Eastern Europe

<h2 id="definitions">Definitions</h2>

Several definitions of Eastern Europe exist in the early 21st century, but they often lack precision and may be anachronistic. These definitions are debated across cultures and among experts, even <a href="/facts/Political_scientists/lmp4W6BD">political scientists</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21">21</a> as the term has a wide range of <a href="/facts/Geopolitical/4bmB8oCM">geopolitical</a>, geographical, cultural, and <a href="/facts/Socioeconomic/ywuuTTUN">socioeconomic</a> connotations. It has also been described as a "fuzzy" term, as the idea itself of Eastern Europe is in constant redefinition.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22">22</a> The solidification of the idea of an "Eastern Europe" dates back chiefly to the (French) <a href="/facts/Age_of_Enlightenment/Uj2Fa8Mk">Enlightenment</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23">23</a>
There are "almost as many definitions of Eastern Europe as there are scholars of the region".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24">24</a> A related <a href="/facts/United_Nations/fgXLnmgT">United Nations</a> paper adds that "every assessment of spatial identities is essentially a social and <a href="/facts/Cultural_construct/NeGDLvKL">cultural construct</a>".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25">25</a>

<h3>Geographical</h3>

While the eastern geographical boundaries of Europe are well defined, the boundary between Eastern and <a href="/facts/Western_Europe/YmWlV59w">Western Europe</a> is not geographical but historical, religious and cultural, and is harder to designate.
The <a href="/facts/Ural_Mountains/gzNoPkt6">Ural Mountains</a>, <a href="/facts/Ural_River/TyVBKfaq">Ural River</a>, and the <a href="/facts/Caucasus_Mountains/XwKHTVKe">Caucasus Mountains</a> are the <a href="/facts/Boundaries_between_continents/ySWqVsR8">geographical land border</a> of the eastern edge of Europe. E.g. <a href="/facts/Kazakhstan/Vfs8NI6e">Kazakhstan</a>, which is mainly located in <a href="/facts/Central_Asia/rB8k0CyT">Central Asia</a> with the most western parts of it located west of the <a href="/facts/Ural_River/TyVBKfaq">Ural River</a>, also shares a part of Eastern Europe.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26">26</a>
In the west, however, the historical and <a href="/facts/Culture/c5JgMqpX">cultural</a> boundaries of "Eastern Europe" are subject to some overlap and, most importantly, have undergone historical fluctuations, which makes a precise definition of the western geographic boundaries of Eastern Europe and the <a href="/facts/Geographical_midpoint_of_Europe/wdNL6sde">geographical midpoint of Europe</a> somewhat difficult.

<h3>Religious and cultural influence</h3>

After the <a href="/facts/East%25E2%2580%2593West_Schism/FDNED5X4">East–West Schism</a> of 1054, significant parts of Eastern Europe developed cultural unity and resistance to Catholic Western and Central Europe within the framework of the <a href="/facts/Eastern_Orthodox_Church/5n20Akh5">Eastern Orthodox Church</a>, <a href="/facts/Church_Slavonic/8R4I8vPs">Church Slavonic</a> language and the <a href="/facts/Cyrillic_alphabet/0btN3oWC">Cyrillic alphabet</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27">27</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28">28</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29">29</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30">30</a>
The earliest concept of Europe as a cultural sphere (instead of simply a geographic term) was formed by <a href="/facts/Alcuin_of_York/w7IbYBoX">Alcuin of York</a> during the <a href="/facts/Carolingian_Renaissance/6JFPzI29">Carolingian Renaissance</a> of the 9th century, limited to the territories that practised <a href="/facts/Western_Christianity/9YP8vhKs">Western Christianity</a> at the time. "European" as a cultural term did not include many of the territories under the influence of <a href="/facts/Eastern_Christianity/ks2ztPhI">Eastern Christianity</a> until the early nineteenth century.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31">31</a>
A large section of Eastern Europe is formed by countries with dominant Orthodox churches, like <a href="/facts/Belarus/vweHwgob">Belarus</a>, <a href="/facts/Bulgaria/Er5pY3YS">Bulgaria</a>, <a href="/facts/Cyprus/t9wL6lVK">Cyprus</a>, <a href="/facts/Georgia_(country)/ccBF8bBE">Georgia</a>, <a href="/facts/Greece/lqHw8bTB">Greece</a>, <a href="/facts/Moldova/qGBNGewt">Moldova</a>, <a href="/facts/Montenegro/QynKJrw5">Montenegro</a>, <a href="/facts/North_Macedonia/YpfcC5DA">North Macedonia</a>, <a href="/facts/Romania/yolzk5cN">Romania</a>, <a href="/facts/Russia/jfkCwyxn">Russia</a>, <a href="/facts/Serbia/U0LVzPdI">Serbia</a>, and <a href="/facts/Ukraine/Qof0uqAj">Ukraine</a>, for instance, as well as <a href="/facts/Armenia/t3GQx9sU">Armenia</a>, which is predominantly <a href="/facts/Armenian_Apostolic_Church/xo7TYjfU">Armenian Apostolic</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32">32</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33">33</a> Moreover, followers of Eastern Orthodoxy form considerable portions of the populations of predominantly Muslim <a href="/facts/Albania/8GP40BUD">Albania</a>, <a href="/facts/Bosnia_and_Herzegovina/jNVA1gPB">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a>, <a href="/facts/Kazakhstan/Vfs8NI6e">Kazakhstan</a>, and <a href="/facts/Kosovo/lbyzI6UW">Kosovo</a>, both historically and presently. The <a href="/facts/Eastern_Orthodox_Church/5n20Akh5">Eastern Orthodox Church</a> has played a prominent role in the history and culture of Eastern and <a href="/facts/Southeastern_Europe/zxgEvCdQ">Southeastern Europe</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34">34</a> To a lesser degree, forms of <a href="/facts/Eastern_Protestant_Christianity/668LJLr7">Eastern Protestantism</a> and <a href="/facts/Eastern_Catholic_Churches/TEupXfEm">Eastern Catholicism</a> have also been influential in Eastern Europe. Countries where Eastern Protestantism or Eastern Catholicism hold historical significance include Belarus, <a href="/facts/Croatia/MSS0yyvw">Croatia</a>, Greece, <a href="/facts/Hungary/YRedQLtI">Hungary</a>, <a href="/facts/Lithuania/dApVjLWW">Lithuania</a>, <a href="/facts/Poland/eXJ7fd0D">Poland</a>, Romania, Russia, <a href="/facts/Slovakia/gmJwpwM3">Slovakia</a>, <a href="/facts/Slovenia/EcYU22W4">Slovenia</a> and Ukraine.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35">35</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36">36</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37">37</a>
The schism refers to the historical break of communion and <a href="/facts/Theology/N71Fyw2M">theology</a> between the Eastern (Orthodox) and Western (Catholic) churches. Later developments meant that the divide was no longer solely between Catholic and Orthodox churches. From the 16th century, both Western and Eastern forms of Protestantism began to emerge in Europe.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38">38</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39">39</a> Additionally, Eastern Catholic Churches began to spread in Europe during the 16th and 17th centuries, following the establishment of the <a href="/facts/Ukrainian_Greek_Catholic_Church/FxlFVlWs">Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church</a> in 1596.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40">40</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:41" href="#fn:41">41</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:42" href="#fn:42">42</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:43" href="#fn:43">43</a> However, the concept of Eastern Catholicism itself predates this.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:44" href="#fn:44">44</a>
Since the Great Schism of 1054, Europe has been divided between <a href="/facts/Catholic_Church/rJ4F4gqH">Catholic</a> (and later additionally <a href="/facts/Protestant/NXja4K3g">Protestant</a>) churches in the West, and the <a href="/facts/Eastern_Orthodox_Christian/5n20Akh5">Eastern Orthodox Christian</a> (often incorrectly labelled "Greek Orthodox") churches in the east. The religious cleavage causes Eastern Orthodox countries to be often associated with Eastern Europe. A cleavage of this sort is, however, often problematic; for example, <a href="/facts/Greece/lqHw8bTB">Greece</a> is overwhelmingly Orthodox but is very rarely included in "Eastern Europe" for a variety of reasons, the most prominent being that Greece's history, for the most part, was more influenced by Mediterranean cultures and dynamics.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:45" href="#fn:45">45</a>

<h3>Cold War (1947–1991)</h3>
Main articles: <a href="/facts/Warsaw_Pact/SLEsUSAS">Warsaw Pact</a> and <a href="/facts/Eastern_Bloc/12f32hA7">Eastern Bloc</a>

The <a href="/facts/Revolutions_of_1989/gLWM6JLk">fall of the Iron Curtain</a> brought the end of the Cold War east–west division in Europe,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:46" href="#fn:46">46</a> but this geopolitical concept is sometimes still used for quick reference by the media.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:47" href="#fn:47">47</a> Another definition was used during the 40 years of <a href="/facts/Cold_War/spJdJQ3q">Cold War</a> between 1947 and 1989, and was more or less synonymous with the terms <a href="/facts/Eastern_Bloc/12f32hA7">Eastern Bloc</a> and <a href="/facts/Warsaw_Pact/SLEsUSAS">Warsaw Pact</a>. A similar definition names the formerly <a href="/facts/Communist/PkUwa9xK">communist</a> European <a href="/facts/State_(polity)/7ggBzTSk">states</a> outside the Soviet Union as Eastern Europe.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:48" href="#fn:48">48</a>
Historians and social scientists generally view such definitions as outdated or relegated.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:49" href="#fn:49">49</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:50" href="#fn:50">50</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:51" href="#fn:51">51</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:52" href="#fn:52">52</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:53" href="#fn:53">53</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:54" href="#fn:54">54</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:55" href="#fn:55">55</a>

<h3>EuroVoc</h3>

<a href="/facts/Eurovoc/VKVvI0Xs">EuroVoc</a>, a multilingual <a href="/facts/Thesaurus/w7xnH66H">thesaurus</a> maintained by the <a href="/facts/Publications_Office_of_the_European_Union/npUTPWCq">Publications Office of the European Union</a>, classifies Bulgaria, Croatia, Czechia, Hungary, Poland, Romania, Slovakia and Slovenia, plus the candidate countries Albania, North Macedonia and Serbia as <a href="/facts/Central_and_Eastern_Europe/JcsTveqo">Central and Eastern European</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:56" href="#fn:56">56</a>

