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Mongolian script
Writing system used for the Mongolian language

The traditional Mongolian script, also known as the Hudum Mongol bichig, was the first writing system created specifically for the Mongolian language, and was the most widespread until the introduction of Cyrillic in 1946. It is traditionally written in vertical lines from top to bottom, flowing in lines from left to right . Derived from the Old Uyghur alphabet, it is a true alphabet, with separate letters for consonants and vowels. It has been adapted for such languages as Oirat and Manchu. Alphabets based on this classical vertical script continue to be used in Mongolia and Inner Mongolia to write Mongolian, Xibe and, experimentally, Evenki.

Computer operating systems have been slow to adopt support for the Mongolian script; almost all have incomplete support or other text rendering difficulties.

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History

The Mongolian vertical script developed as an adaptation of the Old Uyghur alphabet for the Mongolian language.3: 545  Tata-tonga, a 13th-century Uyghur scribe captured by Genghis Khan, was responsible for bringing the Old Uyghur alphabet to the Mongolian Plateau and adapting it to the form of the Mongolian script.4

From the seventh and eighth to the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, the Mongolian language separated into southern, eastern and western dialects. The principal documents from the period of the Middle Mongol language are: in the eastern dialect, the famous text The Secret History of the Mongols, monuments in the Square script, materials of the Chinese–Mongolian glossary of the fourteenth century and materials of the Mongolian language of the middle period in Chinese transcription, etc.; in the western dialect, materials of the Arab–Mongolian and Persian–Mongolian dictionaries, Mongolian texts in Arabic transcription, etc.5: 1–2  The main features of the period are that the vowels ï and i had lost their phonemic significance, creating the i phoneme (in the Chakhar dialect, the Standard Mongolian in Inner Mongolia, these vowels are still distinct); inter-vocal consonants ɣ/g, b/w had disappeared and the preliminary process of the formation of Mongolian long vowels had begun; the initial h was preserved in many words; grammatical categories were partially absent, etc. The development over this period explains why the Mongolian script looks like a vertical Arabic script (in particular the presence of the dot system).6: 1–2 

Eventually, minor concessions were made to the differences between the Uyghur and Mongol languages: In the 17th and 18th centuries, smoother and more angular versions of the letter tsadi became associated with /dʒ/ and /tʃ/ respectively, and in the 19th century, the Manchu hooked yodh was adopted for initial /j/. Zain was dropped as it was redundant for /s/. Various schools of orthography, some using diacritics, were developed to avoid ambiguity.7: 545 

Words are written vertically from top to bottom, flowing in lines from left to right. The Old Uyghur script and its descendants, of which traditional Mongolian is one among Oirat Clear, Manchu, and Buryat are the only known vertical scripts written from left to right. This developed because the Uyghurs rotated their Sogdian-derived script, originally written right to left, 90 degrees counterclockwise to emulate Chinese writing, but without changing the relative orientation of the letters.89: 36 

The reed pen was the writing instrument of choice until the 18th century, when the brush took its place under Chinese influence.10: 422  Pens were also historically made of wood, bamboo, bone, bronze, or iron. Ink used was black or cinnabar red, and written with on birch bark, paper, cloths made of silk or cotton, and wooden or silver plates.11: 80–81 

Mongols learned their script as a syllabary, dividing the syllables into twelve different classes, based on the final phonemes of the syllables, all of which ended in vowels.12

The script remained in continuous use by Mongolian speakers in Inner Mongolia in the People's Republic of China. In the Mongolian People's Republic, it was largely replaced by the Mongolian Cyrillic alphabet, although the vertical script remained in limited use. In March 2020, the Mongolian government announced plans to increase the use of the traditional Mongolian script and to use both Cyrillic and Mongolian script in official documents by 2025.131415 However, due to the particularity of the traditional Mongolian script, a large part (40%16) of the Sinicized Mongols in China are unable to read or write this script, and in many cases the script is only used symbolically on plaques in many cities.1718

Names

The script is known by a wide variety of names. As it was derived from the Old Uyghur alphabet, the Mongol script is known as the Uighur(-)Mongol script.19 From 1941 onwards, it became known as the Old Script,20 in contrast to the New Script,21 referring to Cyrillic. The Mongolian script is also known as the Hudum or 'not exact' script,22 in comparison with the Todo 'clear, exact' script,23 and also as 'vertical script'.2425: 308 26: 30–32, 38–39 27: 640 28: 7 2930: 206 31: 27 32

Overview

The traditional or classical Mongolian alphabet, sometimes called Hudum 'traditional' in Oirat in contrast to the Clear script (Todo 'exact'), is the original form of the Mongolian script used to write the Mongolian language. It does not distinguish several vowels (o/u, ö/ü, final a/e) and consonants (syllable-initial t/d and k/g, sometimes ǰ/y) that were not required for Uyghur, which was the source of the Mongol (or Uyghur-Mongol) script.33 The result is somewhat comparable to the situation of English, which must represent ten or more vowels with only five letters and uses the digraph th for two distinct sounds. Ambiguity is sometimes prevented by context, as the requirements of vowel harmony and syllable sequence usually indicate the correct sound. Moreover, as there are few words with an exactly identical spelling, actual ambiguities are rare for a reader who knows the orthography.

Letters have different forms depending on their position in a word: initial, medial, or final. In some cases, additional graphic variants are selected for visual harmony with the subsequent character.

The rules for writing below apply specifically for the Mongolian language, unless stated otherwise.

Vowel harmony

Mongolian vowel harmony separates the vowels of words into three groups – two mutually exclusive and one neutral:

  • The back, male, masculine,34 hard, or yang35 vowels a, o, and u.
  • The front, female, feminine,36 soft, or yin37 vowels e, ö, and ü.
  • The neutral vowel i, able to appear in all words.

Any Mongolian word can contain the neutral vowel i, but only vowels from either of the other two groups. The vowel qualities of visually separated vowels and suffixes must likewise harmonize with those of the preceding word stem. Such suffixes are written with front or neutral vowels when preceded by a word stem containing only neutral vowels. Any of these rules might not apply for foreign words however.38: 11, 35, 39 39: 10 40: 4 41

Separated final vowels

A separated final form of vowels a or e (᠎ᠠ⟨?⟩ ‑a/‑e) is common, and can appear at the end of a word stem, or suffix. This form requires a final-shaped preceding letter, and an word-internal gap in between. This gap can be transliterated with a hyphen.4243: 30, 77 44: 42 45: 38–39 46: 27 47: 534–535 

The presence or lack of a separated a or e can also indicate differences in meaning between different words (compare ᠬᠠᠷ᠎ᠠ⟨?⟩ qar‑a 'black' with ᠬᠠᠷᠠ qara 'to look').48: 3 49: 535 

It has the same shape as the traditional dative-locative suffix ‑a/‑e exemplified in the next section. This form of the suffix is, however, more commonly found in older texts, and is restricted in its Post-Classical use.50: 15 5152: 46 

Separated suffixes

All case suffixes, as well as any plural suffixes consisting of one or two syllables, are likewise separated by a preceding and hyphen-transliterated gap.53 A maximum of two case suffixes can be added to a stem.54: 30, 73 55: 12 565758: 28 59: 534 

Such single-letter vowel suffixes appear with the final-shaped forms of a/e, i, or u/ü,60: 30  as in ᠭᠠᠵᠠᠷ ᠠ⟨?⟩ ɣaǰar‑a 'to the country' and ᠡᠳᠦᠷ ᠡ⟨?⟩ edür‑e 'on the day',61: 39  or ᠤᠯᠤᠰ ᠢ⟨?⟩ ulus‑i 'the state' etc.62: 23  Multi-letter suffixes most often start with an initial- (consonants), medial- (vowels), or variant-shaped form. Medial-shaped u in the two-letter suffix  ᠤᠨ⟨?⟩ ‑un/‑ün is exemplified in the adjacent newspaper logo.63: 30 64: 27 

Consonant clusters

Two medial consonants are the most that can come together in original Mongolian words. There are however, a few loanwords that can begin or end with two or more.65

