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Aramaic alphabet
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<h2 id="history">History</h2> <p>The earliest inscriptions in the <a href="/facts/Aramaic_language/FpvKez1w">Aramaic language</a> use the <a href="/facts/Phoenician_alphabet/Vr4smuYg">Phoenician alphabet</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:3" href="#fn:3"><sup>3</sup></a> Over time, the alphabet developed into the Aramaic alphabet by the 8th century BC. It was used to write the <a href="/facts/Aramaic_language/FpvKez1w">Aramaic languages</a> spoken by ancient Aramean pre-Christian tribes throughout the <a href="/facts/Fertile_Crescent/KLHIjwQe">Fertile Crescent</a>. It was also adopted by other peoples as their own alphabet when empires and their subjects underwent linguistic Aramaization during a <a href="/facts/Language_shift/KdY9f9ov">language shift</a> for governing purposes — a precursor to <a href="/facts/Arabization/buoJF4m2">Arabization</a> centuries later. </p><p>These include the <a href="/facts/Neo-Assyrian_Empire/GzQ9HoXb">Assyrians</a> and <a href="/facts/Neo-Babylonian_Empire/GfIPHmzs">Babylonians</a>, who permanently replaced their <a href="/facts/Akkadian_language/esQDlrFw">Akkadian</a> language and its <a href="/facts/Cuneiform_script/MgIQoGu8">cuneiform script</a> with Aramaic and its script, and among <a href="/facts/Jews/T9Y4wE6A">Jews</a>, but not <a href="/facts/Samaritans/B1WjjxCq">Samaritans</a>, who adopted the Aramaic language as their vernacular and started using the Aramaic alphabet even for writing <a href="/facts/Hebrew_language/hqKCSy9d">Hebrew</a>, displacing the former <a href="/facts/Paleo-Hebrew_alphabet/CU8hRVYz">Paleo-Hebrew alphabet</a>. The modern <a href="/facts/Hebrew_alphabet/qQStmr5u">Hebrew alphabet</a> derives from the Aramaic alphabet, in contrast to the modern <a href="/facts/Samaritan_script/eKcXDvKe">Samaritan alphabet</a>, which derives from <a href="/facts/Paleo-Hebrew_alphabet/CU8hRVYz">Paleo-Hebrew</a>. </p> <h3>Achaemenid Empire (The First Persian Empire)</h3> <p class="note">Further information: <a href="/facts/Imperial_Aramaic/wVD0NTqx">Imperial Aramaic</a></p> <p>Around 500 BC, following the <a href="/facts/Achaemenid_Empire/avlzWxF0">Achaemenid</a> conquest of <a href="/facts/Mesopotamia/f0mmbhTK">Mesopotamia</a> under <a href="/facts/Darius_I/SnfdjGyK">Darius I</a>, <a href="/facts/Old_Aramaic/JMK0kG0D">Old Aramaic</a> was adopted by the Persians as the "vehicle for written communication between the different regions of the vast Persian empire with its different peoples and languages. The use of a single official language, which modern scholarship has dubbed as Official Aramaic, Imperial Aramaic or Achaemenid Aramaic, can be assumed to have greatly contributed to the astonishing success of the Achaemenid Persians in holding their far-flung empire together for as long as they did."<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:4" href="#fn:4"><sup>4</sup></a> </p><p>Imperial Aramaic was highly standardised. Its orthography was based more on historical roots than any spoken dialect and was influenced by <a href="/facts/Old_Persian/gxx47Ul7">Old Persian</a>. The Aramaic glyph forms of the period are often divided into two main styles, the "lapidary" form, usually inscribed on hard surfaces like stone monuments, and a cursive form whose lapidary form tended to be more conservative by remaining more visually similar to Phoenician and early Aramaic. Both were in use through the Achaemenid Persian period, but the cursive form steadily gained ground over the lapidary, which had largely disappeared by the 3rd century BC.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5"><sup>5</sup></a> </p><p>For centuries after the fall of the Achaemenid Empire in 331 BC, Imperial Aramaic, or something near enough to it to be recognisable, remained an influence on the various native <a href="/facts/Iranian_languages/JaJyqM4t">Iranian languages</a>. The Aramaic script survived as the essential characteristics of the Iranian <a href="/facts/Pahlavi_scripts/z39MEQrj">Pahlavi writing system</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6"><sup>6</sup></a> </p><p>30 Aramaic documents from <a href="/facts/Bactria/JcTfl6bR">Bactria</a> have been recently discovered, an analysis of which was published in November 2006. The texts, which were rendered on leather, reflect the use of Aramaic in the 4th century BC, in the Persian Achaemenid administration of <a href="/facts/Bactria/JcTfl6bR">Bactria</a> and <a href="/facts/Sogdiana/I715sIoQ">Sogdiana</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7"><sup>7</sup></a> </p><p>The widespread usage of Achaemenid Aramaic in the Middle East led to the gradual adoption of the Aramaic alphabet for writing <a href="/facts/Hebrew/hqKCSy9d">Hebrew</a>. Formerly, Hebrew had been written using an alphabet closer in form to that of Phoenician, the <a href="/facts/Paleo-Hebrew_alphabet/CU8hRVYz">Paleo-Hebrew alphabet</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8"><sup>8</sup></a> </p> <h3>Aramaic-derived