<h3>Contemporary developments</h3>
In broadest definition, there are 28 countries that constitute the region of Eastern Europe: <a href="/facts/Albania/8GP40BUD">Albania</a>, <a href="/facts/Armenia/t3GQx9sU">Armenia</a>, <a href="/facts/Azerbaijan/Ho5joRTJ">Azerbaijan</a>, <a href="/facts/Belarus/vweHwgob">Belarus</a>, <a href="/facts/Bosnia_and_Herzegovina/jNVA1gPB">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a>, <a href="/facts/Bulgaria/Er5pY3YS">Bulgaria</a>, <a href="/facts/Croatia/MSS0yyvw">Croatia</a>, <a href="/facts/Cyprus/t9wL6lVK">Cyprus</a>, the <a href="/facts/Czech_Republic/vJYLD66Q">Czech Republic</a>, <a href="/facts/Estonia/PVjB16TI">Estonia</a>, <a href="/facts/Georgia_(country)/ccBF8bBE">Georgia</a>, <a href="/facts/Greece/lqHw8bTB">Greece</a>, <a href="/facts/Hungary/YRedQLtI">Hungary</a>, <a href="/facts/Kazakhstan/Vfs8NI6e">Kazakhstan</a>, <a href="/facts/Kosovo/lbyzI6UW">Kosovo</a>, <a href="/facts/Latvia/y2PSa8lx">Latvia</a>, <a href="/facts/Lithuania/dApVjLWW">Lithuania</a>, <a href="/facts/Moldova/qGBNGewt">Moldova</a>, <a href="/facts/Montenegro/QynKJrw5">Montenegro</a>, <a href="/facts/North_Macedonia/YpfcC5DA">North Macedonia</a>, <a href="/facts/Poland/eXJ7fd0D">Poland</a>, <a href="/facts/Romania/yolzk5cN">Romania</a>, <a href="/facts/Russia/jfkCwyxn">Russia</a>, <a href="/facts/Serbia/U0LVzPdI">Serbia</a>, <a href="/facts/Slovakia/gmJwpwM3">Slovakia</a>, <a href="/facts/Slovenia/EcYU22W4">Slovenia</a>, <a href="/facts/Turkey/KIYAWAs0">Turkey</a> (<a href="/facts/East_Thrace/9tznf4uK">East Thrace</a>), and <a href="/facts/Ukraine/Qof0uqAj">Ukraine</a>, all of which can be classified into any of the 6 categories below.

<h4>Baltic states</h4>
Main article: <a href="/facts/Baltic_states/s48uxWb6">Baltic states</a>
<a href="/facts/UNESCO/QSbkRv3o">UNESCO</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:57" href="#fn:57">57</a> <a href="/facts/EuroVoc/VKVvI0Xs">EuroVoc</a>, <a href="/facts/National_Geographic_Society/mlx2uHa4">National Geographic Society</a>, <a href="/facts/Committee_for_International_Cooperation_in_National_Research_in_Demography/Cu8U5skQ">Committee for International Cooperation in National Research in Demography</a>, and the STW Thesaurus for Economics place the Baltic states in <a href="/facts/Northern_Europe/u77t0yJI">Northern Europe</a>, whereas the CIA World Factbook places the region in Eastern Europe with a strong assimilation to <a href="/facts/Northern_Europe/u77t0yJI">Northern Europe</a>. Lithuania may alternatively be included in definitions of <a href="/facts/Central_Europe/VdxzSbJz">Central Europe</a> because of its historical ties to <a href="/facts/Poland/eXJ7fd0D">Poland</a> and the <a href="/facts/Catholic_Church/rJ4F4gqH">Catholic Church</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:58" href="#fn:58">58</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:59" href="#fn:59">59</a> Occasionally, Estonia and Latvia are also included. However, these countries are members of the <a href="/facts/Nordic-Baltic_Eight/NJd3tCwc">Nordic-Baltic Eight</a> regional cooperation forum whereas Central European countries formed their own alliance called the <a href="/facts/Visegr%25C3%25A1d_Group/gfCdoITB">Visegrád Group</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:60" href="#fn:60">60</a> The <a href="/facts/Northern_Future_Forum/qvmY15Jy">Northern Future Forum</a>, the <a href="/facts/Nordic_Investment_Bank/jYMMFVRh">Nordic Investment Bank</a>, the <a href="/facts/Nordic_Battlegroup/Pt4f7wFo">Nordic Battlegroup</a>, the <a href="/facts/Nordic-Baltic_Eight/NJd3tCwc">Nordic-Baltic Eight</a> and the <a href="/facts/New_Hanseatic_League/MMbJepeS">New Hanseatic League</a> are other examples of <a href="/facts/Northern_Europe/u77t0yJI">Northern European</a> cooperation that includes the three countries collectively referred to as the Baltic states.

<ul><li><a href="/facts/Estonia/PVjB16TI">Estonia</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Latvia/y2PSa8lx">Latvia</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Lithuania/dApVjLWW">Lithuania</a></li></ul>
<h4>Caucasus states</h4>
Main article: <a href="/facts/Caucasus/sE8P8Ejg">Caucasus</a>
The <a href="/facts/South_Caucasus/MQaTkhRJ">South Caucasus</a> nations of <a href="/facts/Armenia/t3GQx9sU">Armenia</a>, <a href="/facts/Azerbaijan/Ho5joRTJ">Azerbaijan</a>, and <a href="/facts/Georgia_(country)/ccBF8bBE">Georgia</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:61" href="#fn:61">61</a> are included in <a href="/facts/Boundaries_between_continents/ySWqVsR8">definitions</a> or histories of Eastern Europe. They are located in the transition zone of Eastern Europe and Western Asia. They participate in the <a href="/facts/European_Union/6GYcR8qM">European Union</a>'s <a href="/facts/Eastern_Partnership/6dAdIMxW">Eastern Partnership</a> program, the <a href="/facts/Euronest_Parliamentary_Assembly/1mIEotkR">Euronest Parliamentary Assembly</a>, and are members of the <a href="/facts/Council_of_Europe/51I3TyDg">Council of Europe</a>, which specifies that all three have political and cultural connections to Europe. In January 2002, the <a href="/facts/European_Parliament/H9WLUd1r">European Parliament</a> noted that Armenia and Georgia may enter the EU in the future.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:62" href="#fn:62">62</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:63" href="#fn:63">63</a> Georgia and Armenia are seeking EU membership, with Georgia also seeking NATO membership alongside.

<ul><li><a href="/facts/Armenia/t3GQx9sU">Armenia</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Azerbaijan/Ho5joRTJ">Azerbaijan</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Georgia_(country)/ccBF8bBE">Georgia</a></li></ul>
There are two de facto <a href="/facts/List_of_states_with_limited_recognition/CgR9Rny1">republics with limited recognition</a> in the South Caucasus region that exist under the presence of Russian military. Both states participate in the <a href="/facts/Community_for_Democracy_and_Rights_of_Nations/Doqpoqzd">Community for Democracy and Rights of Nations</a>: 

<ul><li><a href="/facts/Abkhazia/7to1809j">Abkhazia</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/South_Ossetia/AF7z9Q3Q">South Ossetia</a></li></ul>
Former republics with limited recognition:

<ul><li><a href="/facts/Chechen_Republic_of_Ichkeria/o3pAkwlg">Chechen Republic of Ichkeria</a> (1991–2000) – existed in former Soviet territory until it was driven into exile during the <a href="/facts/Second_Chechen_War/yYtF25ST">Second Chechen War</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Republic_of_Artsakh/3gTq2aY4">Republic of Artsakh</a> (1991–2023) – breakaway state from Azerbaijan that ceased to exist by 1 January 2024<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:64" href="#fn:64">64</a></li></ul>
<h4>Post-Soviet states</h4>
Main article: <a href="/facts/Post-Soviet_States/usrFwWTU">Post-Soviet States</a>
Some <a href="/facts/Post-Soviet_states/usrFwWTU">European republics</a> of the former <a href="/facts/Soviet_Union/m7wWsPto">Soviet Union</a> are considered a part of Eastern Europe:

<ul><li><a href="/facts/Belarus/vweHwgob">Belarus</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Moldova/qGBNGewt">Moldova</a> (sometimes considered a part of the <a href="/facts/Balkans/5Hy8ly0d">Balkans</a> or <a href="/facts/Southeast_Europe/zxgEvCdQ">Southeast Europe</a>)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:65" href="#fn:65">65</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Russia/jfkCwyxn">Russia</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Ukraine/Qof0uqAj">Ukraine</a></li></ul>
<a href="/facts/List_of_states_with_limited_recognition/CgR9Rny1">Unrecognized states</a>:

<ul><li><a href="/facts/Transnistria/uSqmpMAd">Transnistria</a></li></ul>
<h4>Central Europe</h4>
Main article: <a href="/facts/Central_Europe/VdxzSbJz">Central Europe</a>
The term "Central Europe" is often used by historians to designate states formerly belonging to the <a href="/facts/Holy_Roman_Empire/6mdobnXN">Holy Roman Empire</a>, the <a href="/facts/Habsburg_monarchy/ctwsV3TC">Habsburg Empire</a>, and the <a href="/facts/Polish%25E2%2580%2593Lithuanian_Commonwealth/Tt0zAlQD">Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a>.
In some media, "Central Europe" can thus partially overlap with "Eastern Europe" of the Cold War Era. The following countries are labelled Central European by some commentators, though others still consider them to be Eastern European.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:66" href="#fn:66">66</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:67" href="#fn:67">67</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:68" href="#fn:68">68</a>