Compound names

In the modern language, proper names can usually join two words into graphic compounds (such as those of ᠬᠠᠰᠡᠷᠳᠡᠨᠢ Qas'erdeni 'Jasper-jewel' or ᠬᠥᠬᠡᠬᠣᠲᠠ Kökeqota – the city of Hohhot; as opposed to other compound words). This also allows components of different harmonic classes to be joined together, and vowels of an added suffix will harmonize with those of the latter part of the compound. Orthographic peculiarities are most often retained, as with the short and long teeth of an initial-shaped ⟨ᠥ‍→᠊ᠥ᠌‍⟩ ö in ᠮᠤᠤ‍‍ᠥ᠌‍‍ᠬᠢᠨ Muu'ökin 'Bad Girl' (protective name). Medial t and d, in contrast, are not affected in this way.66: 30 67: 92 68: 44 69: 88 

Isolate citation forms

Isolate citation forms for syllables containing o, u, ö, and ü may in dictionaries appear without a final tail as in ⟨ᠪᠣ⟩ bo/bu or ⟨ᠮᠣ᠋⟩ mo/mu, and with a vertical tail as in ⟨ᠪᠥ᠋⟩ bö/bü or ⟨ᠮᠥ᠋⟩ mö/mü (as well as in transcriptions of Chinese syllables).7071: 39 

Letters

Sort orders

Only in a late form can a definite order of signs be established for the alphabet, but can likely be traced back to an earlier Uyghur model.72: 31 

Example orders73
South (inner) Mongolian order74: 53 aeiouöünbpqkɣgmlsštdčǰyrv(f)(ž)(c)(k)(h)
1986 primer, Mongolian Republic75: 212–214 qkɣgǰytdmčrsšlv(p)(z)
Dictionaries after 1924, Mongolian Republic76: 53 (f)(p)(ž)

Native Mongolian

Further information: Mongolian script multigraphs

Native Mongolian
Letters77: 17, 18 78: 546 Contextual formsTransliteration79International Phonetic Alphabet
InitialMedialFinalLatinMong. Cyrillic8081Khalkha82: 40–42 Chakhar8384
 
ᠠᠠ‍‍ᠠ‍‍ᠠ

‍ᠠ᠋

aа/a//ɑ/
ᠡᠡ‍‍ᠡ‍‍ᠡ

‍ᠡ᠋

eэ/ə/
ᠢᠢ‍‍ᠢ‍‍ᠢiи/i//i/ or /ɪ/
ᠣᠣ‍‍ᠣ‍‍ᠣoо/ɔ/
ᠤᠤ‍‍ᠤ‍‍ᠤuу/ʊ/
ᠥᠥ‍‍ᠥ᠋‍

‍ᠥ‍

‍ᠥöө/ɵ//o/
ᠦᠦ‍‍ᠦ᠋‍

‍ᠦ‍

‍ᠦüү/u/
ᠨᠨ‍‍ᠨ‍

‍ᠨ᠋‍

‍ᠨ

‍ᠨ᠎

nн/n/
ᠩ—‍ᠩ‍‍ᠩngнг/ŋ/
ᠪᠪ‍‍ᠪ‍‍ᠪbб/p/ and /w//b/
ᠫᠫ‍‍ᠫ‍—pп/pʰ//p/
ᠬᠬ‍ᠬ‍‍ᠬq

k

х/x/
ᠭᠭ‍ᠭ‍

‍ᠭ᠋‍

‍ᠭ

‍ᠭ᠎

ɣ

g

г/ɢ//ɣ/
ᠮᠮ‍‍ᠮ‍‍ᠮmм/m/
ᠯᠯ‍‍ᠯ‍‍ᠯlл/ɮ//l/
ᠰᠰ‍‍ᠰ‍‍ᠰsс/s/ or /ʃ/ before i
ᠱᠱ‍‍ᠱ‍‍ᠱšш/ʃ/
ᠲᠲ‍‍ᠲ‍—tт/t/
ᠳᠳ‍‍ᠳ‍

‍ᠳ᠋‍

‍ᠳdд/t/ and /tʰ//d/
ᠴᠴ‍‍ᠴ‍—čч/t͡ʃʰ/ and /t͡sʰ//t͡ʃ/
ᠵᠵ‍‍ᠵ‍—ǰж/d͡ʒ/ and d͡z/d͡ʒ/
ᠶᠶ‍‍ᠶ‍‍ᠶyй/j/
ᠷᠷ‍‍ᠷ‍‍ᠷrр/r/

Galik characters

Main article: Galik alphabet

In 1587, the translator and scholar Ayuush Güüsh created the Galik alphabet (Али-гали Ali-gali), inspired by the third Dalai Lama, Sonam Gyatso. It primarily added extra characters for transcribing Tibetan and Sanskrit terms when translating religious texts, and later also from Chinese. Some of those characters are still in use today for writing foreign names (as listed below).85

In 1917, the politician and linguist Bayantömöriin Khaisan published the rime dictionary Mongolian-Han Bilingual Original Sounds of the Five Regions,86 a bilingual edition of the earlier Original Sounds of the Five Regions,87 to aid Mongolian speakers in learning Mandarin Chinese. To that end, he included transliterations of Mandarin using the Mongolian script, and repurposed three Galik letters to represent the Mandarin retroflex consonants. These letters remain in use in Inner Mongolia for the purpose of transcribing Chinese.88

Galik characters
Letters89: 17–18 90: 546 Contextual formsTransliteration9192: 27–28 IPA
InitialMedialFinalLatinMong. Cyrillic93: 44–49 94SanskritTibetan95: 63–69, 189–194, 243–255 
 
ᠧᠧ‍‍ᠧ‍‍ᠧē/éеएཨེ/e/
ᠸᠸ‍‍ᠸ‍‍ᠸw/vвवཝ/w/
ᠹᠹ‍‍ᠹ‍‍ᠹfфफཕ/f/
ᠺᠺ‍‍ᠺ‍‍ᠺg/kкगག/k/
ᠻᠻ‍‍ᠻ‍‍ᠻk/khкखཁ/kʰ/
ᠼᠼ‍‍ᠼ‍‍ᠼcцछཚ/t͡s/
ᠽᠽ‍‍ᠽ‍‍ᠽzзचཙ

ཛ

/d͡z/
ᠾᠾ‍‍ᠾ‍‍ᠾhхहཧ/h/
ᠿ96ᠿ‍——žжཞ/ʐ/, /ɻ/97
ᡀ98ᡀ‍‍ᡀ‍—lhлхལྷ/ɬ/
ᡁ99ᡁ‍——zhз/d͡ʐ/
ᡂ100ᡂ‍——chчཋ/t͡ʂ/

Punctuation and numerals

Punctuation

Further information: Mongolian Supplement (Unicode block)

When written between words, punctuation marks use space on both sides of them. They can also appear at the very end of a line, regardless of where the preceding word ends.101: 99  Red (cinnabar) ink is used in many manuscripts, to either symbolize emphasis or respect.102: 241  Modern punctuation incorporates Western marks: parentheses; quotation, question, and exclamation marks; including precomposed ⁈ and ⁉.103: 535–536 

Punctuation104: 106, 168, 203, 1046 105: 28 106: 30 107: 99 108: 3 109: 535–536 110
Form(s)NameFunction(s)
᠀Birga111Marks start of a book, chapter, passage, or first line
᠀᠋
᠀᠌
᠀᠍
[...]
᠂'Dot'112Comma
᠃'Double-dot'113Period / full stop
᠅'Four-fold dot'114Marks end of a passage, paragraph, or chapter
᠁'Dotted line'115Ellipsis
᠄'Parallel dots'116

'Pair of dots'117

Colon
᠆'Spine, backbone'118Mongolian soft hyphen (wikt:᠆)
᠊Mongolian non-breaking hyphen, or stem extender (wikt:᠊)

Numerals

Main article: Mongolian numerals

TextImage
15 on 'year of 15' on a 1925 tögrög coin, with the number written across the baseline.119᠑᠕ᠣᠨ
89 (top) written vertically on a hillside, with the number written along the baseline.᠘᠙
Printed numeral 3, written along the baseline and rotated 90 degrees clockwise.᠁‍ᠤᠢ ᠓ ᠬᠡ‍᠁
0123456789
᠐᠑᠒᠓᠔᠕᠖᠗᠘᠙

Mongolian numerals are either written from left to right, or from top to bottom.120: 54 121: 9  For typographical reasons, they are rotated 90° in modern books to fit on the line.122: 56 

Components and writing styles

Components

Listed in the table below are letter components (graphemes)123 commonly used across the script. Some of these are used with several letters, and others to contrast between them. As their forms and usage may differ between writing styles, however, examples of these can be found under this section below.