scripts</h3> <p>Since the evolution of the Aramaic alphabet out of the Phoenician one was a gradual process, the division of the world's alphabets into the ones derived from the Phoenician one directly, and the ones derived from Phoenician via Aramaic, is somewhat artificial. In general, the alphabets of the Mediterranean region (Anatolia, Greece, Italy) are classified as Phoenician-derived, adapted from around the 8th century BC. Those of the East (the Levant, Persia, Central Asia, and India) are considered Aramaic-derived, adapted from around the 6th century BC from the Imperial Aramaic script of the Achaemenid Empire. </p><p>After the fall of the Achaemenid Empire, the unity of the Imperial Aramaic script was lost, diversifying into a number of descendant cursives. </p><p>The Hebrew and <a href="/facts/Nabataean_alphabet/QBCpMAcn">Nabataean alphabets</a>, as they stood by the <a href="/facts/Roman_era/cGqIuxPd">Roman era</a>, were little changed in style from the Imperial Aramaic alphabet. <a href="/facts/Ibn_Khaldun/dVYtJdU9">Ibn Khaldun</a> (1332–1406) alleges that not only the old Nabataean writing was influenced by the "Syrian script" (i.e. Aramaic), but also the old Chaldean script.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9"><sup>9</sup></a> </p><p>A <a href="/facts/Cursive_Hebrew/U4VshtQ9">cursive Hebrew</a> variant developed from the early centuries AD. It remained restricted to the status of a variant used alongside the noncursive. By contrast, the cursive developed out of the Nabataean alphabet in the same period soon became the standard for writing Arabic, evolving into the <a href="/facts/Arabic_alphabet/hCA1a0xq">Arabic alphabet</a> as it stood by the time of the early <a href="/facts/Early_Muslim_conquests/HyPkljcc">spread of Islam</a>. </p><p>The development of cursive versions of Aramaic led to the creation of the <a href="/facts/Syriac_alphabet/dA2LyFax">Syriac</a>, <a href="/facts/Palmyrene_alphabet/UEDclbgv">Palmyrene</a> and <a href="/facts/Mandaic_alphabet/Q53PUJYE">Mandaic alphabets</a>, which formed the basis of the historical scripts of Central Asia, such as the <a href="/facts/Sogdian_alphabet/fMM61MF8">Sogdian</a> and <a href="/facts/Mongolian_script/QFFR5rwl">Mongolian</a> alphabets.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10"><sup>10</sup></a> </p><p>The <a href="/facts/Old_Turkic_script/nH03PeCs">Old Turkic script</a> is generally considered to have its ultimate origins in Aramaic,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11"><sup>11</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12"><sup>12</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13"><sup>13</sup></a> in particular via the <a href="/facts/Pahlavi_script/z39MEQrj">Pahlavi</a> or <a href="/facts/Sogdian_alphabet/fMM61MF8">Sogdian alphabets</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14"><sup>14</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15"><sup>15</sup></a> as suggested by <a href="/facts/Vilhelm_Thomsen/XhkjsAhp">V. Thomsen</a>, or possibly via <a href="/facts/Kharo%E1%B9%A3%E1%B9%ADh%C4%AB/hgxCXKh2">Kharosthi</a> (<i>cf</i>., <a href="/facts/Issyk_inscription/JabasEtK">Issyk inscription</a>). </p><p><a href="/facts/Brahmi_script/Bflxwzu6">Brahmi script</a> was also possibly derived or inspired by Aramaic. <a href="/facts/Brahmic_family_of_scripts/mwHJWt6d">Brahmic family of scripts</a> includes <a href="/facts/Devanagari/dQvQ3Ufs">Devanagari</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16"><sup>16</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="languages-using-the-alphabet">Languages using the alphabet</h2> <p>Today, <a href="/facts/Biblical_Aramaic/HIY3pc0V">Biblical Aramaic</a>, Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialects and the Aramaic language of the <a href="/facts/Talmud/8416nnBV">Talmud</a> are written in the modern-Hebrew alphabet, distinguished from the <a href="/facts/Paleo-Hebrew_alphabet/CU8hRVYz">Old Hebrew</a> script. In classical <a href="/facts/Jewish_literature/03N3umEm">Jewish literature</a>, the name given to the modern-Hebrew script was "Ashurit", the ancient Assyrian script,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17"><sup>17</sup></a> a script now known widely as the Aramaic script.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18"><sup>18</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19"><sup>19</sup></a> It is believed that, during the period of Assyrian dominion, Aramaic script and language received official status.