<ul><li><a href="/facts/Czech_Republic/vJYLD66Q">Czech Republic</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Croatia/MSS0yyvw">Croatia</a> (can variously be included in <a href="/facts/Southeast_Europe/zxgEvCdQ">Southeastern</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:69" href="#fn:69">69</a> or <a href="/facts/Central_Europe/VdxzSbJz">Central Europe</a>)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:70" href="#fn:70">70</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Hungary/YRedQLtI">Hungary</a> (most often placed in <a href="/facts/Central_Europe/VdxzSbJz">Central Europe</a> but sometimes in <a href="/facts/Southeast_Europe/zxgEvCdQ">Southeastern Europe</a>)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:71" href="#fn:71">71</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Lithuania/dApVjLWW">Lithuania</a> (can variously be included in <a href="/facts/Northeastern_Europe/vmCF5rrq">Northeastern</a> or <a href="/facts/Central_Europe/VdxzSbJz">Central Europe</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Poland/eXJ7fd0D">Poland</a> (sometimes placed in Eastern Europe)</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Romania/yolzk5cN">Romania</a> (can be included in <a href="/facts/Southeast_Europe/zxgEvCdQ">Southeastern Europe</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:72" href="#fn:72">72</a> or partially in <a href="/facts/Central_Europe/VdxzSbJz">Central Europe</a>)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:73" href="#fn:73">73</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Serbia/U0LVzPdI">Serbia</a> (most often placed in <a href="/facts/Southeast_Europe/zxgEvCdQ">Southeastern Europe</a> but sometimes partially included in <a href="/facts/Central_Europe/VdxzSbJz">Central Europe</a>)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:74" href="#fn:74">74</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Slovakia/gmJwpwM3">Slovakia</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Slovenia/EcYU22W4">Slovenia</a> (most often placed in <a href="/facts/Central_Europe/VdxzSbJz">Central Europe</a> but sometimes in <a href="/facts/Southeast_Europe/zxgEvCdQ">Southeastern Europe</a>)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:75" href="#fn:75">75</a></li></ul>
<h4>Southeastern Europe/ Balkan states</h4>
Main articles: <a href="/facts/Southeast_Europe/zxgEvCdQ">Southeast Europe</a> and <a href="/facts/Balkans/5Hy8ly0d">Balkans</a>
Some countries in <a href="/facts/Southeast_Europe/zxgEvCdQ">Southeast Europe</a> can be considered part of Eastern Europe. Some of them can sometimes, albeit rarely, be characterized as belonging to <a href="/facts/Southern_Europe/MlkLQsUc">Southern Europe</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:76" href="#fn:76">76</a> and some may also be included in <a href="/facts/Central_Europe/VdxzSbJz">Central Europe</a>.
In some media, "Southeast Europe" can thus partially overlap with "Eastern Europe" of the Cold War Era. The following countries are labelled Southeast European by some commentators, though others still consider them to be Eastern European.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:77" href="#fn:77">77</a>
The following eleven countries are generally considered to be part of the Balkans by most definitions:

<ul><li><a href="/facts/Albania/8GP40BUD">Albania</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Bosnia_and_Herzegovina/jNVA1gPB">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Bulgaria/Er5pY3YS">Bulgaria</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Croatia/MSS0yyvw">Croatia</a> (can variously be included in Southeastern<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:78" href="#fn:78">78</a> or Central Europe)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:79" href="#fn:79">79</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Greece/lqHw8bTB">Greece</a> (Sometimes grouped in Southern Europe with countries like <a href="/facts/Italy/tUf0PDYF">Italy</a>, <a href="/facts/Spain/bIyrB8EY">Spain</a> and <a href="/facts/Portugal/lYzwDQ63">Portugal</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Montenegro/QynKJrw5">Montenegro</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/North_Macedonia/YpfcC5DA">North Macedonia</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Romania/yolzk5cN">Romania</a> (can variously be included in Southeastern<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:80" href="#fn:80">80</a> or Central Europe)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:81" href="#fn:81">81</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Serbia/U0LVzPdI">Serbia</a> (mostly placed in Southeastern but sometimes in Central Europe)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:82" href="#fn:82">82</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Slovenia/EcYU22W4">Slovenia</a> (most often placed in Central Europe but sometimes in Southeastern Europe)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:83" href="#fn:83">83</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:84" href="#fn:84">84</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Turkey/KIYAWAs0">Turkey</a> (<a href="/facts/East_Thrace/9tznf4uK">East Thrace</a>, the portion west of the <a href="/facts/Turkish_Straits/5pbGTezD">Turkish Straits</a>)</li></ul>
Additionally, although they have no territory on the Balkan Peninsula, the following countries are sometimes incorporated in the Balkans region, or Southeastern Europe, for cultural and historical affiliations:<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:85" href="#fn:85">85</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:86" href="#fn:86">86</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:87" href="#fn:87">87</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:88" href="#fn:88">88</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:89" href="#fn:89">89</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:90" href="#fn:90">90</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:91" href="#fn:91">91</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:92" href="#fn:92">92</a>

<ul><li><a href="/facts/Cyprus/t9wL6lVK">Cyprus</a> (geographically in <a href="/facts/West_Asia/xXM15vIz">West Asia</a>, though most often considered a part of Southeastern Europe)</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Hungary/YRedQLtI">Hungary</a> (most often placed in Central Europe, sometimes considered part of Southeastern Europe and the Balkans)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:93" href="#fn:93">93</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:94" href="#fn:94">94</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Moldova/qGBNGewt">Moldova</a> (usually grouped with the non-Baltic post-Soviet states, sometimes considered part of Southeastern Europe and the Balkans)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:95" href="#fn:95">95</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:96" href="#fn:96">96</a></li></ul>
<a href="/facts/List_of_states_with_limited_recognition/CgR9Rny1">Partially recognized states</a>:

<ul><li><a href="/facts/Kosovo/lbyzI6UW">Kosovo</a></li></ul>
<h4>Kazakhstan</h4>
Despite being frequently classified as a <a href="/facts/Central_Asia/rB8k0CyT">Central Asian</a> country, about 4% of <a href="/facts/Kazakhstan/Vfs8NI6e">Kazakhstan</a>'s territory, situated west of the <a href="/facts/Ural_(river)/TyVBKfaq">Ural River</a>, geographically lies in Eastern Europe, thus technically making it a <a href="/facts/List_of_transcontinental_countries/qtdBHpUb">transcontinental country</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:97" href="#fn:97">97</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:98" href="#fn:98">98</a>

<h2 id="history">History</h2>

<h3>Classical antiquity and medieval origins</h3>
Ancient kingdoms of the region included <a href="/facts/Orontid_Armenia/kq85z22H">Orontid Armenia</a>, <a href="/facts/Caucasian_Albania/jppU4yPe">Caucasian Albania</a>, <a href="/facts/Colchis/9VuhBeoK">Colchis</a> and <a href="/facts/Kingdom_of_Iberia_(antiquity)/U34IMNlv">Iberia</a> (not to be confused with the <a href="/facts/Iberian_Peninsula/ztFXI8zt">Iberian Peninsula</a> in <a href="/facts/Western_Europe/YmWlV59w">Western Europe</a>), of which the former two were the predecessor states of <a href="/facts/Armenia/t3GQx9sU">Armenia</a> and <a href="/facts/Azerbaijan/Ho5joRTJ">Azerbaijan</a> respectively, while the latter two were the predecessor states of modern-day <a href="/facts/Georgia_(country)/ccBF8bBE">Georgia</a>. These peripheral kingdoms were, either from the start or later on, incorporated into various Iranian empires, including the <a href="/facts/Achaemenid_Empire/avlzWxF0">Achaemenid Persian</a>, <a href="/facts/Parthian_Empire/2Yxcllsk">Parthian</a>, and <a href="/facts/Sassanid_Persian/jfUYbHbt">Sassanid Persian</a> Empires.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:99" href="#fn:99">99</a> Parts of the <a href="/facts/Balkans/5Hy8ly0d">Balkans</a> and some more northern areas were ruled by the <a href="/facts/Achaemenid_Empire/avlzWxF0">Achaemenid Persians</a> as well, including <a href="/facts/Thrace/26TVWCL0">Thrace</a>, <a href="/facts/Paeonia_(kingdom)/xsfbfobP">Paeonia</a>, <a href="/facts/Macedon/g0F1DEgc">Macedon</a>, and most of the <a href="/facts/Black_Sea/M0rLKvge">Black Sea</a> coastal regions of <a href="/facts/Romania/yolzk5cN">Romania</a>, <a href="/facts/Ukraine/Qof0uqAj">Ukraine</a>, and <a href="/facts/Russia/jfkCwyxn">Russia</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:100" href="#fn:100">100</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:101" href="#fn:101">101</a> Owing to the rivalry between the <a href="/facts/Parthian_Empire/2Yxcllsk">Parthian Empire</a> and <a href="/facts/Roman_Empire/l4E1aUuV">Rome</a>, and later between <a href="/facts/Byzantine_Empire/njEELXWF">Byzantium</a> and the <a href="/facts/Sassanid_Persians/JvbRevkA">Sassanid Persians</a>, the Parthians would invade the region several times, although it was never able to hold the area, unlike the Sassanids who controlled most of the <a href="/facts/Caucasus/sE8P8Ejg">Caucasus</a> during their entire rule.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:102" href="#fn:102">102</a>

The earliest known distinctions between east and west in Europe originate in the history of the <a href="/facts/Roman_Republic/Han0FRLT">Roman Republic</a>. As the Roman domain expanded, a cultural and linguistic division appeared. The mainly <a href="/facts/Koine_Greek/StKuT1sY">Greek-speaking</a> eastern provinces had formed the highly urbanized <a href="/facts/Hellenistic_civilization/q6BgQsaF">Hellenistic civilization</a>. In contrast, the western territories largely adopted the <a href="/facts/Latin_language/pM3Kge85">Latin language</a>. The cultural and linguistic division was eventually reinforced by the later political east–west division of the <a href="/facts/Roman_Empire/l4E1aUuV">Roman Empire</a>. The division between these two spheres deepened during <a href="/facts/Late_Antiquity/sPTl0dyD">Late Antiquity</a> and the <a href="/facts/Middle_Ages/RqzEKB9v">Middle Ages</a> because of a number of events. The <a href="/facts/Western_Roman_Empire/PkeT92o9">Western Roman Empire</a> collapsed in the 5th century, marking the start of the <a href="/facts/Early_Middle_Ages/9FrTq3rt">Early Middle Ages</a>. By contrast, the <a href="/facts/Eastern_Roman_Empire/njEELXWF">Eastern Roman Empire</a>, called the "<a href="/facts/Byzantine_Empire/njEELXWF">Byzantine Empire</a>" in the West, had a survival strategy that kept it alive for another 1,000 years.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:103" href="#fn:103">103</a>
The rise of the <a href="/facts/Carolingian_Empire/kyp74kXx">Frankish Empire</a> in the west and in particular the <a href="/facts/East%25E2%2580%2593West_Schism/FDNED5X4">Great Schism</a>, which formally divided <a href="/facts/Eastern_Christianity/ks2ztPhI">Eastern</a> and <a href="/facts/Western_Christianity/9YP8vhKs">Western Christianity</a> in 1054, heightened the cultural and religious distinctiveness between Eastern and Western Europe. Much of Eastern Europe <a href="/facts/Mongol_occupation_of_Eastern_Europe/P7aedXxS">was invaded and occupied by the Mongols</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:104" href="#fn:104">104</a>
During the <a href="/facts/Ostsiedlung/FqFSCa46">Ostsiedlung</a>, towns founded under <a href="/facts/Magdeburg_rights/0pg5dLec">Magdeburg rights</a> became centres of economic development and <a href="/facts/History_of_German_settlement_in_Central_and_Eastern_Europe/KVXbxAw7">scattered German settlements</a> were founded in parts of Eastern Europe.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:105" href="#fn:105">105</a> Introduction of German town law is often seen as a second great step after introduction of Christianity at the turn of the first and the second millennia. The ensuing modernization of society and economy allowed the increased role played by the rulers of <a href="/facts/Bohemia/Wbr8gt6l">Bohemia</a> and <a href="/facts/Poland/eXJ7fd0D">Poland</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:106" href="#fn:106">106</a>