Common components124125: 539–540, 545–546 126: 4–5 127: 29–30, 205 128129: 111, 115 130: 82–83, 86, 108–112 131: 35–36 132: 45 133134: 20 135: 211–212 136: 10–11 137138139
FormName(s)Use
᠊ᠡ‍'Tooth'140A main part of letters a/e (from Old Uyghur aleph), n (nun, also part of the digraph ng), q/ɣ (gimel-heth), m (mem), l (hooked resh), initial t/d (taw), etc. Historically also part of k/g (kaph), as well as r (resh).
ᠡ‍'Crown'141An exaggerated initial (swash) tooth. Used for the leading aleph of initial vowels (a, e, i, o, u, ö, ü, ē), and with some initial consonants (n, m, l, h = nun, mem, hooked resh, ha etc.). Historically unused.
᠊᠊'Spine, backbone'142The vertical line running through words.
‍᠊ᠠ'Tail'143The swash final of a/e, n, d, etc.
‍᠊ᠰ᠋'Short tail'144The swash final of q/ɣ, m, and s (samekh-shin or zayin).
᠎ᠠ⟨?⟩ ⟨⟩Crook145The separated final a/e.
Crook, 'Sprinkling, dusting'146The connected lower part of final a/e; the lower part of final g (kaph).
‍ᡳ᠌'Hook'147The final part of final i (after bow-shaped b, k/g) and some galik letters.
ᠵ‍'Shin, stick'148A main part of i, ǰ, and y, and final part of initial ö/ü (yodh). Also the upper part of final g (kaph).
'Straight shin'149
'Long tooth'150
ᠶ‍'Shin with upturn'151Initial and medial y (yodh).
ᠸ‍Shin with downturn152The letters ē and w (bet).
ᠷ‍Horned shin153The letter r (resh). Historically also the upper part of final g and separated a/e.
ᠳ᠋‍'Looped shin'154A medial t/d (lamedh). Historically with its enclosed (counter) endpoint varying in shape: as open/closed, hook-shaped, pointy/round etc.
ᡁ‍'Hollow shin'155The letters h and zh (from the Tibetan script).
‍ᠢ'Bow'156Final i, o/u/ö/ü, and r; ng, b/p (pe), k/g, etc.
‍᠊ᠣ‍'Belly, stomach,' loop, contour157The counter of o/u/ö/ü (waw), b, p, initial t/d, etc.
ᠲ‍'Hind-gut'158An initial t/d (taw).
ᠬ[...]159An initial q/ɣ (gimel-heth).
‍᠊ᠮ‍'Braid, pigtail'160 and 'Horn'161The letters m (mem) and l (hooked resh).
‍᠊ᠯ‍
‍᠊ᠰ‍'Corner of the mouth'162The letters s/š (samekh-shin).
‍ᠴ‍[...]163The letter č (angular tsade).
'Fork'164
‍ᠵ‍[...]165The letter ǰ (smooth tsade).
'Tusk, fang'166
‍᠊ᠹ‍Flaglet, tuft167The left-side diacritic of f, z, etc. These names are only used for such components created for words of foreign origin.
‍ᠽ‍

Writing styles

As exemplified in this section, the shapes of glyphs may vary widely between different styles of writing and choice of medium with which to produce them. The development of written Mongolian can be divided into the three periods of pre-classical (beginning – 17th century), classical (16/17th century – 20th century), and modern (20th century onward):168169: 2–3, 17, 23, 25–26 170: 58–59 171: 539–540, 545–546 172: 62–63 173: 111, 113–114 174: 40–42, 100–101, 117 175: 34–37 176: 8–11 177: 211–215 

Rounded letterforms

  • Rounded letterforms tend to be more prevalent with handwritten styles (compare printed and handwritten arban 'ten').
Block‑printed1604 Pen-written form178Modern brush‑written formTrans­lit­er­a­tion(s) & 'trans­la­tion'
1312 Uyghur Mong. form179semi-modern forms180
arban 'ten'

Tail

  • Final letterforms with a right-pointing tail (such as those of a, e, n, q, ɣ, m, l, s, š, and d) may have the notch preceding it in printed form, written in a span between two extremes: from as a more or less tapered point, to a fully rounded curve in handwriting.
  • The long final tails of a, e, n, and d in the texts of pre-classical Mongolian can become elongated vertically to fill up the remainder of a line. Such tails are used consistently for these letters in the earliest 13th to 15th century Uyghur Mongolian style of texts.
Block‑printedPen-written formsModern brush‑written formsTrans­lit­er­a­tion(s) & 'trans­la­tion'
Uyghur Mong. formssemi-modern forms
‑ača/‑eče
‑un/‑ün
‑ud/‑üd
ba 'and'

Yodh

  • A hooked form of yodh was borrowed from the Manchu alphabet in the 19th century to distinguish initial y from ǰ. The handwritten form of final-shaped yodh (i, ǰ, y), can be greatly shortened in comparison with its initial and medial forms.
Block‑printedPen-written formsModern brush‑written formsTrans­lit­er­a­tion(s) & 'trans­la­tion'
Uyghur Mong. formssemi-modern forms
‑i
‑yi
‑yin
sain/sayin 'good'
yeke 'great'

Diacritics

  • The definite status or function of diacritics was not established prior to classical Mongolian. As such, the dotted letters n, ɣ, and š, can be found sporadically dotted or altogether lacking them. Additionally, both q and ɣ could be (double-)dotted to identify them regardless of their sound values. Final dotted n is also found in modern Mongolian words. Any diacritical dots of ɣ and n can be offset downward from their respective letters (as in ᠭᠣᠣᠯ ɣool and ᠭᠦᠨ ᠢ⟨?⟩ gün‑i).

Bow

  • When a bow-shaped consonant is followed by a vowel in Uyghur style text, said bow can be found to notably overlap it (see bi). A final b has, in its final pre-modern form, a bow-less final form as opposed to the common modern one:181: 39 
Block‑printedPen-written formsModern brush‑written formsTrans­lit­er­a­tion(s) & 'trans­la­tion'
Uyghur Mong. formssemi-modern forms
‑u/‑ü
bi 'I'
ab (intensifying particle)

Gimel-heth and kaph

  • As in kü, köke, ǰüg and separated a/e, two teeth can also make up the top-left part of a kaph (k/g) or aleph (a/e) in pre-classical texts. In back-vocalic words of Uyghur Mongolian, qi was used in place of ki, and can therefore be used to identify this stage of the written language. An example of this appears in the suffix ‑taqi/‑daqi.182: 100, 117 
Block‑printedPen-written formsModern brush‑written formsTrans­lit­er­a­tion(s) & 'trans­la­tion'
Uyghur Mong. formssemi-modern forms
‑a/‑e
‑luɣ‑a
[...]kü (emphatic particle)
köke 'blue'
köge 'soot'
ǰüg 'direction'

Ligatures

  • In pre-modern Mongolian, medial ml (‍ᠮᠯ‍) forms a ligature: .