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20"><sup>20</sup></a> </p><p><a href="/facts/Syriac_language/mLhEtdSW">Syriac</a> and Christian Neo-Aramaic dialects are today written in the <a href="/facts/Syriac_alphabet/dA2LyFax">Syriac alphabet</a>, which script has superseded the more ancient Assyrian script and now bears its name. <a href="/facts/Mandaic_language/AkXr6TYj">Mandaic</a> is written in the <a href="/facts/Mandaic_alphabet/Q53PUJYE">Mandaic alphabet</a>. The near-identical nature of the Aramaic and the classical Hebrew alphabets caused Aramaic text to be typeset mostly in the standard Hebrew script in scholarly literature. </p> <h3>Maaloula</h3> <p class="note">Further information: <a href="/facts/Western_Neo-Aramaic/1ur3aGda">Western Neo-Aramaic</a></p> <p>In <a href="/facts/Maaloula/xICAchYP">Maaloula</a>, one of few surviving communities in which a <a href="/facts/Western_Neo-Aramaic/1ur3aGda">Western Aramaic</a> dialect is still spoken, an Aramaic Language Institute was established in 2006 by <a href="/facts/Damascus_University/kCessQ7r">Damascus University</a> that teaches courses to keep the language alive. </p><p>Unlike Classical Syriac, which has a rich literary tradition in Syriac-Aramaic script, Western Neo-Aramaic was solely passed down orally for generations until 2006 and was not utilized in a written form.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21"><sup>21</sup></a> </p><p>Therefore, the Language Institute's chairman, George Rizkalla (Rezkallah), undertook the writing of a textbook in Western Neo-Aramaic. Being previously unwritten, Rizkalla opted for the <a href="/facts/Hebrew_alphabet/qQStmr5u">Hebrew alphabet</a>. In 2010, the institute's activities were halted due to concerns that the square Maalouli-Aramaic alphabet used in the program bore a resemblance to the square script of the Hebrew alphabet. As a result, all signs featuring the square Maalouli script were subsequently removed.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22"><sup>22</sup></a> The program stated that they would instead use the more distinct <a href="/facts/Syriac_alphabet/dA2LyFax">Syriac-Aramaic alphabet</a>, although use of the Maalouli alphabet has continued to some degree.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23"><sup>23</sup></a> Al Jazeera Arabic also broadcast a program about Western Neo-Aramaic and the villages in which it is spoken with the square script still in use.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24"><sup>24</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="letters">Letters</h2> <table><tbody><tr><th rowspan="3">Letter name</th><th colspan="4">Aramaic written using</th><th rowspan="3"><a href="/facts/International_Phonetic_Alphabet/2e7jmUaG">IPA</a></th><th rowspan="3"><a href="/facts/Phoneme/EXGHlJ7a">Phoneme</a></th><th colspan="15">Equivalent letter in</th></tr><tr><th colspan="2">Imperial Aramaic</th><th colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Syriac_alphabet/dA2LyFax">Syriac script</a></th><th rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/Hebrew_alphabet/qQStmr5u">Hebrew</a></th><th rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/Western_Neo-Aramaic/1ur3aGda">Maalouli</a></th><th rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/Nabataean_alphabet/QBCpMAcn">Nabataean</a></th><th rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/Inscriptional_Parthian/jwrUAoGo">Parthian</a></th><th rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/Arabic_alphabet/hCA1a0xq">Arabic</a></th><th rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/South_Arabian_alphabet/IYpzKLkk">South Arabian</a></th><th rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/Ge%CA%BDez_script/K4RRPwCl">Geʽez</a></th><th rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/Proto-Sinaitic/aqPygGcT">Proto-Sinaitic</a></th><th rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/Phoenician_alphabet/Vr4smuYg">Phoenician</a></th><th rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/Greek_alphabet/1cHwB8Dg">Greek</a></th><th rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/Latin_alphabet/pqWVHpBz">Latin</a></th><th rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/Cyrillic_script/0btN3oWC">Cyrillic</a></th><th rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/Brahmi/Bflxwzu6">Brahmi</a></th><th rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/Kharosthi/hgxCXKh2">Kharosthi</a></th><th rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/Old_Turkic_alphabet/nH03PeCs">Turkic</a></th></tr><tr><th>Image</th><th>Text</th><th>Image</th><th>Text</th></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Aleph/fFWqQp9C">Ālaph</a></td><td></td><td>𐡀</td><td></td><td>ܐ</td><td>/ʔ/; /aː/, /eː/</td><td>ʾ</td><td>א</td><td></td><td></td><td><a href="/facts/Aleph/fFWqQp9C">𐭀</a></td><td>ا</td><td><a href="/facts/Aleph/fFWqQp9C">𐩱</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Aleph/fFWqQp9C">አ</a></td><td></td><td>𐤀</td><td><a href="/facts/Alpha/I51VqVVm">Α</a>α</td><td><a href="/facts/A/2R3BU1nc">Aa</a></td><td><a href="/facts/%D0%90/5qny9Lxf">А</a>а</td><td><a href="/facts/A_(Indic)/LQ26Qx38">𑀅</a>, <a href="/facts/%C4%80_(Indic)/LQ26Qx38">𑀆</a></td><td>𐨀</td><td>𐰁</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Bet_(letter)/Srgaea2b">Bēth</a></td><td></td><td>𐡁</td><td></td><td>ܒ</td><td>/b/, /v/</td><td>b</td><td>ב</td><td></td><td></td><td><a href="/facts/Bet_(letter)/Srgaea2b">𐭁</a></td><td>ب</td><td><a href="/facts/Bet_(letter)/Srgaea2b">𐩨</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Bet_(letter)/Srgaea2b">በ</a></td><td></td><td>𐤁</td><td><a href="/facts/Beta_(letter)/oTWMRsHj">Β</a>β</td><td><a