<h3>1453 to 1918</h3>
The conquest of the Byzantine Empire, the centre of the <a href="/facts/Eastern_Orthodox_Church/5n20Akh5">Eastern Orthodox Church</a>, by the <a href="/facts/Ottoman_Empire/6QvfTRsg">Ottoman Empire</a> in the 15th century and the gradual fragmentation of the <a href="/facts/Holy_Roman_Empire/6mdobnXN">Holy Roman Empire</a> (which had replaced the Frankish Empire) led to a change of the importance of <a href="/facts/Catholic_Church/rJ4F4gqH">Catholic</a>/<a href="/facts/Protestant/NXja4K3g">Protestant</a> vs. <a href="/facts/Eastern_Orthodox/5n20Akh5">Eastern Orthodox</a> concept in Europe. Armour points out that <a href="/facts/Cyrillic/0btN3oWC">Cyrillic</a>-alphabet use is not a strict determinant for Eastern Europe, where from Croatia to Poland and everywhere in between, the Latin alphabet is used.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:107" href="#fn:107">107</a> Greece's status as the cradle of Western civilization and an integral part of the Western world in the political, cultural and economic spheres has led to it being nearly always classified as belonging not to Eastern but Southern or Western Europe.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:108" href="#fn:108">108</a> During the late-sixteenth and early-seventeenth centuries, Eastern Europe enjoyed a relatively high <a href="/facts/Standard_of_living/oKRuG57a">standard of living</a>. This period is also called the east-central European golden age of around 1600.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:109" href="#fn:109">109</a> At the beginning of the 17th century, <a href="/facts/Numeracy/zkb2Lo1u">numeracy</a> levels in eastern Europe were relatively low although regional differences existed. During the 18th century, the region began to catch up with western Europe but did not develop as rapidly. Areas with stronger female autonomy developed more quickly in terms of numeracy.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:110" href="#fn:110">110</a>

<h3>Serfdom</h3>
<a href="/facts/Serfdom/HyajBMeR">Serfdom</a> was a prevalent status of agricultural workers until the 19th century. It resembled slavery in terms of lack of freedom, with the distinction that the landowners could not buy and sell serfs separately from the specific plots of land to which they were permanently attached. The system emerged in the 14th and the 15th centuries while it was declining in Western Europe.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:111" href="#fn:111">111</a> The climax came in the 17th and 18th century. The early 19th century saw its decline, marked especially by the abolition of serfdom in Russia in 1861. Emancipation meant that the ex-serfs paid for their freedom with annual cash payments to their former masters for decades. The system varied widely by country and was not as standardized as in Western Europe. Historians until the 20th century focused on master-serf economic and labor relations, portraying the serfs as slave-like, passive, and isolated, and 20th-century scholars downplayed the evils and emphasized the complexities.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:112" href="#fn:112">112</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:113" href="#fn:113">113</a>

<h3>Lack of industrialization during the long nineteenth century</h3>
Before 1870 and to some extent until <a href="/facts/World_War_I/vITTUanQ">World War I</a> (the end of the <a href="/facts/Long_nineteenth_century/YJ8nsvJw">long nineteenth century</a>), the industrialization that had started to develop in Northwestern and <a href="/facts/Central_Europe/VdxzSbJz">Central Europe</a> and the <a href="/facts/United_States/P0sCdLe5">United States</a> did not extend in any significant way to the rest of the world. Even in Eastern Europe, industrialization lagged far behind. <a href="/facts/Russia/jfkCwyxn">Russia</a>, for example, remained largely rural and agricultural, and its autocratic rulers kept the peasants largely in serfdom.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:114" href="#fn:114">114</a>

<h3>Interwar period (1919–1939)</h3>
Further information: <a href="/facts/International_relations_(1919%25E2%2580%25931939)/TSbkxCBS">International relations (1919–1939)</a> and <a href="/facts/Interwar_era/EWLuS41R">Interwar era</a>
A major result of World War I was the breakup of the Russian, Austro-Hungarian, and Ottoman Empires, as well as partial losses to the German Empire. A surge of ethnic nationalism created a series of new states in Eastern Europe, validated by the <a href="/facts/Versailles_Treaty_of_1919/BsNmjaqV">Versailles Treaty of 1919</a>. <a href="/facts/Second_Polish_Republic/YEYGMvn9">Poland was reconstituted</a> after the <a href="/facts/Partitions_of_Poland/kyVSVxEc">partitions of the 1790s</a> had divided it between Prussia, Austria, and Russia. New or renewed countries included Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Ukraine (which was <a href="/facts/History_of_Ukraine/w7AEHeXR">soon absorbed</a> by the Soviet Union), Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia. Austria and Hungary had much-reduced boundaries. The new states included sizeable ethnic minorities, which were to be protected according to the <a href="/facts/League_of_Nations/PQlcKzXs">League of Nations</a> minority protection regime.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:115" href="#fn:115">115</a> Throughout Eastern Europe, ethnic Germans constituted by far the largest single ethnic minority.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:116" href="#fn:116">116</a> In some areas, as in the <a href="/facts/Sudetenland/r9pXRhIv">Sudetenland</a>, regions of <a href="/facts/Poland/eXJ7fd0D">Poland</a> and parts of <a href="/facts/Styria_(Slovenia)/eeSCGG5b">Slovenia</a>, German-speakers constituted the local majority, which created conflict regarding demands of self-determination.
Romania, Bulgaria and Albania likewise were independent. Many of the countries were still largely rural, with little industry and only a few urban centres. Nationalism was the dominant force, but most of the countries had ethnic or religious minorities, which felt threatened by majority elements. Nearly all became democratic in the 1920s, but all of them (except Czechoslovakia and Finland) gave up democracy during the depression years of the 1930s in favour of autocratic, strong-man or single-party states. The new states were unable to form stable military alliances and one by one were too weak to stand up against Nazi Germany or the Soviet Union, which took them over between 1938 and 1945.

<h3>World War II and onset of the Cold War</h3>
Russia ended its participation in World War I in March 1918 and lost territory, as the Baltic countries and Poland became independent. The region was the main battlefield in the Second World War (1939–45), with the German and Soviet Armies sweeping back and forth; millions of Jews and others being killed by the Nazis in <a href="/facts/Generalplan_Ost/JmPmGnoj">Generalplan Ost</a>; and millions of others killed by disease, starvation, and military action, or executed after being deemed as politically dangerous.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:117" href="#fn:117">117</a> During the final stages of World War II, the future of Eastern Europe was decided by the overwhelming power of the Soviet Army, which swept the Germans aside. It did not reach Yugoslavia and Albania, however. Finland was free but forced to be neutral in the upcoming Cold War.
Throughout Eastern Europe, <a href="/facts/History_of_German_settlement_in_Central_and_Eastern_Europe/KVXbxAw7">German-speaking populations</a> <a href="/facts/Flight_and_expulsion_of_Germans_(1944%25E2%2580%25931950)/sf61nrlX">were expelled</a> to the <a href="/facts/West_Germany/oCydk787">reduced borders of Germany</a> (or even <a href="/facts/Austria/4qWIMIyc">Austria</a>) in one of the largest ethnic cleansing operations in history.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:118" href="#fn:118">118</a> Regions where Germans had formed the local population majority were re-settled with Polish- or Czech-speakers.
The region fell to Soviet control, and communist governments were imposed. Yugoslavia, Albania and later Romania had their own communist regimes independent of Moscow. The <a href="/facts/Eastern_Bloc/12f32hA7">Eastern Bloc</a> at the onset of the Cold War in 1947 was far behind the Western European countries in economic rebuilding and economic progress. Winston Churchill, in his well-known "<a href="/facts/Sinews_of_Peace/V19wsHct">Sinews of Peace</a>" address of 5 March 1946, at <a href="/facts/Westminster_College%2c_Missouri/YMf7qGAC">Westminster College</a> in <a href="/facts/Fulton%2c_Missouri/pFakdxjv">Fulton</a>, Missouri, stressed the geopolitical impact of the "iron curtain":

<blockquote>From <a href="/facts/Szczecin/BCmb6DUv">Stettin</a> in the <a href="/facts/Baltic_Sea/jbQJGLQX">Baltic</a> to <a href="/facts/Trieste/I6eRqWpA">Trieste</a> in the <a href="/facts/Adriatic_Sea/v5I5Jl3f">Adriatic</a> an iron curtain has descended across the Continent. Behind that line lie all the capitals of the ancient states of <a href="/facts/Central_Europe/VdxzSbJz">Central</a> and Eastern Europe: <a href="/facts/Warsaw/0cRqN3pw">Warsaw</a>, <a href="/facts/Berlin/pMTIRNXK">Berlin</a>, <a href="/facts/Prague/txpRNTUE">Prague</a>, <a href="/facts/Vienna/NSpIURsA">Vienna</a>, <a href="/facts/Budapest/VdcUAkxm">Budapest</a>, <a href="/facts/Belgrade/Xeaz5zIy">Belgrade</a>, <a href="/facts/Bucharest/4xQnsGwM">Bucharest</a>, and <a href="/facts/Sofia/2DVkVamk">Sofia</a>.</blockquote>