Short tail

  • A pre-modern variant form for final s appears in the shape of a short final n ⟨‍ᠰ᠋⟩, derived from Old Uyghur zayin (𐽴). It tended to be replaced by the mouth-shaped form and is no longer used. An early example of it is found in the name of Gengis Khan on the Stele of Yisüngge: ᠴᠢᠩᠭᠢᠰ᠋ Činggis. A zayin-shaped final can also appear as part of final m and ɣ.
Block‑printedPen-written formsTrans­lit­er­a­tion(s) & 'trans­la­tion'
Uyghur Mong. formssemi-modern forms
es(‑)e 'not, no', (negation)
ulus 'nation'
nom 'book'
čaɣ 'time'

Taw and lamedh

  • Initial taw (t/d) can, akin to final mem (m), be found written quite explicitly loopy (as in nom 'book' and toli 'mirror'). The lamedh (t or d) may appear simply as an oval loop or looped shin, or as more angular, with an either closed or open counter (as in ‑daki/‑deki or ‑dur/‑dür). As in metü, a Uyghur style word-medial t can sometimes be written with the pre-consonantal form otherwise used for d. Taw was applied to both initial t and d from the outset of the script's adoption. This was done in imitation of Old Uyghur which, however, had lacked the phoneme d in this position.
Block‑printedPen-written formsModern brush‑written formsTrans­lit­er­a­tion(s) & 'trans­la­tion'
Uyghur Mong. formssemi-modern forms
[...]toli 'mirror'
[...]‑daki/‑deki
[...]‑tur/‑tür
‑dur/‑dür
[...]metü 'as'

Tsade

  • Following the late classical Mongolian orthography of the 17th and 18th centuries, a smooth and angular tsade (‍ᠵ‍ and ᠴ) has come to represent ǰ and č respectively. The tsade before this was used for both these phonemes, regardless of graphical variants, as no ǰ had existed in Old Uyghur:
Block‑printedTrans­lit­er­a­tion(s) & 'trans­la­tion'
Uyghur Mong. formsemi-modern form
čečeg 'flower'
Block-printed semi-modern formPen-written formTrans­lit­er­a­tion(s) & 'trans­la­tion'
qačar/ɣaǰar 'cheek/place'

Resh

  • As in sara and ‑dur/‑dür, a resh (of r, and sometimes of l) can appear as two teeth or crossed shins; adjacent, angled, attached to a shin and/or overlapping.
Block‑printedPen-written formModern brush‑written formTrans­lit­er­a­tion(s) & 'trans­la­tion'
Uyghur Mong. formsemi-modern forms
sar(‑)a 'moon/month'

Example

Wikipedia slogan
ManuscriptTypeUnicodeTransliteration (first word)
ᠸᠢᠺᠢᠫᠧᠳᠢᠶᠠ᠂ ᠴᠢᠯᠦᠭᠡᠲᠦ ᠨᠡᠪᠲᠡᠷᠬᠡᠢ ᠲᠣᠯᠢ ᠪᠢᠴᠢᠭ ᠪᠣᠯᠠᠢ᠃ᠸᠢ‍ wi/vi
‍ᠺᠢ‍ gi/ki
‍ᠫᠧ‍ pē/pé
‍ᠳᠢ‍ di
‍ᠶ᠎ᠠ⟨?⟩ y‑a or ‍ᠶᠠ ya
  • Transliteration: Wikipēdiya čilügetü nebterkei toli bičig bolai.
  • Cyrillic: Википедиа чөлөөт нэвтэрхий толь бичиг болой.
  • Transcription: Vikipedia chölööt nevterkhii toli bichig boloi.
  • Translation: Wikipedia is the free encyclopedia.

Unicode

The Mongolian script was added to the Unicode standard in September 1999 with the release of version 3.0. However, several design issues have been pointed out.183

  • The 1999 Mongolian script Unicode codes are duplicated and not searchable.
  • The 1999 Mongolian script Unicode model has multiple layers of FVS (free variation selectors), MVS, ZWJ, NNBSP, and those variation selections conflict with each other, which create incorrect results.184 Furthermore, different vendors understood the definition of each FVS differently, and developed multiple applications in different standards.185
  • The characters themselves are typed left to right, instead of the correct up to down.

Blocks

Main articles: Mongolian (Unicode block) and Mongolian Supplement (Unicode block)

The Unicode block for Mongolian is U+1800–U+18AF. It includes letters, digits and various punctuation marks for Hudum Mongolian, Todo Mongolian, Xibe (Manchu), Manchu proper, and Ali Gali, as well as extensions for transcribing Sanskrit and Tibetan.

Mongolian[1][2]Official Unicode Consortium code chart (PDF)
 0123456789ABCDEF
U+180x ᠀ ᠁ ᠂ ᠃ ᠄ ᠅ ᠆ ᠇ ᠈ ᠉ ᠊FVS1FVS2FVS3MVSFVS4
U+181x ᠐ ᠑ ᠒ ᠓ ᠔ ᠕ ᠖ ᠗ ᠘ ᠙
U+182x ᠠ ᠡ ᠢ ᠣ ᠤ ᠥ ᠦ ᠧ ᠨ ᠩ ᠪ ᠫ ᠬ ᠭ ᠮ ᠯ
U+183x ᠰ ᠱ ᠲ ᠳ ᠴ ᠵ ᠶ ᠷ ᠸ ᠹ ᠺ ᠻ ᠼ ᠽ ᠾ ᠿ
U+184x ᡀ ᡁ ᡂ ᡃ ᡄ ᡅ ᡆ ᡇ ᡈ ᡉ ᡊ ᡋ ᡌ ᡍ ᡎ ᡏ
U+185x ᡐ ᡑ ᡒ ᡓ ᡔ ᡕ ᡖ ᡗ ᡘ ᡙ ᡚ ᡛ ᡜ ᡝ ᡞ ᡟ
U+186x ᡠ ᡡ ᡢ ᡣ ᡤ ᡥ ᡦ ᡧ ᡨ ᡩ ᡪ ᡫ ᡬ ᡭ ᡮ ᡯ
U+187x ᡰ ᡱ ᡲ ᡳ ᡴ ᡵ ᡶ ᡷ ᡸ
U+188x ᢀ ᢁ ᢂ ᢃ ᢄ ᢅ ᢆ ᢇ ᢈ ᢉ ᢊ ᢋ ᢌ ᢍ ᢎ ᢏ
U+189x ᢐ ᢑ ᢒ ᢓ ᢔ ᢕ ᢖ ᢗ ᢘ ᢙ ᢚ ᢛ ᢜ ᢝ ᢞ ᢟ
U+18Ax ᢠ ᢡ ᢢ ᢣ ᢤ ᢥ ᢦ ᢧ ᢨ ᢩ ᢪ
Notes1.^ As of Unicode version 16.02.^ Grey areas indicate non-assigned code points

The Mongolian Supplement block (U+11660–U+1167F) was added to the Unicode Standard in June 2016 with the release of version 9.0:

Mongolian Supplement[1][2]Official Unicode Consortium code chart (PDF)
 0123456789ABCDEF
U+1166x 𑙠 𑙡 𑙢 𑙣 𑙤 𑙥 𑙦 𑙧 𑙨 𑙩 𑙪 𑙫 𑙬
U+1167x
Notes1.^ As of Unicode version 16.02.^ Grey areas indicate non-assigned code points

Keyboard layout

The Windows Mongolian traditional script keyboard layout for personal computers is as follows:186

Unshifted layout

FVS31

᠑

2

᠒

3

᠓

4

᠔

5

᠕

6

᠖

7

᠗

8

᠘

9

᠙

0

᠐

NNBSP=Backspace
TabQ

ᠴ č

W

ᠣ o

E

ᠡ e

R

ᠷ r

T

ᠲ t

Y

ᠶ y

U

ᠦ ü

I

ᠢ i

O

ᠥ ö

P

ᠫ p

(...)

〔

(...)

〕

(...)

᠁

CapsA

ᠠ a

S

ᠰ s

D

ᠳ d

F

ᠹ f

G

ᠭ ɣ/g

H

ᠬ q/k

J

ᠵ ǰ

K

ᠺ g

L

ᠯ l

;

︔

FVS1Enter
Shift\Z

ᠽ z

X

ᠱ š

C

ᠼ c

V

ᠤ u

B

ᠪ b

N

ᠨ n

M

ᠮ m

,

᠂

.

᠃

.Shift
CtrlAltAltCtrl

Shifted layout

~1

!