href="/facts/B/Bf1NUwpT">Bb</a></td><td><a href="/facts/%D0%91/ox0BjkJk">Б</a>б, <a href="/facts/%D0%92/FR8G4Qr5">В</a>в</td><td><a href="/facts/Ba_(Indic)/6tnhyTMx">𑀩</a>, <a href="/facts/Bha_(Indic)/BlGwhLws">𑀪</a></td><td>𐨦</td><td>𐰉 𐰋</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Gimel/X9bUMl2A">Gāmal</a></td><td></td><td>𐡂</td><td></td><td>ܓ</td><td>/ɡ/, /ɣ/</td><td>g</td><td>ג</td><td></td><td></td><td><a href="/facts/Gimel/X9bUMl2A">𐭂</a></td><td>ج</td><td><a href="/facts/Gimel/X9bUMl2A">𐩴</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Gimel/X9bUMl2A">ገ</a></td><td></td><td>𐤂</td><td><a href="/facts/%CE%93/Ax4TDEto">Γ</a>γ</td><td><a href="/facts/C/2e7jmUaG">Cc</a>, <a href="/facts/G/0wjXcPDT">Gg</a></td><td><a href="/facts/%D0%93/abFeBFvh">Г</a>г, <a href="/facts/%D2%90/4tRCPPlu">Ґ</a>ґ</td><td><a href="/facts/Ga_(Indic)/Im02k29o">𑀕</a></td><td>𐨒</td><td>𐰲 𐰱</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Dalet/0twlfWSk">Dālath</a></td><td></td><td>𐡃</td><td></td><td>ܕ</td><td>/d/, /ð/</td><td>d</td><td>ד</td><td></td><td></td><td><a href="/facts/Dalet/0twlfWSk">𐭃</a></td><td>د ذ</td><td><a href="/facts/Dalet/0twlfWSk">𐩵</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Dalet/0twlfWSk">ደ</a></td><td> </td><td>𐤃</td><td><a href="/facts/%CE%94/otPsSYj6">Δ</a>δ</td><td><a href="/facts/D/A6hNvmCp">Dd</a></td><td><a href="/facts/%D0%94/6rMjENW9">Д</a>д</td><td><a href="/facts/Da_(Indic)/ckvLu7eo">𑀤</a>, <a href="/facts/Dha_(Indic)/xCtcR2sF">𑀥</a>, <a href="/facts/Dda_(Indic)/ckvLu7eo">𑀟</a>, <a href="/facts/Ddha_(Indic)/xCtcR2sF">𑀠</a></td><td>𐨢</td><td>𐰓</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/He_(letter)/xX9tL4gb">Hē</a></td><td></td><td>𐡄</td><td></td><td>ܗ</td><td>/h/</td><td>h</td><td>ה</td><td></td><td></td><td><a href="/facts/He_(letter)/xX9tL4gb">𐭄</a></td><td>ه</td><td><a href="/facts/He_(letter)/xX9tL4gb">𐩠</a></td><td><a href="/facts/He_(letter)/xX9tL4gb">ሀ</a></td><td></td><td>𐤄</td><td><a href="/facts/%CE%95/3G846hlN">Ε</a>ε</td><td><a href="/facts/E/0G2cAFzu">Ee</a></td><td><a href="/facts/%D0%95/1BWzBAPx">Е</a>е, <a href="/facts/%D0%81/1BWzBAPx">Ё</a>ё, <a href="/facts/%D0%84/D7osLbz5">Є</a>є, <a href="/facts/%D0%AD/AANwoqTV">Э</a>э</td><td><a href="/facts/Ha_(Indic)/1I78Fc2h">𑀳</a></td><td>𐨱</td><td></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Waw_(letter)/TKp2ez3q">Waw</a></td><td></td><td>𐡅</td><td></td><td>ܘ</td><td>/w/; /oː/, /uː/</td><td>w</td><td>ו</td><td></td><td></td><td><a href="/facts/Waw_(letter)/TKp2ez3q">𐭅</a></td><td>و</td><td><a href="/facts/Waw_(letter)/TKp2ez3q">𐩥</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Waw_(letter)/TKp2ez3q">ወ</a></td><td></td><td>𐤅</td><td>(<a href="/facts/%CF%9C/6dRK1gDG">Ϝ</a>ϝ), <a href="/facts/%CE%A5/mRWXxIvh">Υ</a>υ</td><td><a href="/facts/F/2Qhv29hR">Ff</a>, <a href="/facts/U/41AF4mKp">Uu</a>, <a href="/facts/V/41AF4mKp">Vv</a>, <a href="/facts/W/1qRkvAb9">Ww</a>, <a href="/facts/Y/anP6EhKq">Yy</a></td><td><a href="/facts/%D1%B4/hM6qEhWx">Ѵ</a>ѵ, <a href="/facts/%D0%A3/0nUALMBy">У</a>у, <a href="/facts/%D0%8E/0nUALMBy">Ў</a>ў</td><td><a href="/facts/Va_(Indic)/jPbrDI9k">𑀯</a>, <a href="/facts/U_(Indic)/YBV5asCn">𑀉</a>, <a href="/facts/%C5%AA_(Indic)/YBV5asCn">𑀊</a>, <a href="/facts/Au_(Indic)/LDkVXuku">𑀒</a>, <a href="/facts/O_(Indic)/WXT9NXVD">𑀑</a></td><td>𐨬</td><td>𐰈 𐰆</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Zayin/zyRrAtL3">Zayn</a></td><td></td><td>𐡆</td><td></td><td>ܙ</td><td>/z/</td><td>z</td><td>ז</td><td></td><td></td><td><a href="/facts/Zayin/zyRrAtL3">𐭆</a></td><td>ز</td><td><a href="/facts/Zayin/zyRrAtL3">𐩸</a></td><td></td><td></td><td>𐤆</td><td><a href="/facts/%CE%96/QLE5z3Q7">Ζ</a>ζ</td><td><a href="/facts/Z/Bf1NUwpT">Zz</a></td><td><a href="/facts/%D0%97/2aLgmHdk">З</a>з</td><td><a href="/facts/Ja_(Indic)/oh2cd5tl">𑀚</a></td><td>𐨗</td><td>𐰕</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Heth/HT1Vkutu">Ḥēth</a></td><td></td><td>𐡇</td><td></td><td>ܚ</td><td>/ħ/</td><td>ḥ</td><td>ח</td><td></td><td></td><td><a href="/facts/Heth/HT1Vkutu">𐭇</a></td><td>ح خ</td><td><a href="/facts/Heth/HT1Vkutu">𐩢</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Heth/HT1Vkutu">ሐ</a></td><td></td><td>𐤇</td><td><a href="/facts/%CE%97/jnxIHnSd">Η</a>η</td><td><a href="/facts/H/2ReerlNA">Hh</a></td><td><a href="/facts/%D0%98/0wRPDyRc">И</a>и, <a href="/facts/%D0%99/EgCfCdoe">Й</a>й</td><td><a href="/facts/Gha_(Indic)/vyCClLd0">𑀖</a></td><td>𐨓</td><td></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Teth/l9eCffx5">Ṭēth</a></td><td></td><td>𐡈</td><td></td><td>ܛ</td><td>/tˤ/</td><td>ṭ</td><td>ט</td><td></td><td></td><td><a href="/facts/Teth/l9eCffx5">𐭈</a></td><td>ط ظ</td><td><a href="/facts/Teth/l9eCffx5">𐩷</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Teth/l9eCffx5">ጠ</a></td><td></td><td>𐤈</td><td><a href="/facts/%CE%98/G2ItIJpL">Θ</a>θ</td><td></td><td><a href="/facts/%D1%B2/97Tvz9Lv">Ѳ</a>ѳ</td><td><a href="/facts/Tha_(Indic)/5jTGbavn">𑀣</a>, <a href="/facts/Tta_(Indic)/o9QPaUIm">𑀝</a>, <a