<h4>Eastern Bloc</h4>
Further information: <a href="/facts/Eastern_Bloc/12f32hA7">Eastern Bloc</a>
Eastern Europe after 1945 usually meant all the European countries liberated from Nazi Germany and then occupied by the Soviet Army. It included the <a href="/facts/German_Democratic_Republic/PwI902Q6">German Democratic Republic</a> (also known as East Germany), formed by the <a href="/facts/Soviet_occupation_zone/sA0UH496">Soviet occupation zone</a> of Germany. All countries in Eastern Europe adopted communist modes of control by 1948. They were officially independent of the Soviet Union, but the practical extent of this independence was quite limited. Yugoslavia and Albania had Communist control that was independent of the Kremlin.
The communists had a natural reservoir of popularity in that they had destroyed the German invaders.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:119" href="#fn:119">119</a> Their goal was to guarantee long-term working-class solidarity. The Soviet secret police, the <a href="/facts/NKVD/IA8Nwh1T">NKVD</a>, working in collaboration with local communists, created secret police forces using leadership trained in Moscow. This new secret police arrived to arrest political enemies according to prepared lists.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:120" href="#fn:120">120</a> The national communists then took power in a gradualist manner and were backed by the Soviets in many, but not all, cases. For a while, co-operative non-communist parties were tolerated.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:121" href="#fn:121">121</a> The communist governments nationalized private businesses, placed them under state ownership and monitored the media and the churches.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:122" href="#fn:122">122</a> When dividing up government offices with coalition partners, the communists took control of the interior ministries, which controlled the local police.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:123" href="#fn:123">123</a> They also took control of the mass media, especially radio,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:124" href="#fn:124">124</a> as well as the education system.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:125" href="#fn:125">125</a> They confiscated and redistributed farmland<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:126" href="#fn:126">126</a> and seized control of or replaced the organizations of civil society, such as church groups, sports, youth groups, trade unions, farmers' organizations, and civic organizations. In some countries, they engaged in large-scale ethnic cleansing by moving ethnic groups such as Germans, Poles, Ukrainians and Hungarians far away from where they had lived, often with high loss of life, and relocating them within the new post-war borders of their respective countries.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:127" href="#fn:127">127</a>
Under Stalin's direct instructions, these nations rejected grants from the American <a href="/facts/Marshall_Plan/tzYxovlM">Marshall Plan</a>. Instead, they joined the <a href="/facts/Molotov_Plan/0lWCIv1m">Molotov Plan</a>, which later evolved into the <a href="/facts/Comecon/UbuffFhf">Comecon</a> (Council for Mutual Economic Assistance). When <a href="/facts/NATO/dCeTddMY">NATO</a> was created in 1949, most countries of Eastern Europe became members of the opposing <a href="/facts/Warsaw_Pact/SLEsUSAS">Warsaw Pact</a>, forming a geopolitical concept that became known as the <a href="/facts/Eastern_Bloc/12f32hA7">Eastern Bloc</a>. This consisted of:

<ul><li>First and foremost was the <a href="/facts/Soviet_Union/m7wWsPto">Soviet Union</a> (which included the modern-day territories of <a href="/facts/Russia/jfkCwyxn">Russia</a>, <a href="/facts/Belarus/vweHwgob">Belarus</a>, <a href="/facts/Ukraine/Qof0uqAj">Ukraine</a> and <a href="/facts/Moldova/qGBNGewt">Moldova</a> and the illegally occupied <a href="/facts/Lithuania/dApVjLWW">Lithuania</a>, <a href="/facts/Latvia/y2PSa8lx">Latvia</a> and <a href="/facts/Estonia/PVjB16TI">Estonia</a>). Other countries dominated by the Soviet Union were the <a href="/facts/East_Germany/PwI902Q6">German Democratic Republic</a>, <a href="/facts/People%2527s_Republic_of_Poland/hypM0C8R">People's Republic of Poland</a>, <a href="/facts/Czechoslovak_Socialist_Republic/gJIrAxHu">Czechoslovak Socialist Republic</a>, <a href="/facts/People%2527s_Republic_of_Hungary/IbhUc1vu">People's Republic of Hungary</a>, <a href="/facts/People%2527s_Republic_of_Bulgaria/yCW1fYUn">People's Republic of Bulgaria</a>, and <a href="/facts/Socialist_Republic_of_Romania/sIqLNfBy">Socialist Republic of Romania</a>.</li>
<li>The <a href="/facts/Socialist_Federal_Republic_of_Yugoslavia/PXRlHx9q">Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia</a> (SFRY; formed after World War II and before its later dismemberment) was not a member of the <a href="/facts/Warsaw_Pact/SLEsUSAS">Warsaw Pact</a> but was a founding member of the <a href="/facts/Non-Aligned_Movement/PIdnjRvD">Non-Aligned Movement</a>, an organization created in an attempt to avoid being assigned to either the NATO or Warsaw Pact blocs. The movement was demonstratively independent of both the Soviet Union and the Western bloc for most of the Cold War, which allowed Yugoslavia and its other members to act as a business and political mediator between the blocs.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:128" href="#fn:128">128</a></li>
<li>The <a href="/facts/Socialist_People%2527s_Republic_of_Albania/P0M3yl47">Socialist People's Republic of Albania</a> broke with the Soviet Union in the early 1960s as a result of the <a href="/facts/Sino-Soviet_split/r958VRaK">Sino-Soviet split</a> and aligned itself instead with China. Albania formally left the Warsaw Pact in September 1968 after the suppression of the <a href="/facts/Prague_Spring/gfPPc56L">Prague Spring</a>. When China established diplomatic relations with the United States in 1978, Albania also broke away from China.</li></ul>
Albania and especially Yugoslavia were not unanimously appended to the Eastern Bloc, as they were neutral for a large part of the Cold War.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:129" href="#fn:129">129</a>
<h3>Since 1989</h3>

With the <a href="/facts/Revolutions_of_1989/gLWM6JLk">fall</a> of the <a href="/facts/Iron_Curtain/V19wsHct">Iron Curtain</a> in 1989, the political landscape of the <a href="/facts/Eastern_Bloc/12f32hA7">Eastern Bloc</a>, and indeed the world, changed. In the <a href="/facts/German_reunification/1c7F6WoR">German reunification</a>, the Federal Republic of Germany peacefully absorbed the German Democratic Republic in 1990. In 1991, <a href="/facts/COMECON/UbuffFhf">COMECON</a>, the <a href="/facts/Warsaw_Pact/SLEsUSAS">Warsaw Pact</a>, and the Soviet Union were dissolved. Many European nations that had been part of the Soviet Union declared or regained their independence (<a href="/facts/Belarus/vweHwgob">Belarus</a>, <a href="/facts/Moldova/qGBNGewt">Moldova</a>, <a href="/facts/Ukraine/Qof0uqAj">Ukraine</a>, as well as the <a href="/facts/Baltic_States/s48uxWb6">Baltic States</a> of <a href="/facts/Latvia/y2PSa8lx">Latvia</a>, <a href="/facts/Lithuania/dApVjLWW">Lithuania</a>, and <a href="/facts/Estonia/PVjB16TI">Estonia</a>). <a href="/facts/Czechoslovakia/9A6Kzmr0">Czechoslovakia</a> <a href="/facts/Dissolution_of_Czechoslovakia/nkBgpas8">peacefully separated</a> into the <a href="/facts/Czech_Republic/vJYLD66Q">Czech Republic</a> and <a href="/facts/Slovakia/gmJwpwM3">Slovakia</a> in 1993. Many countries of this region joined the <a href="/facts/European_Union/6GYcR8qM">European Union</a>, namely <a href="/facts/Bulgaria/Er5pY3YS">Bulgaria</a>, the <a href="/facts/Czech_Republic/vJYLD66Q">Czech Republic</a>, <a href="/facts/Croatia/MSS0yyvw">Croatia</a>, Estonia, <a href="/facts/Hungary/YRedQLtI">Hungary</a>, Latvia, Lithuania, <a href="/facts/Poland/eXJ7fd0D">Poland</a>, <a href="/facts/Romania/yolzk5cN">Romania</a>, <a href="/facts/Slovakia/gmJwpwM3">Slovakia</a> and <a href="/facts/Slovenia/EcYU22W4">Slovenia</a>. The term "EU11 countries" refer to the <a href="/facts/Central_Europe/VdxzSbJz">Central</a> and Eastern European member states, including the <a href="/facts/Baltic_states/s48uxWb6">Baltic states</a>, that accessed in 2004 and after: in 2004 the Czech Republic, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Hungary, Poland, Slovenia, and the Slovak Republic; in 2007 Bulgaria, Romania; and in 2013 Croatia.
The economic changes were in harmony with the constitutional reforms: constitutional provisions on public finances can be identified and, in some countries, a separate chapter deals with public finances. Generally, they soon encountered the following problems: high inflation, high unemployment, low economic growth, and high government debt. By 2000 these economies were stabilized, and between 2004 and 2013 all of them joined the European Union. Most of the constitutions define directly or indirectly the economic system of the countries parallel to the democratic transition of the 1990s: free-market economy (sometimes complemented with the socially [and ecologically] oriented sector), economic development, or only economic rights are included as a ground for the economy.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:130" href="#fn:130">130</a>
In the case of fiscal policy, the legislative, the executive and other state organs (Budget Council, Economic and Social Council) define and manage the budgeting. The average government debt in the countries is nearly 44%, but the deviation is great because the lowest figure is close to 10% but the highest is 97%. The trend shows that the sovereign debt ratio to GDP in most countries has been rising. Only three countries are affected by high government debt: Croatia, Hungary and Slovenia (over 70% of the GDP), while Slovakia and Poland fulfill the Maastricht requirement but only 10% below the threshold. The contribution to cover the finances for common needs is declared, the principle of just tax burden-sharing is supplemented sometimes with special aspects. Tax revenues expose typically 15–19 % of the GDP, and rates above 20% only rarely can be found.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:131" href="#fn:131">131</a>
The state audit of the government budget and expenditures is an essential control element in public finances and an important part of the concept of checks and balances. The central banks are independent state institutions, which possess a monopoly on managing and implementing a state's or federation's monetary policy. Besides monetary policy, some of them even perform the supervision of the financial intermediary system. In the case of a price stability function, the inflation rate, in the examined area, relatively quickly dropped to below 5% by 2000. In monetary policy the differences are based on the euro-zone: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Slovakia, Slovenia use the common currency. The economies of this decade – similar to the previous one – show a moderate inflation. As a new phenomenon, a slight negative inflation (deflation) appeared in that decade in several countries (Croatia, Estonia, Hungary, Poland, Romania, Slovakia, and Slovenia), which demonstrates sensitivity regarding international developments. The majority of the constitutions determine the national currency, legal tender or monetary unit. The local currency exchange rate to the U.S. dollar shows that drastic interventions were not necessary. National wealth or assets are the property of the state or local governments and, as an exclusive property, the management and protection of them aim at serving the public interest.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:132" href="#fn:132">132</a>

