sign". Dawn News, Nadeem F. Paracha. Archived from the original on 2 April 2013. Retrieved 3 April 2013. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130402133212/http://dawn.com/2013/03/28/times-of-the-signs/" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20130402133212/http://dawn.com/2013/03/28/times-of-the-signs/</a> <a href="#fnref:50" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:51">Lippert, Anna (2007). A Young Country with Many Leaders. Grin Publications. ISBN 978-3638588218. <a href="978-3638588218" target="_blank">978-3638588218</a> <a href="#fnref:51" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:52">Lippert, Anna (2007). A Young Country with Many Leaders. Grin Publications. ISBN 978-3638588218. <a href="978-3638588218" target="_blank">978-3638588218</a> <a href="#fnref:52" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:53">Lippert, Anna (2007). A Young Country with Many Leaders. Grin Publications. ISBN 978-3638588218. <a href="978-3638588218" target="_blank">978-3638588218</a> <a href="#fnref:53" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:54">Lippert, Anna (2007). A Young Country with Many Leaders. Grin Publications. ISBN 978-3638588218. <a href="978-3638588218" target="_blank">978-3638588218</a> <a href="#fnref:54" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:55">West, Barbara A. (2009). Encyclopedia of the peoples of Asia and Oceania. New York: Facts On File. ISBN 978-1438119137. <a href="978-1438119137" target="_blank">978-1438119137</a> <a href="#fnref:55" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:56">Qadeer, Mohammad (2012). Pakistan. Routledge. ISBN 978-1134186167. <a href="978-1134186167" target="_blank">978-1134186167</a> <a href="#fnref:56" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:57">Akbar, M.K. (1997). Pakistan from Jinnah to Sharif. New Delhi: Mittal Publications. ISBN 8170996740. <a href="8170996740" target="_blank">8170996740</a> <a href="#fnref:57" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:58">Kukreja, Veena (2003). Contemporary Pakistan: Political Processes, Conflicts and Crises. London: Sage Publications Ltd. ISBN 0761996834. <a href="0761996834" target="_blank">0761996834</a> <a href="#fnref:58" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:59">Gerges, James Wynbrandt ; foreword by Fawaz A. (2008). A Brief History of Pakistan. New York: Facts On File. ISBN 978-0816061846.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) <a href="978-0816061846" target="_blank">978-0816061846</a> <a href="#fnref:59" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:60">Gerges, James Wynbrandt ; foreword by Fawaz A. (2008). A Brief History of Pakistan. New York: Facts On File. ISBN 978-0816061846.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) <a href="978-0816061846" target="_blank">978-0816061846</a> <a href="#fnref:60" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:61">"Pakistan: A Nuclear Power". Story of Pakistan. June 2003. Retrieved 30 July 2013. <a href="http://storyofpakistan.com/pakistan-a-nuclear-power/" target="_blank">http://storyofpakistan.com/pakistan-a-nuclear-power/</a> <a href="#fnref:61" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:62">"Pakistan: A Nuclear Power". Story of Pakistan. June 2003. Retrieved 30 July 2013. <a href="http://storyofpakistan.com/pakistan-a-nuclear-power/" target="_blank">http://storyofpakistan.com/pakistan-a-nuclear-power/</a> <a href="#fnref:62" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:63">"Pakistan: A Nuclear Power". Story of Pakistan. June 2003. Retrieved 30 July 2013. <a href="http://storyofpakistan.com/pakistan-a-nuclear-power/" target="_blank">http://storyofpakistan.com/pakistan-a-nuclear-power/</a> <a href="#fnref:63" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:64">Aziz, Mazhar (2008). Military control in Pakistan the parallel state. London: Routledge, 2008. ISBN 978-0203933572. <a href="978-0203933572" target="_blank">978-0203933572</a> <a href="#fnref:64" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:65">West, Barbara A. (2009). Encyclopedia of the peoples of Asia and Oceania. New York: Facts On File. ISBN 978-1438119137. <a href="978-1438119137" target="_blank">978-1438119137</a> <a href="#fnref:65" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:66">John R. Schmidt (2011). The Unraveling: Pakistan in the Age of Jihad. United States: Macmillan. ISBN 978-1429969079. <a href="978-1429969079" target="_blank">978-1429969079</a> <a href="#fnref:66" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:67">"The Lahore Summit". The Lahore Summit. 1 June 2003. Retrieved 30 July 2013. <a href="http://storyofpakistan.com/the-lahore-declaration/" target="_blank">http://storyofpakistan.com/the-lahore-declaration/</a> <a href="#fnref:67" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:68">"Kargil Offensive". Story of Pakistan. Kargil Offensive. June 2003. Retrieved 30 July 2013. <a href="http://storyofpakistan.com/the-kargil-offensive/" target="_blank">http://storyofpakistan.com/the-kargil-offensive/</a> <a href="#fnref:68" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:69">West, Barbara A. (2009). Encyclopedia of the peoples of Asia and Oceania. New York: Facts On File. ISBN 978-1438119137. <a href="978-1438119137" target="_blank">978-1438119137</a> <a href="#fnref:69" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:70">Aziz, Mazhar (2008). Military control in Pakistan the parallel state. London: Routledge, 2008. ISBN 978-0203933572. <a href="978-0203933572" target="_blank">978-0203933572</a> <a href="#fnref:70" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:71">Haqqani, Hussain (2005). Pakistan:Between Mosque and Military; §From Islamic Republic to Islamic State. United States: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace (July 2005). pp. 395 pages. ISBN 978-0-87003-214-1. <a href="978-0-87003-214-1" target="_blank">978-0-87003-214-1</a> <a href="#fnref:71" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:72">Musharraf, Pervez (2006). In the line of fire : a memoir. New York [u.a.]: Free Press. ISBN 074-3283449. <a href="074-3283449" target="_blank">074-3283449</a> <a href="#fnref:72" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:73">Musharraf, Pervez (2006). In the line of fire : a memoir. New York [u.a.]: Free Press. ISBN 074-3283449. <a href="074-3283449" target="_blank">074-3283449</a> <a href="#fnref:73" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:74">"Why has the Jamaat-e-Islami failed in Pakistani politics?". Irtiqa. Retrieved 1 August 2013. <a href="http://aunmkn.wordpress.com/2012/04/01/why-has-the-jamaat-e-islami-failed-in-pakistani-politics/" target="_blank">http://aunmkn.wordpress.com/2012/04/01/why-has-the-jamaat-e-islami-failed-in-pakistani-politics/</a> <a href="#fnref:74" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:75">Hussain, Tauqir (2008). U. S. -Pakistan Engagement : The War On Terrorism And Beyond. US Institute of Peace: Tauqir Hussain, US Institute of Peace. ISBN 978-1437904253. <a href="978-1437904253" target="_blank">978-1437904253</a> <a href="#fnref:75" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:76">Ajay Garg (2010). Angels of the Lost World. New Delhi: Ajay Garg. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=z9gIaSHQ0XwC&q=conservatism+in+pakistan&pg=PA65" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=z9gIaSHQ0XwC&q=conservatism+in+pakistan&pg=PA65</a> <a href="#fnref:76" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
</ol>

Conservatism in Pakistan open-in-new

Conservatism in Pakistan