href="/facts/Ttha_(Indic)/5jTGbavn">𑀞</a></td><td>𐨠</td><td>𐱃</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Yodh/mvVQfBTm">Yodh</a></td><td></td><td>𐡉</td><td></td><td>ܝ</td><td>/j/; /iː/, /eː/</td><td>y</td><td>י</td><td></td><td></td><td><a href="/facts/Yodh/mvVQfBTm">𐭉</a></td><td>ي</td><td><a href="/facts/Yodh/mvVQfBTm">𐩺</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Yodh/mvVQfBTm">የ</a></td><td></td><td>𐤉</td><td><a href="/facts/%CE%99/qwHge41z">Ι</a>ι</td><td><a href="/facts/%CE%99/qwHge41z">Ιi</a>, <a href="/facts/J/I3pUoxSq">Jj</a></td><td><a href="/facts/%D0%86/U5TF0oFG">І</a>і, <a href="/facts/%D0%87/kxkt260f">Ї</a>ї, <a href="/facts/%D0%88/DxQwbbNg">Ј</a>ј</td><td><a href="/facts/Ya_(Indic)/S0TNQxe6">𑀬</a></td><td>𐨩</td><td>𐰘 𐰃 𐰖</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Kaph/hDIlq2Ml">Kāph</a></td><td></td><td>𐡊</td><td></td><td>ܟ</td><td>/k/, /x/</td><td>k</td><td>כ ך</td><td> </td><td></td><td><a href="/facts/Kaph/hDIlq2Ml">𐭊</a></td><td>ك</td><td><a href="/facts/Kaph/hDIlq2Ml">𐩫</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Kaph/hDIlq2Ml">ከ</a></td><td></td><td>𐤊</td><td><a href="/facts/%CE%9A/UHoskwDQ">Κ</a>κ</td><td><a href="/facts/K/68UJI9sK">Kk</a></td><td><a href="/facts/%D0%9A/kYYugHnj">К</a>к</td><td><a href="/facts/Ka_(Indic)/KSaGk4QL">𑀓</a></td><td>𐨐</td><td>𐰚 𐰜</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Lamedh/17U3cu1e">Lāmadh</a></td><td></td><td>𐡋</td><td></td><td>ܠ</td><td>/l/</td><td>l</td><td>ל</td><td></td><td></td><td><a href="/facts/Lamedh/17U3cu1e">𐭋</a></td><td>ل</td><td><a href="/facts/Lamedh/17U3cu1e">𐩡</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Lamedh/17U3cu1e">ለ</a></td><td></td><td>𐤋</td><td><a href="/facts/%CE%9B/d5YD6UeQ">Λ</a>λ</td><td><a href="/facts/L/0Ge4MIc9">Ll</a></td><td><a href="/facts/%D0%9B/EXAeHt2J">Л</a>л</td><td><a href="/facts/La_(Indic)/SKcJMXPE">𑀮</a></td><td>𐨫</td><td>𐰞 𐰠</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Mem/ykDtAr5g">Mim</a></td><td></td><td>𐡌</td><td></td><td>ܡ</td><td>/m/</td><td>m</td><td>מ ם</td><td> </td><td></td><td><a href="/facts/Mem/ykDtAr5g">𐭌</a></td><td>م</td><td><a href="/facts/Mem/ykDtAr5g">𐩣</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Mem/ykDtAr5g">መ</a></td><td></td><td>𐤌</td><td><a href="/facts/%CE%9C/j1MMkE2w">Μ</a>μ</td><td><a href="/facts/M/24C1RjmQ">Mm</a></td><td><a href="/facts/%D0%9C/NUhSFHT6">М</a>м</td><td><a href="/facts/Ma_(Indic)/NmeH8vG4">𑀫</a></td><td>𐨨</td><td>𐰢</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Nun_(letter)/3mQbmbHv">Nun</a></td><td></td><td>𐡍</td><td></td><td>ܢ</td><td>/n/</td><td>n</td><td>נ ן</td><td> </td><td></td><td><a href="/facts/Nun_(letter)/3mQbmbHv">𐭍</a></td><td>ن</td><td><a href="/facts/Nun_(letter)/3mQbmbHv">𐩬</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Nun_(letter)/3mQbmbHv">ነ</a></td><td></td><td>𐤍</td><td><a href="/facts/%CE%9D/hS7Vz0xS">Ν</a>ν</td><td><a href="/facts/N/0CEs8314">Nn</a></td><td><a href="/facts/%D0%9D/Vf67VBxB">Н</a>н</td><td><a href="/facts/Na_(Indic)/Ast3oLac">𑀦</a></td><td>𐨣</td><td>𐰤 𐰣</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Samekh/gDVKbXbl">Semkath</a></td><td></td><td>𐡎</td><td></td><td>ܣ</td><td>/s/</td><td>s</td><td>ס</td><td></td><td></td><td><a href="/facts/Samekh/gDVKbXbl">𐭎</a></td><td>س</td><td><a href="/facts/Samekh/gDVKbXbl">𐩯</a></td><td></td><td></td><td>𐤎</td><td><a href="/facts/%CE%9E/q66nzcM5">Ξ</a>ξ</td><td></td><td><a href="/facts/%D1%AE/BX9TqGQI">Ѯ</a>ѯ</td><td><a href="/facts/Ssa_(Indic)/5DhGDmoI">𑀱</a></td><td>𐨭</td><td>𐰾</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Ayin/PH5yVCtl">ʿAyn</a></td><td></td><td>𐡏</td><td></td><td>ܥ</td><td>/ʕ/</td><td>ʿ</td><td>ע</td><td></td><td></td><td><a href="/facts/Ayin/PH5yVCtl">𐭏</a></td><td>ع غ</td><td><a href="/facts/Ayin/PH5yVCtl">𐩲</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Ayin/PH5yVCtl">ዐ</a></td><td></td><td>𐤏</td><td><a href="/facts/%CE%9F/PEloNryk">Ο</a>ο, <a href="/facts/%CE%A9/5d916T7j">Ω</a>ω</td><td><a href="/facts/O/41AF4mKp">Oo</a></td><td><a href="/facts/%D0%9E/AfkYkKpe">О</a>о, <a href="/facts/%D1%A0/6BFrXXg6">Ѡ</a>ѡ</td><td><a href="/facts/E_(Indic)/FSnWtLI6">𑀏</a>, <a href="/facts/Ai_(Indic)/LDRA1INI">𑀐</a>, <a href="/facts/I_(Indic)/zqzTajcv">𑀇</a>, <a href="/facts/%C4%AA_(Indic)/zqzTajcv">𑀈</a></td><td>𐨀𐨅</td><td>𐰏 𐰍</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Pe_(Semitic_letter)/QDVgytTJ">Pē</a></td><td></td><td>𐡐</td><td></td><td>ܦ</td><td>/p/, /f/</td><td>p</td><td>פ ף</td><td> </td><td></td><td><a href="/facts/Pe_(Semitic_letter)/QDVgytTJ">𐭐</a></td><td>ف</td><td><a href="/facts/Pe_(Semitic_letter)/QDVgytTJ">𐩰</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Pe_(Semitic_letter)/QDVgytTJ">ፈ</a></td><td></td><td>𐤐</td><td><a href="/facts/Pi_(letter)/4UpopgBE">Π</a>π</td><td><a href="/facts/P/41AF4mKp">Pp</a></td><td><a href="/facts/%D0%9F/nkIg79zU">П</a>п</td><td><a href="/facts/Pa_(Indic)/1KvyYVaw">𑀧</a>, <a href="/facts/Pha_(Indic)/MTqCAtcf">𑀨</a></td><td>𐨤</td><td>𐰯</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Tsade/cN3xQlt6">Ṣādhē</a></td><td>, </td><td>𐡑</td><td></td><td>ܨ</td><td>/sˤ/</td><td>ṣ</td><td>צ ץ</td><td> </td><td></td><td><a