<h2 id="demographics">Demographics</h2>

<h2 id="see-also">See also</h2>
<ul>
<li>Geography portal</li><li>Europe portal</li></ul>
<ul><li><a href="/facts/Community_for_Democracy_and_Rights_of_Nations/Doqpoqzd">Community for Democracy and Rights of Nations</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Eastern_European_Group/awtdyGz6">Eastern European Group</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Eastern_Partnership/6dAdIMxW">Eastern Partnership</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Enlargement_of_the_European_Union/hLNe6JeA">Enlargement of the European Union</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Eurasian_Economic_Union/STKuhLsw">Eurasian Economic Union</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Euronest_Parliamentary_Assembly/1mIEotkR">Euronest Parliamentary Assembly</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/European_Union/6GYcR8qM">European Union</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/European_Russia/WxQboUc4">European Russia</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Eurovoc/VKVvI0Xs">Eurovoc</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Future_enlargement_of_the_European_Union/bBHm4VzW">Future enlargement of the European Union</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Geography_of_the_Soviet_Union/5dKkepuQ">Geography of the Soviet Union</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Intermarium/pLNwVEzy">Intermarium</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/List_of_Intangible_Cultural_Heritage_elements_in_Eastern_Europe/uv7ySt6w">List of Intangible Cultural Heritage elements in Eastern Europe</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/List_of_political_parties_in_Eastern_Europe/g4gYkL1W">List of political parties in Eastern Europe</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Organization_of_the_Black_Sea_Economic_Cooperation/TVojhSHp">Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Post-Soviet_States/usrFwWTU">Post-Soviet States</a></li></ul>
European subregions
<ul><li><a href="/facts/Eurovoc/VKVvI0Xs">Eurovoc#Eastern Europe</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/East-Central_Europe/7dPzI6bR">East-Central Europe</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Central_Europe/VdxzSbJz">Central Europe</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Central_and_Eastern_Europe/JcsTveqo">Central and Eastern Europe</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Northern_Europe/u77t0yJI">Northern Europe</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Southeast_Europe/zxgEvCdQ">Southeast Europe</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Western_Europe/YmWlV59w">Western Europe</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Geographical_midpoint_of_Europe/wdNL6sde">Geographical midpoint of Europe</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Regions_of_Europe/zAjJJaCt">Regions of Europe</a></li></ul>

<h2 id="further-reading">Further reading</h2>

<ul><li><a href="/facts/Anne_Applebaum/aPxPsIBI">Applebaum, Anne</a>. Iron Curtain: The Crushing of Eastern Europe, 1944–1956 (2012)</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Iv%25C3%25A1n_T._Berend/RU80aK9x">Berend, Iván T.</a> Decades of Crisis: Central and Eastern Europe before World War II (2001)</li>
<li>Connelly, John (2020). From Peoples Into Nations: A History of Eastern Europe. Princeton University Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-691-16712-1.</li>
<li>Day, Alan J. et al. A Political and Economic Dictionary of Eastern Europe (2nd ed 2007) <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dt2TXexiKTgC">abstract</a></li>
<li>Donert, Celia, Emily Greble, and Jessica Wardhaugh. "New Scholarship on Central and Eastern Europe." Contemporary European History 26.3 (2017): 507-507. DOI: <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017/S0960777317000224">New Scholarship on Central and Eastern Europe</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240330042430/https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/contemporary-european-history/article/abs/new-scholarship-on-central-and-eastern-europe/D023692C1DD115ABE17997C7D307150D">Archived</a> 2024-03-30 at the <a href="/facts/Wayback_Machine/nmQ3a6JC">Wayback Machine</a></li>
<li>Frankel, Benjamin. The Cold War 1945-1991. Vol. 2, Leaders and other important figures in the Soviet Union, Eastern Europe, China, and the Third World (1992), 379pp of biographies.</li>
<li>Frucht, Richard, ed. Encyclopedia of Eastern Europe: From the Congress of Vienna to the Fall of Communism (2000)</li>
<li>Fuchs-Schündeln, Nicola, and Matthias Schündeln. "The long-term effects of communism in Eastern Europe." Journal of Economic Perspectives 34.2 (2020): 172–91. <a href="https://pubs.aeaweb.org/doi/pdfplus/10.1257/jep.34.2.172">online</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210624202152/https://pubs.aeaweb.org/doi/pdfplus/10.1257/jep.34.2.172">Archived</a> 2021-06-24 at the <a href="/facts/Wayback_Machine/nmQ3a6JC">Wayback Machine</a></li>
<li>Gal, Susan and Gail Kligman, The Politics of Gender After Socialism (Princeton University Press, 2000).</li>
<li>Gorshkov, Boris B. "Serfdom: Eastern Europe." in Encyclopedia of European Social History, edited by Peter N. Stearns, (vol. 2: 2001), pp. 379–388. <a href="https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/CX3460500100/GPS?u=wikipedia&sid=GPS&xid=e29075bb">Online</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240330042426/https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?p=GPS&u=wikipedia&id=GALE%7CCX3460500100&v=2.1&it=r&sid=GPS&asid=e29075bb">Archived</a> 2024-03-30 at the <a href="/facts/Wayback_Machine/nmQ3a6JC">Wayback Machine</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Kristen_R._Ghodsee/EtTkeQrk">Ghodsee, Kristen R.</a> Lost in Transition: Ethnographies of Everyday Life After Communism (Duke University Press, 2011).</li>
<li>Held, Joseph, ed. The Columbia History of Eastern Europe in the Twentieth Century (1993)</li>
<li>Jeffries, Ian, and Robert Bideleux. The Balkans: A Post-Communist History (2007).</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Barbara_Jelavich/Wd60otTj">Jelavich, Barbara</a> (1983a). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qR4EeOrTm-0C">History of the Balkans: Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries</a>. Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 9780521274586. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230123132943/https://books.google.com/books?id=qR4EeOrTm-0C">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-01-23. Retrieved 2021-07-05.</li>
<li>Jelavich, Barbara. History of the Balkans, Vol. 1: Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries (1983)</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Barbara_Jelavich/Wd60otTj">Jelavich, Barbara</a> (1983b). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Hd-or3qtqrsC">History of the Balkans: Twentieth Century</a>. Vol. 2. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 9780521274593.</li>
<li>Mazower, Mark (2007). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iWgfMZhi-x0C">The Balkans: A Short History</a>. Random House Publishing Group. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-307-43196-7.</li>
<li>Myant, Martin; Drahokoupil, Jan (2010). Transition Economies: Political Economy in Russia, Eastern Europe, and Central Asia. Wiley-Blackwell. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-470-59619-7.</li>
<li>Nachtigal, Reinhard. "Current Historiography on Eastern Europe during the First World War: A Review." War & Society 41.4 (2022): 323–339. doi.org/10.1080/07292473.2022.2117908</li>
<li>Ramet, Sabrina P. Eastern Europe: Politics, Culture, and Society Since 1939 (1999)</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Michael_Roskin/L2YDIcXV">Roskin, Michael G.</a> The Rebirth of East Europe (4th ed. 2001); 204pp</li>
<li>Schenk, Frithjof Benjamin, <a href="http://ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/theories-and-methods/mental-maps/frithjof-benjamin-schenk-mental-maps-the-cognitive-mapping-of-the-continent-as-an-object-of-research-of-european-history?set_language=en&-C=">Mental Maps: The Cognitive Mapping of the Continent as an Object of Research of European History</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210115154302/http://ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/theories-and-methods/mental-maps/frithjof-benjamin-schenk-mental-maps-the-cognitive-mapping-of-the-continent-as-an-object-of-research-of-european-history?set_language=en&-C=">Archived</a> 2021-01-15 at the <a href="/facts/Wayback_Machine/nmQ3a6JC">Wayback Machine</a>, <a href="http://www.ieg-ego.eu/">EGO - European History Online</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130208042444/http://www.ieg-ego.eu/">Archived</a> 2013-02-08 at the <a href="/facts/Wayback_Machine/nmQ3a6JC">Wayback Machine</a>, Mainz: <a href="http://www.ieg-mainz.de/likecms/index.php">Institute of European History</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160219021834/http://www.ieg-mainz.de/likecms/index.php">Archived</a> 2016-02-19 at the <a href="/facts/Wayback_Machine/nmQ3a6JC">Wayback Machine</a>, 2013, retrieved: March 4, 2020 (<a href="https://d-nb.info/1043735844/34">pdf</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220124050858/https://d-nb.info/1043735844/34">Archived</a> 2022-01-24 at the <a href="/facts/Wayback_Machine/nmQ3a6JC">Wayback Machine</a>).</li>
<li>Schevill, Ferdinand. The History of the Balkan Peninsula; From the Earliest Times to the Present Day (1966)</li>
<li>Seton-Watson, Hugh. Eastern Europe Between the Wars 1918-1941 (1945) <a href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.183358">online</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Thomas_W._Simons%2c_Jr./YQX6fQtE">Simons, Thomas W.</a> Eastern Europe in the Postwar World (1991)</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Timothy_Snyder/GSMtDL3A">Snyder, Timothy</a>. <a href="/facts/Bloodlands/Q4AnKY3q">Bloodlands: Europe Between Hitler and Stalin</a> (2011)</li>
<li>Stanković, Vlada, ed. (2016). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=avTADAAAQBAJ">The Balkans and the Byzantine World before and after the Captures of Constantinople, 1204 and 1453</a>. Lexington Books. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-4985-1326-5. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240330042427/https://books.google.com/books?id=avTADAAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-03-30. Retrieved 2021-07-05.</li>
<li>Stavrianos, L.S. The Balkans Since 1453 (1958), major scholarly history; <a href="https://archive.org/details/balkanssince145300lsst">online free to borrow</a></li>
<li>Swain, Geoffrey and Nigel Swain, Eastern Europe Since 1945 (3rd ed. 2003)</li>
<li>Verdery, Katherine. What Was Socialism and What Comes Next? Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996.</li>
<li>Wachtel, Andrew Baruch (2008). <a href="https://archive.org/details/balkansinworldhi00wach">The Balkans in World History</a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-19-988273-1.</li>
<li>Walters, E. Garrison. The Other Europe: Eastern Europe to 1945 (1988) 430pp; country-by-country coverage</li>
<li>Wolchik, Sharon L. and Jane L. Curry, eds. Central and East European Politics: From Communism to Democracy (2nd ed. 2010), 432pp</li>
<li>Wolff, Larry: Inventing Eastern Europe: The Map of Civilization on the Mind of the Enlightenment. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1994. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 0-8047-2702-3</li>
<li>Eastern Europe Unmapped: Beyond Borders and Peripheries (1 ed.). Berghahn Books. 2020. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2Fj.ctvw049zd">10.2307/j.ctvw049zd</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-78533-685-0. <a href="/facts/JSTOR_(identifier)/YTeVmaJ7">JSTOR</a> <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctvw049zd">j.ctvw049zd</a>.</li></ul>

<h2 id="external-links">External links</h2>

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Eastern Europe.