2

⁈

3

⁉

4

—

5

%

6

ZWNJ

7

᠊

8

ZWJ

9

(

0

)

MVS+Backspace
TabW

ᠸ w

E

ᠧ ē

R

ᠿ ž

(...)

〈

(...)

〉

(...)

|

CapsH

ᠾ h

K

ᠻ kh

L

ᡀ lh

:

᠄

FVS2Enter
ShiftZ

ᡁ zh

C

ᡂ ch

N

ᠩ ng

,

《

.

》

?Shift
CtrlAltAltCtrl

See also

  • Language portal

Notes

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Mongolian script.

Keyboards Mongolian script layout online

Summaries

Studies

Grammars

Dictionaries

Transliteration

Manuscripts

Other

References

  1. In Mongolian script: ᠮᠣᠩᠭᠣᠯ ᠪᠢᠴᠢᠭ ⟨ ⟩ mongɣol bičig; in Mongolian Cyrillic: Khalkha: монгол бичиг mongol bichig [ˈmɔɴɢɜɮ ˈpiʰt͡ɕɪ̥k][citation needed] /wiki/File:Monggol.svg ↩

  2. /ˈhʊdəm ˈmɒŋɡəl ˈbɪtʃɪɡ/[citation needed]; in Mongolian script: ᠬᠤᠳᠤᠮ ᠮᠣᠩᠭᠣᠯ ᠪᠢᠴᠢᠭ qudum mongɣol bičig; Khalkha: Khalkha: худам монгол бичиг, khudam mongol bichig [ˈχʊt(ə)m ˈmɔɴɢɜɮ ˈpiʰt͡ɕɪ̥k][citation needed]; Buryat: Худам Монгол бэшэг, Hudam Mongol bèšèg; Kalmyk: Хуудм Моңһл бичг, Huudm Mon̦ḥl bičg[citation needed] /wiki/Help:IPA/English ↩

  3. Daniels, Peter T.; Bright, William (1996). The World's Writing Systems. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-507993-7. 978-0-19-507993-7 ↩

  4. Christian, David (1998). A History of Russia, Central Asia and Mongolia: Inner Eurasia from Prehistory to the Mongol Empire. Wiley. p. 398. ISBN 978-0-631-20814-3. 978-0-631-20814-3 ↩

  5. Poppe, Nicholas (1974). Grammar of Written Mongolian. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. ISBN 978-3-447-00684-2. 978-3-447-00684-2 ↩

  6. Poppe, Nicholas (1974). Grammar of Written Mongolian. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. ISBN 978-3-447-00684-2. 978-3-447-00684-2 ↩

  7. Daniels, Peter T.; Bright, William (1996). The World's Writing Systems. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-507993-7. 978-0-19-507993-7 ↩

  8. György Kara, "Aramaic Scripts for Altaic Languages", in Daniels & Bright The World's Writing Systems, 1994. /wiki/The_World%27s_Writing_Systems ↩

  9. Janhunen, Juha (2006-01-27). The Mongolic Languages. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-79690-7. 978-1-135-79690-7 ↩

  10. Shepherd, Margaret (2013-07-03). Learn World Calligraphy: Discover African, Arabic, Chinese, Ethiopic, Greek, Hebrew, Indian, Japanese, Korean, Mongolian, Russian, Thai, Tibetan Calligraphy, and Beyond. Clarkson Potter/Ten Speed. ISBN 978-0-8230-8230-8. 978-0-8230-8230-8 ↩

  11. Berkwitz, Stephen C.; Schober, Juliane; Brown, Claudia (2009-01-13). Buddhist Manuscript Cultures: Knowledge, Ritual, and Art. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-00242-9. 978-1-134-00242-9 ↩

  12. Chinggeltei. (1963) A Grammar of the Mongol Language. New York, Frederick Ungar Publishing Co. p. 15. ↩

  13. "Mongolia to promote usage of traditional script". China.org.cn (March 19, 2020). http://www.china.org.cn/arts/2020-03/19/content_75834583.htm ↩

  14. Official documents to be recorded in both scripts from 2025, Montsame, 18 March 2020. https://www.montsame.mn/en/read/219358 ↩

  15. Mongolian Language Law is effective from July 1st, Gogo, 1 July 2015. "Misinterpretation 1: Use of cyrillic is to be terminated and only Mongolian script to be used. There is no provision in the law that states the termination of use of cyrillic. It clearly states that Mongolian script is to be added to the current use of cyrillic. Mongolian script will be introduced in stages and state and local government is to conduct their correspondence in both cyrillic and Mongolian script. This provision is to be effective starting January 1st of 2025. ID, birth certificate, marriage certificate and education certificates are to be both in Mongolian cyrillic and Mongolian script and currently Mongolian script is being used in official letters of President, Prime Minister and Speaker of Parliament." https://mongolia.gogo.mn/r/146942 ↩

  16. 藍美華. "近期內蒙古漢語教材抗爭事件觀察". ws.mac.gov.tw. Mainland Affairs Council. Archived from the original on 2021-03-12. Retrieved 2023-01-19. https://web.archive.org/web/20210312215123/https://ws.mac.gov.tw/Download.ashx?u=LzAwMS9VcGxvYWQvMjk1L2NrZmlsZS85ZDc1NjVlMi00NGY0LTRhNDgtYjkwZC1iMWVmMDAzN2U2YjcucGRm&n=5Zub44CB6JeN576O6I%2BvLS3ov5HmnJ%2Flhafokpnlj6TmvKLoqp7mlZnmnZDmipfniK3kuovku7bop4Dlr58ucGRm ↩

  17. Caodaobateer (2004). "The Use and Development of Mongol and its Writing Systems in China". Language Policy in the People's Republic of China. Language Policy. 4. Dordrecht: 289–302. doi:10.1007/1-4020-8039-5_16. ISBN 1-4020-8038-7. 1-4020-8038-7 ↩

  18. Hsiao-ting Lin. "Ethnopolitics in modern China: the Nationalists, Muslims, and Mongols in wartime Alashaa Banner (1937–1945)". Stanford, CA, US: Hoover Institution, Stanford University. https://ru4.ilovetranslation.com/jhLk6JJ3SWl=d/ ↩

  19. ᠤᠶᠢᠭᠤᠷᠵᠢᠨ ᠮᠣᠩᠭᠣᠯ ᠪᠢᠴᠢᠭ uyiɣurǰin mongɣol bičig (Khalkha: уйгар/уйгаржин/уйгуржин монгол бичиг/үсэг uigar/uigarjin/uigurjin mongol bichig/üseg) ↩

  20. ᠬᠠᠭᠤᠴᠢᠨ ᠪᠢᠴᠢᠭ qaɣučin bičig (Khalkha: хуучин бичиг khuuchin bichig) ↩

  21. ᠰᠢᠨᠡ/ᠰᠢᠨ᠎ᠡ ᠪᠢᠴᠢᠭ sine/sin‑e bičig (Khalkha: шинэ үсэг shine üseg) ↩

  22. ᠬᠤᠳᠤᠮ ᠮᠣᠩᠭᠣᠯ ᠪᠢᠴᠢᠭ qudum mongɣol bičig (Khalkha: худам монгол бичиг khudam mongol bichig) ↩

  23. ᠲᠣᠳᠣ ᠪᠢᠴᠢᠭ/ᠦᠰᠦᠭ todo bičig/üsüg (Khalkha: тод бичиг/үсэг tod bichig/üseg) ↩

  24. ᠪᠣᠱᠤᠭ᠎ᠠ ᠪᠢᠴᠢᠭ bošuɣ-a bičig (Khalkha: босоо бичиг bosoo bichig) ↩

  25. Hersch, Roger; Andre, Jacques; Brown, Heather (1998-03-18). EP '98. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 978-3-540-64298-5. 978-3-540-64298-5 ↩

  26. Janhunen, Juha (2006-01-27). The Mongolic Languages. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-79690-7. 978-1-135-79690-7 ↩

  27. Sanders, Alan J. K. (2010-05-20). Historical Dictionary of Mongolia. Scarecrow Press. ISBN 978-0-8108-7452-7. 978-0-8108-7452-7 ↩