href="/facts/Tsade/cN3xQlt6">𐭑</a></td><td>ص ض</td><td><a href="/facts/Tsade/cN3xQlt6">𐩮</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Tsade/cN3xQlt6">ጸ</a></td><td></td><td>𐤑</td><td>(<a href="/facts/%CF%BA/3dTz4Ire">Ϻ</a>ϻ)</td><td></td><td><a href="/facts/%D0%A6/Jq7knYlU">Ц</a>ц, <a href="/facts/%D0%A7/06ENxQ6u">Ч</a>ч, <a href="/facts/%D0%8F/jbMJlXYY">Џ</a>џ</td><td><a href="/facts/Sa_(Indic)/5DhGDmoI">𑀲</a></td><td>𐨯</td><td>𐰽</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Qoph/qKXUPmUR">Qoph</a></td><td></td><td>𐡒</td><td></td><td>ܩ</td><td>/q/</td><td>q</td><td>ק</td><td></td><td></td><td><a href="/facts/Qoph/qKXUPmUR">𐭒</a></td><td>ق</td><td><a href="/facts/Qoph/qKXUPmUR">𐩤</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Qoph/qKXUPmUR">ቀ</a></td><td></td><td>𐤒</td><td>(<a href="/facts/%CF%98/WVQqktX2">Ϙ</a>ϙ), <a href="/facts/%CE%A6/pUzerkKk">Φ</a>φ</td><td><a href="/facts/Q/3x6B7oLx">Qq</a></td><td><a href="/facts/%D2%80/oxxnCTNm">Ҁ</a>ҁ, <a href="/facts/%D0%A4/Wnn4LIcc">Ф</a>ф</td><td><a href="/facts/Kha_(Indic)/yXI97emC">𑀔</a></td><td>𐨑</td><td>𐰴 𐰸</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Resh/PRjqY1m1">Rēš</a></td><td></td><td>𐡓</td><td></td><td>ܪ</td><td>/r/</td><td>r</td><td>ר</td><td></td><td></td><td><a href="/facts/Resh/PRjqY1m1">𐭓</a></td><td>ر</td><td><a href="/facts/Resh/PRjqY1m1">𐩧</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Resh/PRjqY1m1">ረ</a></td><td></td><td>𐤓</td><td><a href="/facts/%CE%A1/qwHge41z">Ρ</a>ρ</td><td><a href="/facts/R/2w7mqI7e">Rr</a></td><td><a href="/facts/%D0%A0/heUXAWnF">Р</a>р</td><td><a href="/facts/Ra_(Indic)/DbxczU51">𑀭</a></td><td>𐨪</td><td>𐰺 𐰼</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Shin_(letter)/D8AeI5cw">Šin</a></td><td></td><td>𐡔</td><td></td><td>ܫ</td><td>/ʃ/</td><td>š</td><td>ש</td><td></td><td></td><td><a href="/facts/Shin_(letter)/D8AeI5cw">𐭔</a></td><td>ش</td><td><a href="/facts/Shin_(letter)/D8AeI5cw">𐩦</a></td><td><a href="/facts/%C5%9Aawt/v7TSJQAW">ሠ</a></td><td></td><td>𐤔</td><td><a href="/facts/Sigma/DWcCDzou">Σ</a>σς</td><td><a href="/facts/S/1DcekgEL">Ss</a></td><td><a href="/facts/%D0%A1/cwR2IW3X">С</a>с, <a href="/facts/%D0%A8/D6hcCyhN">Ш</a>ш, <a href="/facts/%D0%A9/tMEENSLc">Щ</a>щ</td><td><a href="/facts/Sha_(Indic)/yxYeqV8H">𑀰</a></td><td>𐨮</td><td>𐱂 𐱁</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Taw/xPAIoNzc">Taw</a></td><td></td><td>𐡕</td><td></td><td>ܬ</td><td>/t/, /θ/</td><td>t</td><td>ת</td><td></td><td></td><td><a href="/facts/Taw/xPAIoNzc">𐭕</a></td><td>ت ث</td><td><a href="/facts/Taw/xPAIoNzc">𐩩</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Taw/xPAIoNzc">ተ</a></td><td></td><td>𐤕</td><td><a href="/facts/%CE%A4/gfvnmJoH">Τ</a>τ</td><td><a href="/facts/T/1GaDe2Vy">Tt</a></td><td><a href="/facts/%D0%A2/w7GSVBhM">Т</a>т</td><td><a href="/facts/Ta_(Indic)/o9QPaUIm">𑀢</a></td><td>𐨟</td><td>𐱅</td></tr></tbody></table> <h2 id="unicode">Unicode</h2> <p class="note">Main articles: <a href="/facts/Imperial_Aramaic_(Unicode_block)/UPeeYb76">Imperial Aramaic (Unicode block)</a> and <a href="/facts/Syriac_(Unicode_block)/62jmpVIP">Syriac (Unicode block)</a></p> <p>The Imperial Aramaic alphabet was added to the <a href="/facts/Unicode/DDu3MfPV">Unicode</a> Standard in October 2009, with the release of version 5.2. </p><p>The Unicode block for Imperial Aramaic is U+10840–U+1085F: </p> <table><tbody><tr><td colspan="17"><a href="/facts/Imperial_Aramaic_(Unicode_block)/UPeeYb76">Imperial Aramaic</a>[1][2]<a href="https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U10840.pdf">Official Unicode Consortium code chart</a> (PDF)</td></tr><tr><td> </td><td>0</td><td>1</td><td>2</td><td>3</td><td>4</td><td>5</td><td>6</td><td>7</td><td>8</td><td>9</td><td>A</td><td>B</td><td>C</td><td>D</td><td>E</td><td>F</td></tr><tr><td>U+1084x</td><td>𐡀</td><td>𐡁</td><td>𐡂</td><td>𐡃</td><td>𐡄</td><td>𐡅</td><td>𐡆</td><td>𐡇</td><td>𐡈</td><td>𐡉</td><td>𐡊</td><td>𐡋</td><td>𐡌</td><td>𐡍</td><td>𐡎</td><td>𐡏</td></tr><tr><td>U+1085x</td><td>𐡐</td><td>𐡑</td><td>𐡒</td><td>𐡓</td><td>𐡔</td><td>𐡕</td><td></td><td>𐡗</td><td>𐡘</td><td>𐡙</td><td>𐡚</td><td>𐡛</td><td>𐡜</td><td>𐡝</td><td>𐡞</td><td>𐡟</td></tr><tr><td colspan="17">Notes1.^ As of Unicode version 16.02.^ Grey area indicates non-assigned code point</td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The Syriac Aramaic alphabet was added to the <a href="/facts/Unicode/DDu3MfPV">Unicode</a> Standard in September 1999, with the release of version 3.0. </p><p>The Syriac Abbreviation (a type of <a href="/facts/Overline/PH46XuIu">overline</a>) can be represented with a special control character called the <a href="/facts/Syriac_Abbreviation_Mark/jbBMX1qT">Syriac Abbreviation Mark</a> (U+070F). The Unicode block for Syriac Aramaic is U+0700–U+074F: </p> <table><tbody><tr><td colspan="17"><a href="/facts/Syriac_(Unicode_block)/62jmpVIP">Syriac</a>[1][2]<a href="https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U0700.pdf">Official Unicode Consortium code