Wikiquote has quotations related to East/Central Europe.

<ul><li><a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=phe8s55YA84">Interview with historian Larry Wolff on "Inventing Eastern Europe"</a></li>
<li><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110805130513/http://www.databasece.com/en/macro-summary">Eastern Europe Economic Data</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.emerging-europe.com">Emerging Europe - A new narrative for the region</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191231005606/https://emerging-europe.com/">Archived</a> 2019-12-31 at the <a href="/facts/Wayback_Machine/nmQ3a6JC">Wayback Machine</a></li></ul>

<h2 id="references">References</h2>

<ol>
<li id="fn:1">"Regions of Europe: Eastern Europe". 10 May 2021. Archived from the original on 25 November 2023. Retrieved 1 June 2023. <a href="https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-four-european-regions-as-defined-by-the-united-nations-geoscheme-for-europe.html" target="_blank">https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-four-european-regions-as-defined-by-the-united-nations-geoscheme-for-europe.html</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:2">Jordan, Peter (2005). "Großgliederung Europas nach kulturräumlichen Kriterien" [The large-scale division of Europe according to cultural-spatial criteria]. Europa Regional. 13 (4). Leipzig: Leibniz-Institut für Länderkunde (IfL): 162–173. Archived from the original on 27 December 2023. Retrieved 21 January 2019 – via Ständiger Ausschuss für geographische Namen (StAGN). <a href="http://www.stagn.de/DE/1_Der_StAGN/Publikationen/StAGN_GGEuropa/grosseu_node.html" target="_blank">http://www.stagn.de/DE/1_Der_StAGN/Publikationen/StAGN_GGEuropa/grosseu_node.html</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:3">Berglee, Royal (2016). "Traditional Regions of Europe". University of Minnesota. Archived from the original on 2023-12-16. Retrieved 2023-12-15. <a href="https://open.lib.umn.edu/worldgeography/chapter/2-4-eastern-europe/" target="_blank">https://open.lib.umn.edu/worldgeography/chapter/2-4-eastern-europe/</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:4">"Geographic Regions". U.N. Statistics Division. Archived from the original on 2017-08-30. Retrieved 2023-10-06. <a href="https://unstats.un.org/unsd/methodology/m49/" target="_blank">https://unstats.un.org/unsd/methodology/m49/</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:5">"What countries are in Eastern Europe?". World Atlas. <a href="https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/what-countries-are-in-eastern-europe.htm" target="_blank">https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/what-countries-are-in-eastern-europe.htm</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:6">"United Nations Statistics Division- Standard Country and Area Codes Classifications (M49)-Geographic Regions". Archived from the original on 2017-08-30. Retrieved 2017-08-04. <a href="https://unstats.un.org/unsd/methodology/m49/#geo-regions" target="_blank">https://unstats.un.org/unsd/methodology/m49/#geo-regions</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:7">Ramet, Sabrina P. (1998). Eastern Europe: politics, culture, and society since 1939. Indiana University Press. p. 15. ISBN 978-0253212566. Archived from the original on 30 March 2024. Retrieved 5 October 2011. <a href="978-0253212566" target="_blank">978-0253212566</a> <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:8">Ramet, Sabrina P. (1998). Eastern Europe: politics, culture, and society since 1939. Indiana University Press. p. 15. ISBN 978-0253212566. Archived from the original on 30 March 2024. Retrieved 5 October 2011. <a href="978-0253212566" target="_blank">978-0253212566</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:9">"The Balkans" Archived 10 December 2017 at the Wayback Machine, Global Perspectives: A Remote Sensing and World Issues Site. Wheeling Jesuit University/Center for Educational Technologies, 1999–2002. <a href="http://www.cotf.edu/earthinfo/balkans/BKdef.html" target="_blank">http://www.cotf.edu/earthinfo/balkans/BKdef.html</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:10">""Eastern Europe" Wrongly labelled". The Economist. 7 January 2010. Archived from the original on 11 February 2021. Retrieved 20 February 2020. <a href="https://www.economist.com/node/15213108" target="_blank">https://www.economist.com/node/15213108</a> <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:11">"A New Journal for Central Europe". www.ce-review.org. Archived from the original on 31 October 2017. Retrieved 31 August 2009. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171031132532/http://www.ce-review.org/99/1/hanley1.html" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20171031132532/http://www.ce-review.org/99/1/hanley1.html</a> <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:12">Frank H. Aarebrot (14 May 2014). The handbook of political change in Eastern Europe. Edward Elgar Publishing. pp. 1–. ISBN 978-1-78195-429-4. Archived from the original on 30 March 2024. Retrieved 17 July 2017. <a href="978-1-78195-429-4" target="_blank">978-1-78195-429-4</a> <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:13">"United Nations Statistics Division- Standard Country and Area Codes Classifications (M49)-Geographic Regions". Archived from the original on 2017-08-30. Retrieved 2017-08-04. <a href="https://unstats.un.org/unsd/methodology/m49/#geo-regions" target="_blank">https://unstats.un.org/unsd/methodology/m49/#geo-regions</a> <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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<li id="fn:77">Bideleux and Jeffries (1998) A History of Eastern Europe: Crisis and Change <a href="#fnref:77" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:78">"Croatia". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. 18 January 2022. Archived from the original on Feb 19, 2024. <a href="https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/croatia/" target="_blank">https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/croatia/</a> <a href="#fnref:78" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:79">Lonnie Johnson, Central Europe: Enemies, Neighbors, Friends, Oxford University Press <a href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195100716" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195100716</a> <a href="#fnref:79" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:80">"U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA)". www.eia.gov. Archived from the original on February 5, 2009. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090205212441/http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/SE_Europe/Background.html" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20090205212441/http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/SE_Europe/Background.html</a> <a href="#fnref:80" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:81">"7 Invitees - Romania". www.nato.int. Archived from the original on 2023-10-29. Retrieved 2021-04-25. <a href="https://www.nato.int/invitees2004/romania/glance.htm" target="_blank">https://www.nato.int/invitees2004/romania/glance.htm</a> <a href="#fnref:81" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:82">Steven Tötösy de Zepetnek; Louise Olga Vasvári (2011). Comparative Hungarian Cultural Studies. Purdue University Press. ISBN 9781557535931. Archived from the original on 2024-03-30. Retrieved 2020-11-10. <a href="9781557535931" target="_blank">9781557535931</a> <a href="#fnref:82" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:83">Armstrong, Werwick; Anderson, James (2007). "Borders in Central Europe: From Conflict to Cooperation". Geopolitics of European Union Enlargement: The Fortress Empire. Routledge. p. 165. ISBN 978-1-134-30132-4. Archived from the original on 2024-03-30. Retrieved 2016-03-10. <a href="978-1-134-30132-4" target="_blank">978-1-134-30132-4</a> <a href="#fnref:83" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:84">"Police Cooperation Convention for Southeast Europe (PCC SEE)" Archived 2024-01-24 at the Wayback Machine. PCC SEE Secretariat. Retrieved 20 December 2023. <a href="https://www.pccseesecretariat.si/index.php?item=9&page=static#:~:text=The%20PCC%20SEE%20is%20a,threat%20analysis%2C%20liaison%20officers%2C%20hot" target="_blank">https://www.pccseesecretariat.si/index.php?item=9&page=static#:~:text=The%20PCC%20SEE%20is%20a,threat%20analysis%2C%20liaison%20officers%2C%20hot</a> <a href="#fnref:84" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:85">Todorova, Maria (1997). Imagining the Balkans. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 15. ISBN 978-0-19-508750-5. <a href="978-0-19-508750-5" target="_blank">978-0-19-508750-5</a> <a href="#fnref:85" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:86">Kolstø, Pål (2016-08-08). "'Western Balkans' as the New Balkans: Regional Names as Tools for Stigmatisation and Exclusion". Europe-Asia Studies. 68 (7): 1245–1263. doi:10.1080/09668136.2016.1219979. ISSN 0966-8136. <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09668136.2016.1219979" target="_blank">https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09668136.2016.1219979</a> <a href="#fnref:86" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:87">"BUB0028 - Evidence on Beyond Brexit: the UK and the Balkans". committees.parliament.uk. Retrieved 2025-02-08. <a href="https://committees.parliament.uk/writtenevidence/81047/html/" target="_blank">https://committees.parliament.uk/writtenevidence/81047/html/</a> <a href="#fnref:87" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:88">Djurdjevic, Maria. "The Balkans: Past and Present of Cultural Pluralism". European Institute of the Mediterranean. Retrieved 2024-11-01. <a href="https://www.iemed.org/publication/the-balkans-past-and-present-of-cultural-pluralism/" target="_blank">https://www.iemed.org/publication/the-balkans-past-and-present-of-cultural-pluralism/</a> <a href="#fnref:88" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:89">Detrez, Raymond (2001). "Colonialism in the Balkans" (PDF). pp. 1–2. <a href="https://www.kakanien-revisited.at/beitr/theorie/RDetrez1.pdf" target="_blank">https://www.kakanien-revisited.at/beitr/theorie/RDetrez1.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:89" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:90">Juhász, József (2015). "Hungary and the Balkans in the 20th Century — From the Hungarian Perspective". Prague Papers on the History of International Relations (1): 114–119 – via CEJSH. After 1918, with the massive reduction of Hungary's territory and influence, many Western observers held Hungary to be one of the nations of the Balkans. <a href="http://cejsh.icm.edu.pl/cejsh/element/bwmeta1.element.desklight-4acf4d74-0230-4935-89ff-5cd70c155701" target="_blank">http://cejsh.icm.edu.pl/cejsh/element/bwmeta1.element.desklight-4acf4d74-0230-4935-89ff-5cd70c155701</a> <a href="#fnref:90" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:91">"Balkans". Encyclopaedia Britannica. 