  28. Janhunen, Juha A. (2012). Mongolian. John Benjamins Publishing. ISBN 978-90-272-3820-7. 978-90-272-3820-7 ↩

  29. Bawden, Charles (2013-10-28). Mongolian English Dictionary. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-136-15588-8. 978-1-136-15588-8 ↩

  30. Bat-Ireedui, Jantsangiyn; Sanders, Alan J. K. (2015-08-14). Colloquial Mongolian: The Complete Course for Beginners. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-30598-9. 978-1-317-30598-9 ↩

  31. Marzluf, Phillip P. (2017-11-22). Language, Literacy, and Social Change in Mongolia: Traditionalist, Socialist, and Post-Socialist Identities. Lexington Books. ISBN 978-1-4985-3486-4. 978-1-4985-3486-4 ↩

  32. "Mongolian State Dictionary". mongoltoli.mn (in Mongolian). Retrieved 2017-12-14. https://mongoltoli.mn/dictionary/ ↩

  33. György Kara, "Aramaic Scripts for Altaic Languages", in Daniels & Bright The World's Writing Systems, 1994. /wiki/The_World%27s_Writing_Systems ↩

  34. by Manchu convention /wiki/Manchu_language#Phonology ↩

  35. in Inner Mongolia. ↩

  36. by Manchu convention /wiki/Manchu_language#Phonology ↩

  37. in Inner Mongolia. ↩

  38. Poppe, Nicholas (1974). Grammar of Written Mongolian. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. ISBN 978-3-447-00684-2. 978-3-447-00684-2 ↩

  39. Grønbech, Kaare; Krueger, John Richard (1993). An Introduction to Classical (literary) Mongolian: Introduction, Grammar, Reader, Glossary. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. ISBN 978-3-447-03298-8. 978-3-447-03298-8 ↩

  40. "A Study of Traditional Mongolian Script Encodings and Rendering: Use of Unicode in OpenType fonts" (PDF). w.colips.org. Retrieved 9 November 2017. http://w.colips.org/journals/volume21/21.1.3-Biligsaikhan.pdf ↩

  41. "Mongolian Traditional Script". cjvlang.com. Retrieved 2017-12-07. http://cjvlang.com/Writing/writmongol/index.html ↩

  42. In digital typesetting, this shaping is achieved by inserting a U+180E ᠎ MONGOLIAN VOWEL SEPARATOR (MVS) between the separated letters. ↩

  43. Poppe, Nicholas (1974). Grammar of Written Mongolian. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. ISBN 978-3-447-00684-2. 978-3-447-00684-2 ↩

  44. Svantesson, Jan-Olof; Tsendina, Anna; Karlsson, Anastasia; Franzen, Vivan (2005-02-10). The Phonology of Mongolian. OUP Oxford. ISBN 978-0-19-151461-6. 978-0-19-151461-6 ↩

  45. Janhunen, Juha (2006-01-27). The Mongolic Languages. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-79690-7. 978-1-135-79690-7 ↩

  46. "A Study of Traditional Mongolian Script Encodings and Rendering: Use of Unicode in OpenType fonts" (PDF). w.colips.org. Retrieved 9 November 2017. http://w.colips.org/journals/volume21/21.1.3-Biligsaikhan.pdf ↩

  47. "The Unicode® Standard Version 10.0 – Core Specification: South and Central Asia-II" (PDF). Unicode.org. Retrieved 3 December 2017. https://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode10.0.0/ch13.pdf ↩

  48. "Mongolian / ᠮᠣᠩᠭᠣᠯ Moŋġol" (PDF). www.eki.ee. Retrieved 2017-11-18. https://www.eki.ee/knab/lat/kblcmg2.pdf ↩

  49. "The Unicode® Standard Version 10.0 – Core Specification: South and Central Asia-II" (PDF). Unicode.org. Retrieved 3 December 2017. https://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode10.0.0/ch13.pdf ↩

  50. Grønbech, Kaare; Krueger, John Richard (1993). An Introduction to Classical (literary) Mongolian: Introduction, Grammar, Reader, Glossary. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. ISBN 978-3-447-03298-8. 978-3-447-03298-8 ↩

  51. Viklund, Andreas. "Lingua Mongolia – Mongolian Grammar". www.linguamongolia.com. Archived from the original on 2017-12-22. Retrieved 2017-12-13. https://web.archive.org/web/20171222230456/http://www.linguamongolia.com/gram1.html ↩

  52. Janhunen, Juha (2006-01-27). The Mongolic Languages. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-79690-7. 978-1-135-79690-7 ↩

  53. In digital typesetting, this shaping is achieved by inserting a U+202F   NARROW NO-BREAK SPACE (NNBSP) between the separated letters. /wiki/Non-breaking_space#Width_variation ↩

  54. Poppe, Nicholas (1974). Grammar of Written Mongolian. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. ISBN 978-3-447-00684-2. 978-3-447-00684-2 ↩

  55. Grønbech, Kaare; Krueger, John Richard (1993). An Introduction to Classical (literary) Mongolian: Introduction, Grammar, Reader, Glossary. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. ISBN 978-3-447-03298-8. 978-3-447-03298-8 ↩

  56. Viklund, Andreas. "Lingua Mongolia – Mongolian Grammar". www.linguamongolia.com. Archived from the original on 2017-12-22. Retrieved 2017-12-13. https://web.archive.org/web/20171222230456/http://www.linguamongolia.com/gram1.html ↩

  57. "PROPOSAL Encode Mongolian Suffix Connector (U+180F) To Replace Narrow Non-Breaking Space (U+202F)" (PDF). Unicode.org. Retrieved 23 August 2017. https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2017/17036-mongolian-suffix.pdf ↩

  58. "A Study of Traditional Mongolian Script Encodings and Rendering: Use of Unicode in OpenType fonts" (PDF). w.colips.org. Retrieved 9 November 2017. http://w.colips.org/journals/volume21/21.1.3-Biligsaikhan.pdf ↩

  59. "The Unicode® Standard Version 10.0 – Core Specification: South and Central Asia-II" (PDF). Unicode.org. Retrieved 3 December 2017. https://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode10.0.0/ch13.pdf ↩

  60. Poppe, Nicholas (1974). Grammar of Written Mongolian. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. ISBN 978-3-447-00684-2. 978-3-447-00684-2 ↩

  61. Poppe, Nicholas (1974). Grammar of Written Mongolian. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. ISBN 978-3-447-00684-2. 978-3-447-00684-2 ↩

  62. Poppe, Nicholas (1974). Grammar of Written Mongolian. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. ISBN 978-3-447-00684-2. 978-3-447-00684-2 ↩

  63. Poppe, Nicholas (1974). Grammar of Written Mongolian. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. ISBN 978-3-447-00684-2. 978-3-447-00684-2 ↩

  64. "The Unicode® Standard Version 10.0 – Core Specification: South and Central Asia-II" (PDF). Unicode.org. Retrieved 3 December 2017. https://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode10.0.0/ch13.pdf ↩

  65. Examples of such include: (dotless š) gšan 'moment' (), gkir 'dirt' (), or bodisdv 'Bodhisattva' ().[4]: 15, 32 [24]: 9 [32]: 385 /wiki/File:Block-printed_gshan.svg ↩

  66. Poppe, Nicholas (1974). Grammar of Written Mongolian. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. ISBN 978-3-447-00684-2. 978-3-447-00684-2 ↩

  67. Kara, György (2005). Books of the Mongolian Nomads: More Than Eight Centuries of Writing Mongolian. Indiana University, Research Institute for Inner Asian Studies. ISBN 978-0-933070-52-3. 978-0-933070-52-3 ↩

  68. Janhunen, Juha (2006-01-27). The Mongolic Languages. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-79690-7. 978-1-135-79690-7 ↩

  69. Janhunen, Juha A. (2012). Mongolian. John Benjamins Publishing. ISBN 978-90-272-3820-7. 978-90-272-3820-7 ↩

  70. "Mongolian Traditional Script". cjvlang.com. Retrieved 2017-12-07. http://cjvlang.com/Writing/writmongol/index.html ↩