chart</a> (PDF)</td></tr><tr><td> </td><td>0</td><td>1</td><td>2</td><td>3</td><td>4</td><td>5</td><td>6</td><td>7</td><td>8</td><td>9</td><td>A</td><td>B</td><td>C</td><td>D</td><td>E</td><td>F</td></tr><tr><td>U+070x</td><td>܀</td><td>܁</td><td>܂</td><td>܃</td><td>܄</td><td>܅</td><td>܆</td><td>܇</td><td>܈</td><td>܉</td><td>܊</td><td>܋</td><td>܌</td><td>܍</td><td></td><td>SAM</td></tr><tr><td>U+071x</td><td>ܐ</td><td>ܑ</td><td>ܒ</td><td>ܓ</td><td>ܔ</td><td>ܕ</td><td>ܖ</td><td>ܗ</td><td>ܘ</td><td>ܙ</td><td>ܚ</td><td>ܛ</td><td>ܜ</td><td>ܝ</td><td>ܞ</td><td>ܟ</td></tr><tr><td>U+072x</td><td>ܠ</td><td>ܡ</td><td>ܢ</td><td>ܣ</td><td>ܤ</td><td>ܥ</td><td>ܦ</td><td>ܧ</td><td>ܨ</td><td>ܩ</td><td>ܪ</td><td>ܫ</td><td>ܬ</td><td>ܭ</td><td>ܮ</td><td>ܯ</td></tr><tr><td>U+073x</td><td>ܰ</td><td>ܱ</td><td>ܲ</td><td>ܳ</td><td>ܴ</td><td>ܵ</td><td>ܶ</td><td>ܷ</td><td>ܸ</td><td>ܹ</td><td>ܺ</td><td>ܻ</td><td>ܼ</td><td>ܽ</td><td>ܾ</td><td>ܿ</td></tr><tr><td>U+074x</td><td>݀</td><td>݁</td><td>݂</td><td>݃</td><td>݄</td><td>݅</td><td>݆</td><td>݇</td><td>݈</td><td>݉</td><td>݊</td><td></td><td></td><td>ݍ</td><td>ݎ</td><td>ݏ</td></tr><tr><td colspan="17">Notes1.^ As of Unicode version 16.02.^ Grey areas indicate non-assigned code points</td></tr></tbody></table> <h2 id="see-also">See also</h2> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Syriac_alphabet/dA2LyFax">Syriac alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Mandaic_alphabet/Q53PUJYE">Mandaic alphabet</a></li></ul> <h2 id="sources">Sources</h2> <ul><li>Byrne, Ryan. "Middle Aramaic Scripts". <i>Encyclopaedia of Language and Linguistics</i>. Elsevier. (2006)</li> <li>Daniels, Peter T., et al. eds. <i>The World's Writing Systems</i>. Oxford. (1996)</li> <li>Coulmas, Florian. <i>The Writing Systems of the World</i>. Blackwell Publishers Ltd, Oxford. (1989)</li> <li>Rudder, Joshua. <i>Learn to Write Aramaic: A Step-by-Step Approach to the Historical & Modern Scripts</i>. n.p.: CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform, 2011. 220 pp. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1461021421. Includes a wide variety of Aramaic scripts.</li> <li>Ancient Hebrew and Aramaic on Coins, reading and transliterating Proto-Hebrew, <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110511124600/http://judaea.chimehost.net/main/text.pdf">online edition</a> (Judaea Coin Archive).</li></ul> <h2 id="external-links">External links</h2> Wikimedia Commons has media related to Aramaic alphabet. <ul><li><a href="http://www.sakkal.com/Arab_Calligraphy_Art3.html">Comparison of Aramaic to related alphabets</a></li> <li><a href="http://www.omniglot.com/writing/aramaic.htm">Omniglot entry</a></li></ul> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>"Kharoshti | Indo-Parthian, Brahmi Script, Prakrit | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 26 September 2024. <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Kharoshti" target="_blank">https://www.britannica.com/topic/Kharoshti</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>"Brahmi | Ancient Script, India, Devanagari, & Dravidian Languages | Britannica". www.britannica.com. 6 September 2024. Retrieved 26 September 2024. <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Brahmi" target="_blank">https://www.britannica.com/topic/Brahmi</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>Inland Syria and the East-of-Jordan Region in the First Millennium BCE before the Assyrian Intrusions, Mark W. Chavalas, The Age of Solomon: Scholarship at the Turn of the Millennium, ed. Lowell K. Handy, (Brill, 1997), 169. <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:4"><p>Shaked, Saul (1987). "Aramaic". Encyclopædia Iranica. Vol. 2. New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul. pp. 250–261. p. 251 <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:5"><p>Greenfield, J.C. (1985). "Aramaic in the Achaemenid Empire". In Gershevitch, I. (ed.). The Cambridge History of Iran: Volume 2. Cambridge University Press. pp. 709–710. <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:6"><p>Geiger, Wilhelm; Kuhn, Ernst (2002). Grundriss der iranischen Philologie: Band I. Abteilung 1. Boston: Adamant. pp. 249ff. <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Geiger" target="_blank">/wiki/Wilhelm_Geiger</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:7"><p>Naveh, Joseph; Shaked, Shaul (2006). Ancient Aramaic Documents from Bactria. Studies in the Khalili Collection. Oxford: Khalili Collections. ISBN 978-1-874780-74-8. <a href="978-1-874780-74-8" target="_blank">978-1-874780-74-8</a> <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:8"><p>Thamis. "The Phoenician Alphabet & Language". World History Encyclopedia. Retrieved 25 June 2023. <a href="https://www.worldhistory.org/article/17/the-phoenician-alphabet--language/" target="_blank">https://www.worldhistory.org/article/17/the-phoenician-alphabet--language/</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:9"><p>Ibn Khaldun (1958). F. Rosenthal (ed.). The Muqaddimah (K. Ta'rikh – "History"). Vol. 3. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd. p. 283. OCLC 643885643. <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" target="_blank">/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:10"><p>Kara, György (1996). "Aramaic Scripts for Altaic Languages". In Daniels, Peter T.; Bright, William (eds.). The World's Writing Systems. Oxford University Press. pp. 535–558. ISBN 978-0-19-507993-7. <a href="978-0-19-507993-7" target="_blank">978-0-19-507993-7</a> <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:11"><p>Babylonian beginnings: The origin of the cuneiform writing system in comparative perspective, Jerold S. Cooper, The First Writing: Script Invention as History and Process, ed. Stephen D. Houston, (Cambridge University Press, 2004), 58–59. <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:12"><p>Tristan James Mabry, Nationalism, Language, and Muslim Exceptionalism, (University of Pennsylvania Press, 2015), 109. <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:13"><p>Kara, György (1996). "Aramaic Scripts for Altaic Languages". In Daniels, Peter T.; Bright, William (eds.). The World's Writing Systems. Oxford University Press. pp. 535–558. ISBN 978-0-19-507993-7. <a href="978-0-19-507993-7" target="_blank">978-0-19-507993-7</a> <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:14"><p>Turks, A. Samoylovitch, First Encyclopaedia of Islam: 1913–1936, Vol. VI, (Brill, 1993), 911. <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:15"><p>George L. Campbell and Christopher Moseley, The Routledge Handbook of Scripts and Alphabets, (Routledge, 2012), 40. <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:16"><p>"Brāhmī | writing system". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 29 May 2020. <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Brahmi" target="_blank">https://www.britannica.com/topic/Brahmi</a> <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:17"><p>Danby, H., ed. (1964). "Tractate Megillah 1:8". Mishnah. London: Oxford University Press. p. 202 (note 20). OCLC 977686730. (The Mishnah, p. 202 (note 20)). <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Danby" target="_blank">/wiki/Herbert_Danby</a> <a href="#fnref:17" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:18"><p>Steiner, R.C. (1993). "Why the Aramaic Script Was Called "Assyrian" in Hebrew, Greek, and Demotic". Orientalia. 62 (2): 80–82. JSTOR 43076090. <a href="/wiki/Richard_C._Steiner" target="_blank">/wiki/Richard_C._Steiner</a> <a href="#fnref:18" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:19"><p>Cook, Stanley A. (1915). "The Significance of the Elephantine Papyri for the History of Hebrew Religion". The American Journal of Theology. 19 (3). The University of Chicago Press: 348. doi:10.1086/479556. JSTOR 3155577. <a href="/wiki/The_University_of_Chicago_Press" target="_blank">/wiki/The_University_of_Chicago_Press</a> <a href="#fnref:19" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:20"><p>Steiner, R.C. (1993). "Why the Aramaic Script Was Called "Assyrian" in Hebrew, Greek, and Demotic". Orientalia. 62 (2): 80–82. JSTOR 43076090. <a href="/wiki/Richard_C._Steiner" target="_blank">/wiki/Richard_C._Steiner</a> <a href="#fnref:20" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:21"><p>Oriens Christianus (in German). 2003. p. 77. As the villages are very small, located close to each other, and the three dialects are mutually intelligible, there has never been the creation of a script or a standard language. Aramaic is the unwritten village dialect... <a href="#fnref:21" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:22"><p>Maissun Melhem. "Schriftenstreit in Syrien" (in German). Deutsche Welle. Retrieved 15 November 2023. Before the Islamic conquest, Aramaic was spoken throughout Syria and was a global language. There were many variants, but Aramaic did not exist as a written language everywhere, including the Ma'alula region, notes Professor Jastrow. The decision to use the Hebrew script, in his opinion, was made arbitrarily." <a href="https://www.dw.com/de/schriftenstreit-in-syrien/a-5166405" target="_blank">https://www.dw.com/de/schriftenstreit-in-syrien/a-5166405</a> <a href="#fnref:22" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:23"><p>Beach, Alastair (2 April 2010). "Easter Sunday: A Syrian bid to resurrect Aramaic, the language of Jesus Christ". The Christian Science Monitor. Retrieved 2 April 2010. <a href="http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Middle-East/2010/0402/Easter-Sunday-A-Syrian-bid-to-resurrect-Aramaic-the-language-of-Jesus-Christ" target="_blank">http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Middle-East/2010/0402/Easter-Sunday-A-Syrian-bid-to-resurrect-Aramaic-the-language-of-Jesus-Christ</a> <a href="#fnref:23" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:24"><p>Al Jazeera Documentary الجزيرة الوثائقية (11 February 2016). "أرض تحكي لغة المسيح". Archived from the original on 17 November 2021. Retrieved 27 March 2018 – via YouTube. <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0rbrZ1W2nAs" target="_blank">https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0rbrZ1W2nAs</a> <a href="#fnref:24" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> </ol>