2024-08-11. Retrieved 2024-08-22. Moldova—although located north of the Danube River, which is frequently cited as the region's northeastern geographic dividing line—is included in the Balkans under some definitions by virtue of its long-standing historical and cultural connections with Romania. <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Balkans" target="_blank">https://www.britannica.com/place/Balkans</a> <a href="#fnref:91" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:92">"Police Cooperation Convention for Southeast Europe (PCC SEE)" Archived 2024-01-24 at the Wayback Machine. PCC SEE Secretariat. Retrieved 20 December 2023. <a href="https://www.pccseesecretariat.si/index.php?item=9&page=static#:~:text=The%20PCC%20SEE%20is%20a,threat%20analysis%2C%20liaison%20officers%2C%20hot" target="_blank">https://www.pccseesecretariat.si/index.php?item=9&page=static#:~:text=The%20PCC%20SEE%20is%20a,threat%20analysis%2C%20liaison%20officers%2C%20hot</a> <a href="#fnref:92" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:93">Hötte, Hans; Mihalik, Béla (2016). Atlas of Southeast Europe. Boston: Brill. <a href="#fnref:93" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:94">Todorova, Maria (1997). Imagining the Balkans. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 15. ISBN 978-0-19-508750-5. <a href="978-0-19-508750-5" target="_blank">978-0-19-508750-5</a> <a href="#fnref:94" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:95">"A List of Countries That Make up the Balkan Peninsula". www.ThoughtCo.com. Archived from the original on 2017-10-14. Retrieved 2020-01-14. <a href="https://www.thoughtco.com/where-are-the-balkan-states-4070249" target="_blank">https://www.thoughtco.com/where-are-the-balkan-states-4070249</a> <a href="#fnref:95" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:96">"Balkans". Encyclopaedia Britannica. 2024-08-11. Retrieved 2024-08-22. Moldova—although located north of the Danube River, which is frequently cited as the region's northeastern geographic dividing line—is included in the Balkans under some definitions by virtue of its long-standing historical and cultural connections with Romania. <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Balkans" target="_blank">https://www.britannica.com/place/Balkans</a> <a href="#fnref:96" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:97">Porter, Malcolm; Lye, Keith (2008). Asia. Cherrytree Books. p. 14. ISBN 978-1-84234-461-3. Archived from the original on 12 January 2022. Retrieved 11 October 2021. <a href="978-1-84234-461-3" target="_blank">978-1-84234-461-3</a> <a href="#fnref:97" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:98">World Factbook. Washington, D.C.: Central Intelligence Agency. 29 September 2021. Archived from the original on 9 January 2021. Retrieved 23 January 2021. Kazakhstan: Geography <a href="https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/kazakhstan/" target="_blank">https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/kazakhstan/</a> <a href="#fnref:98" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:99">Rapp, Stephen H. (2003), Studies In Medieval Georgian Historiography: Early Texts And Eurasian Contexts, pp. 292-294. Peeters Bvba ISBN 90-429-1318-5. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:99" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:100">The Oxford Classical Dictionary by Simon Hornblower and Antony Spawforth,ISBN 0-19-860641-9, "page 1515, "The Thracians were subdued by the Persians by 516" <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:100" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:101">Roisman, Joseph; Worthington, Ian (7 July 2011). A Companion to Ancient Macedonia. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 9781444351637. Archived from the original on 30 March 2024. Retrieved 22 April 2015. <a href="9781444351637" target="_blank">9781444351637</a> <a href="#fnref:101" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:102">Olson, James Stuart; Pappas, Lee Brigance; Pappas, Nicholas Charles; Pappas, Nicholas C. J. (1994). An Ethnohistorical Dictionary of the Russian and Soviet Empires. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 9780313274978. Archived from the original on 30 March 2024. Retrieved 22 April 2015. <a href="9780313274978" target="_blank">9780313274978</a> <a href="#fnref:102" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:103">Edward Luttwak, The grand strategy of the Byzantine Empire (Harvard UP, 2009). <a href="#fnref:103" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:104">Denis Sinor, "The Mongols in the West." Journal of Asian History 33.1 (1999): 1-44 online Archived 2021-07-09 at the Wayback Machine. <a href="http://www.m-hosseini.ir/mongol/articles-1/43.pdf" target="_blank">http://www.m-hosseini.ir/mongol/articles-1/43.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:104" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:105">Martyn Rady, "The German Settlement in Central and Eastern Europe during the High Middle Ages." in The German Lands and Eastern Europe (Palgrave Macmillan, 1999) pp. 11-47. <a href="#fnref:105" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:106">Jan M. Pisorski (2008). "Medieval Colonization in East Central Europe". In Ingrao; Szabo (eds.). The Germans and the East. Purdue University Press. p. 31. <a href="#fnref:106" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:107">Armour, Ian D. 2013. A History of Eastern Europe 1740–1918: Empires, Nations and Modernisation. London: Bloomsbury Academic. p. 23. ISBN 978-1849664882 <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:107" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:108">See, inter alia, Norman Davies, Europe: a History, 2010, Eve Johansson, Official Publications of Western Europe, Volume 1, 1984, Thomas Greer and Gavin Lewis, A Brief History of the Western World, 2004 <a href="#fnref:108" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:109">Baten, Jörg (2016). A History of the Global Economy. From 1500 to the Present. Cambridge University Press. p. 46. ISBN 9781107507180. <a href="9781107507180" target="_blank">9781107507180</a> <a href="#fnref:109" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:110">Baten, Joerg; Szołtysek, Mikołaj (2017). ""Girl Power" in Eastern Europe? The human capital development of Central-Eastern and Eastern Europe in the seventeenth to nineteenth centuries and its determinants". European Review of Economic History. 21 (1): 29–63. <a href="#fnref:110" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:111">Jerome Blum, "The Rise of Serfdom in Eastern Europe" American Historical Review 62#4 (1957), pp. 807-836 Online Archived 2020-02-07 at the Wayback Machine <a href="/wiki/Jerome_Blum" target="_blank">/wiki/Jerome_Blum</a> <a href="#fnref:111" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:112">Boris B. Gorshkov, "Serfdom: Eastern Europe" in Peter Stearns, ed., Encyclopedia of European Social History (2001) 2:379-88; Online Archived 2024-03-30 at the Wayback Machine. <a href="https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/CX3460500100/GPS?u=wikipedia&sid=GPS&xid=e29075bb" target="_blank">https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/CX3460500100/GPS?u=wikipedia&sid=GPS&xid=e29075bb</a> <a href="#fnref:112" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:113">David Moon, "Reassessing Russian Serfdom." European History Quarterly 26 (1996): 483–526. <a href="#fnref:113" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:114">Jackson J. Spielvogel: Western Civilization: Alternate Volume: Since 1300. p. 618. <a href="#fnref:114" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:115">P. de Azcarate, League of Nations and National Minorities (1945) online <a href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.55314/page/n5/mode/2up" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.55314/page/n5/mode/2up</a> <a href="#fnref:115" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:116">R. M. Douglas. Orderly and Humane. The Expulsion of the Germans after the Second World War. Yale University Press. p. 331. <a href="#fnref:116" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:117">Timothy Snyder, Bloodlands: Europe Between Hitler and Stalin (2011) excerpt and text search Archived 2017-09-19 at the Wayback Machine <a href="https://www.amazon.com/Bloodlands-Europe-Between-Hitler-Stalin/dp/0465031471/" target="_blank">https://www.amazon.com/Bloodlands-Europe-Between-Hitler-Stalin/dp/0465031471/</a> <a href="#fnref:117" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:118">Gregor Thum. Uprooted: How Breslau Became Wroclaw during the Century of Expulsions. Princeton University Press. <a href="#fnref:118" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:119">Applebaum, pp. 312–33. <a href="#fnref:119" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:120">Anne Applebaum, Iron Curtain: The Crushing of Eastern Europe, 1944–1956 (2012) p. xxix. <a href="#fnref:120" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:121">Applebaum, p. xxx <a href="#fnref:121" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:122">Applebaum, p. xxx <a href="#fnref:122" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:123">Applebaum, p. 71. <a href="#fnref:123" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:124">Applebaum, pp. 174–191. <a href="#fnref:124" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:125">Applebaum, pp. 172–173. <a href="#fnref:125" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:126">Applebaum, pp. 223–228. <a href="#fnref:126" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:127">Applebaum, pp. 1162–147. <a href="#fnref:127" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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<li id="fn:129">Stavro Skendi, "Albania and the Sino-Soviet Conflict." Foreign affairs 40.3 (1962): 471-478. <a href="#fnref:129" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:130">Vértesy, László (2018). "Macroeconomic Legal Trends in the EU11 Countries" (PDF). Public Governance, Administration and Finances Law Review. 3. No. 1. 2018. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 August 2019. Retrieved 12 August 2019. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190812055105/https://www.dialogcampus.hu/users/default/dialogcampus/uploads/elektronikus_konyvek/pga2018_01_09_vertesy.pdf" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20190812055105/https://www.dialogcampus.hu/users/default/dialogcampus/uploads/elektronikus_konyvek/pga2018_01_09_vertesy.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:130" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:131">Vértesy, László (2018). "Macroeconomic Legal Trends in the EU11 Countries" (PDF). Public Governance, Administration and Finances Law Review. 3. No. 1. 2018. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 August 2019. Retrieved 12 August 2019. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190812055105/https://www.dialogcampus.hu/users/default/dialogcampus/uploads/elektronikus_konyvek/pga2018_01_09_vertesy.pdf" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20190812055105/https://www.dialogcampus.hu/users/default/dialogcampus/uploads/elektronikus_konyvek/pga2018_01_09_vertesy.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:131" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:132">Vértesy, László (2018). "Macroeconomic Legal Trends in the EU11 Countries" (PDF). Public Governance, Administration and Finances Law Review. 3. No. 1. 2018. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 August 2019. Retrieved 12 August 2019. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190812055105/https://www.dialogcampus.hu/users/default/dialogcampus/uploads/elektronikus_konyvek/pga2018_01_09_vertesy.pdf" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20190812055105/https://www.dialogcampus.hu/users/default/dialogcampus/uploads/elektronikus_konyvek/pga2018_01_09_vertesy.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:132" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
</ol>

Eastern Europe open-in-new

Eastern Europe