  71. Janhunen, Juha (2006-01-27). The Mongolic Languages. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-79690-7. 978-1-135-79690-7 ↩

  72. Kara, György (2005). Books of the Mongolian Nomads: More Than Eight Centuries of Writing Mongolian. Indiana University, Research Institute for Inner Asian Studies. ISBN 978-0-933070-52-3. 978-0-933070-52-3 ↩

  73. Transliterations have been normalized according to this article's letter tables. Loan consonants are shown in parentheses. ↩

  74. Jugder, Luvsandorj (2008). Vacek, Jaroslav; Oberfalzerová, Alena (eds.). "Diacritic marks in the Mongolian script and the 'darkness of confusion of letters'" (PDF). Mongolo-Tibetica Pragensia '08. 1 (1). Prague: Stanislav Juhaňák – TRITON: 45–98. ISSN 1803-5647. Retrieved 2024-08-29 – via Institute of Asian Studies, Charles University. https://uas.ff.cuni.cz/wp-content/uploads/sites/63/2019/05/MongolicaPragensia08-1.pdf ↩

  75. Bat-Ireedui, Jantsangiyn; Sanders, Alan J. K. (2015-08-14). Colloquial Mongolian: The Complete Course for Beginners. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-30598-9. 978-1-317-30598-9 ↩

  76. Jugder, Luvsandorj (2008). Vacek, Jaroslav; Oberfalzerová, Alena (eds.). "Diacritic marks in the Mongolian script and the 'darkness of confusion of letters'" (PDF). Mongolo-Tibetica Pragensia '08. 1 (1). Prague: Stanislav Juhaňák – TRITON: 45–98. ISSN 1803-5647. Retrieved 2024-08-29 – via Institute of Asian Studies, Charles University. https://uas.ff.cuni.cz/wp-content/uploads/sites/63/2019/05/MongolicaPragensia08-1.pdf ↩

  77. Poppe, Nicholas (1974). Grammar of Written Mongolian. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. ISBN 978-3-447-00684-2. 978-3-447-00684-2 ↩

  78. Daniels, Peter T.; Bright, William (1996). The World's Writing Systems. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-507993-7. 978-0-19-507993-7 ↩

  79. Scholarly/Scientific transliteration.[35] ↩

  80. Skorodumova, L. G. (2000). Vvedenie v staropismenny mongolskiy yazyk Введение в старописьменный монгольский язык (PDF) (in Russian). Muravey-Gayd. ISBN 5-8463-0015-4. Введение в старописьменный монгольский язык5-8463-0015-4 ↩

  81. "Mongolian transliterations" (PDF). Institute of the Estonian Language. https://transliteration.eki.ee/pdf/Mongolian.pdf ↩

  82. Svantesson, Jan-Olof; Tsendina, Anna; Karlsson, Anastasia; Franzen, Vivan (2005-02-10). The Phonology of Mongolian. OUP Oxford. ISBN 978-0-19-151461-6. 978-0-19-151461-6 ↩

  83. "Mongolian Traditional Script". cjvlang.com. Retrieved 2017-12-07. http://cjvlang.com/Writing/writmongol/index.html ↩

  84. "Writing | Study Mongolian". www.studymongolian.net. August 2013. Retrieved 2017-12-14. http://www.studymongolian.net/lessons/basics/writing/ ↩

  85. Chuluunbaatar, Otgonbayar (2008). Einführung in die mongolischen Schriften (in German). Buske. ISBN 978-3-87548-500-4. 978-3-87548-500-4 ↩

  86. simplified Chinese: 《蒙汉合璧五方元音》; traditional Chinese: 《蒙漢合璧五方元音》 /wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters ↩

  87. Chinese: 《五方元音》 /wiki/Chinese_language ↩

  88. Wu, Jiaye (2022). "Teaching Mandarin Pronunciation to Mongolian Learners in Early Republican Period China: The Case of the Mongolian Han Original Sounds of the Five Regions". In Nicola McLelland and Hui Zhao (ed.). Language Standardization and Language Variation in Multilingual Contexts. Multilingual Matters. ISBN 978-1-80041-155-5. 978-1-80041-155-5 ↩

  89. Poppe, Nicholas (1974). Grammar of Written Mongolian. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. ISBN 978-3-447-00684-2. 978-3-447-00684-2 ↩

  90. Daniels, Peter T.; Bright, William (1996). The World's Writing Systems. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-507993-7. 978-0-19-507993-7 ↩

  91. Scholarly/Scientific transliteration.[35] ↩

  92. Poppe, Nicholas (1974). Grammar of Written Mongolian. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. ISBN 978-3-447-00684-2. 978-3-447-00684-2 ↩

  93. Skorodumova, L. G. (2000). Vvedenie v staropismenny mongolskiy yazyk Введение в старописьменный монгольский язык (PDF) (in Russian). Muravey-Gayd. ISBN 5-8463-0015-4. Введение в старописьменный монгольский язык5-8463-0015-4 ↩

  94. "Mongolian transliterations" (PDF). Institute of the Estonian Language. https://transliteration.eki.ee/pdf/Mongolian.pdf ↩

  95. "BabelStone: Mongolian and Manchu Resources". BabelStone (in Chinese). Retrieved 2024-07-11. http://babelstone.co.uk/Mongolian/Resources.html ↩

  96. Used in Inner Mongolia, and always followed by i. Only used to transcribe the Mandarin Chinese retroflex r, as in 日; rì: ᠿᠢ. https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%97%A5 ↩

  97. Lee & Zee (2003) harvp error: no target: CITEREFLeeZee2003 (help) and Lin (2007) harvp error: no target: CITEREFLin2007 (help) transcribe these as approximants, while Duanmu (2007) harvp error: no target: CITEREFDuanmu2007 (help) transcribes these as voiced fricatives. The actual pronunciation has been acoustically measured to be more approximant-like.[37][41] ↩

  98. Only used in Tibetan loanwords to represent ལྷ syllables, as in ᡀᠠᠰᠠ Lhasa or ᠳᠠᡀᠠ dalha 'enemy gods'.[42]: 31, 427, 432 [18]: 121  Treated as a separate letter due to representing an independent phoneme, but can be analysed as a digraph of ᠯ‍ (l) and ‍ᠾ‍ (h) (noting the latter is in medial position). /wiki/Lhasa ↩

  99. Used in Inner Mongolia, and always followed by i. Only used to transcribe the Mandarin Chinese retroflex zh, as in 之; zhī: ᡁᠢ. Takes the form of medial h, but used in initial position. https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%B9%8B ↩

  100. Used in Inner Mongolia, and always followed by i. Only used to transcribe the Mandarin Chinese retroflex ch, as in 蚩; chī: ᡂᠢ. https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%9A%A9 ↩

  101. Kara, György (2005). Books of the Mongolian Nomads: More Than Eight Centuries of Writing Mongolian. Indiana University, Research Institute for Inner Asian Studies. ISBN 978-0-933070-52-3. 978-0-933070-52-3 ↩

  102. Kara, György (2005). Books of the Mongolian Nomads: More Than Eight Centuries of Writing Mongolian. Indiana University, Research Institute for Inner Asian Studies. ISBN 978-0-933070-52-3. 978-0-933070-52-3 ↩

  103. "The Unicode® Standard Version 10.0 – Core Specification: South and Central Asia-II" (PDF). Unicode.org. Retrieved 3 December 2017. https://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode10.0.0/ch13.pdf ↩

  104. Lessing, Ferdinand (1960). Mongolian-English Dictionary (PDF). University of California Press. Note that this dictionary uses the transliterations c, ø, x, y, z, ai, and ei; instead of č, ö, q, ü, ǰ, ayi, and eyi;: xii  as well as problematically and incorrectly treats all rounded vowels (o/u/ö/ü) after the initial syllable as u or ü.[45] https://altaica.ru/LIBRARY/mong/Lessing.pdf ↩

  105. Poppe, Nicholas (1974). Grammar of Written Mongolian. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. ISBN 978-3-447-00684-2. 978-3-447-00684-2 ↩

  106. Shagdarsürüng, Tseveliin (2001). "Study of Mongolian Scripts (Graphic Study or Grammatology). Enl". Bibliotheca Mongolica: Monograph 1. ↩

  107. Kara, György (2005). Books of the Mongolian Nomads: More Than Eight Centuries of Writing Mongolian. Indiana University, Research Institute for Inner Asian Studies. ISBN 978-0-933070-52-3. 978-0-933070-52-3 ↩

  108. "Mongolian transliterations" (PDF). Institute of the Estonian Language. https://transliteration.eki.ee/pdf/Mongolian.pdf ↩

  109. "The Unicode® Standard Version 10.0 – Core Specification: South and Central Asia-II" (PDF). Unicode.org. Retrieved 3 December 2017. https://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode10.0.0/ch13.pdf ↩

  110. "Mongolian State Dictionary". mongoltoli.mn (in Mongolian). Retrieved 2017-12-14. https://mongoltoli.mn/dictionary/ ↩

  111. ᠪᠢᠷᠭ᠎ᠠ⟨?⟩ birɣ‑a (Khalkha: бярга byarga) ↩

  112. ᠴᠡᠭ čeg (Khalkha: цэг tseg) https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D1%86%D1%8D%D0%B3#Mongolian ↩

  113. ᠳᠠᠪᠬᠤᠷ ᠴᠡᠭ dabqur čeg (Khalkha: давхар цэг davkhar tseg) https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%85%D0%B0%D1%80#Mongolian ↩

  114. ᠳᠥᠷᠪᠡᠯᠵᠢᠨ ᠴᠡᠭ dörbelǰin čeg (Khalkha: дөрвөлжин цэг dörvöljin tseg) https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D0%B4%D3%A9%D1%80%D0%B2%D3%A9%D0%BB#Mongolian ↩

  115. ᠴᠤᠪᠠᠭ᠎ᠠ/ᠴᠤᠪᠤᠭ᠎ᠠ⟨?⟩ ᠴᠡᠭ čubaɣ‑a/čubuɣ‑a čeg (Khalkha: цуваа цэг tsuvaa tseg) ↩

  116. ᠵᠡᠷᠭᠡᠴᠡᠭᠡ ᠴᠡᠭ ǰergečege čeg (Khalkha: зэрэгцээ цэг zeregtsee tseg) https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D0%B7%D1%8D%D1%80%D1%8D%D0%B3#Mongolian ↩

  117. ᠬᠣᠣᠰ ᠴᠡᠭ qoos čeg (Khalkha: хос цэг khos tseg) https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D1%85%D0%BE%D1%81#Mongolian ↩

  118. ᠨᠢᠷᠤᠭᠤ niruɣu (Khalkha: нуруу nuruu) https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D0%BD%D1%83%D1%80%D1%83%D1%83#Mongolian ↩

  119. "Coins". Bank of Mongolia. 2006-03-09. Archived from the original on 2006-03-09. Retrieved 2022-08-31. https://web.archive.org/web/20060309113052/http://www.mongolbank.mn/oldcoins.htm ↩

  120. Poppe, Nicholas (1974). Grammar of Written Mongolian. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. ISBN 978-3-447-00684-2. 978-3-447-00684-2 ↩

  121. Skorodumova, L. G. (2000). Vvedenie v staropismenny mongolskiy yazyk Введение в старописьменный монгольский язык (PDF) (in Russian). Muravey-Gayd. ISBN 5-8463-0015-4. Введение в старописьменный монгольский язык5-8463-0015-4 ↩

  122. Grønbech, Kaare; Krueger, John Richard (1993). An Introduction to Classical (literary) Mongolian: Introduction, Grammar, Reader, Glossary. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. ISBN 978-3-447-03298-8. 978-3-447-03298-8 ↩

  123. Mongolian: ᠵᠢᠷᠤᠯᠭ᠎ᠠ⟨?⟩ ǰirulɣ‑a / Khalkha: зурлага zurlaga ↩

  124. Lessing, Ferdinand (1960). Mongolian-English Dictionary (PDF). University of California Press. Note that this dictionary uses the transliterations c, ø, x, y, z, ai, and ei; instead of č, ö, q, ü, ǰ, ayi, and eyi;: xii  as well as problematically and incorrectly treats all rounded vowels (o/u/ö/ü) after the initial syllable as u or ü.[45] https://altaica.ru/LIBRARY/mong/Lessing.pdf ↩

  125. Daniels, Peter T.; Bright, William (1996). The World's Writing Systems. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-507993-7. 978-0-19-507993-7 ↩

  126. Skorodumova, L. G. (2000). Vvedenie v staropismenny mongolskiy yazyk Введение в старописьменный монгольский язык (PDF) (in Russian). Muravey-Gayd. ISBN 5-8463-0015-4. Введение в старописьменный монгольский язык5-8463-0015-4 ↩

  127. Shagdarsürüng, Tseveliin (2001). "Study of Mongolian Scripts (Graphic Study or Grammatology). Enl". Bibliotheca Mongolica: Monograph 1. ↩

  128. Sanders, Alan (2003-04-09). Historical Dictionary of Mongolia. Scarecrow Press. ISBN 978-0-8108-6601-0. 978-0-8108-6601-0 ↩

  129. Clauson, Gerard (2005-11-04). Studies in Turkic and Mongolic Linguistics. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-43012-3. 978-1-134-43012-3 ↩

  130. Kara, György (2005). Books of the Mongolian Nomads: More Than Eight Centuries of Writing Mongolian. Indiana University, Research Institute for Inner Asian Studies. ISBN 978-0-933070-52-3. 978-0-933070-52-3 ↩

  131. Janhunen, Juha (2006-01-27). The Mongolic Languages. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-79690-7. 978-1-135-79690-7 ↩

  132. Jugder, Luvsandorj (2008). Vacek, Jaroslav; Oberfalzerová, Alena (eds.). "Diacritic marks in the Mongolian script and the 'darkness of confusion of letters'" (PDF). Mongolo-Tibetica Pragensia '08. 1 (1). Prague: Stanislav Juhaňák – TRITON: 45–98. ISSN 1803-5647. Retrieved 2024-08-29 – via Institute of Asian Studies, Charles University. https://uas.ff.cuni.cz/wp-content/uploads/sites/63/2019/05/MongolicaPragensia08-1.pdf ↩

  133. "The Mongolian Script" (PDF). Lingua Mongolia. http://www.linguamongolia.com/The%20Mongolian%20Script.pdf ↩

  134. Mongol Times (2012). "Monggul bichig un job bichihu jui-yin toli" (in Mongolian). {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)[clarification needed] https://www.slideshare.net/MongolTimes/monggul-bichig-un-job-bichihu-juiyin-toli ↩

  135. Bat-Ireedui, Jantsangiyn; Sanders, Alan J. K. (2015-08-14). Colloquial Mongolian: The Complete Course for Beginners. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-30598-9. 978-1-317-30598-9 ↩

  136. "Analysis of the graphetic model and improvements to the current model" (PDF). www.unicode.org. Retrieved 2020-08-13. https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2018/18101-mwg2-3-graphetic-analysis.pdf ↩

  137. Gehrke, Munkho. "Монгол бичгийн зурлага :|: Монгол бичиг". mongol-bichig.dusal.net (in Mongolian). Retrieved 2019-04-18. http://mongol-bichig.dusal.net/49/zurlaga.html ↩

  138. "ᠵᠢᠷᠤᠯᠭ᠎ᠠ ᠪᠠ ᠲᠡᠭᠦᠨ ᠦ ᠨᠡᠷᠡᠢᠳᠦᠯ – ᠮᠤᠩᠭᠤᠯ ᠪᠢᠴᠢᠭ". www.mongolfont.com (in Mongolian). Retrieved 2019-04-18. http://www.mongolfont.com/mn/grammer/jirvlga.html ↩

  139. "Mongolian State Dictionary". mongoltoli.mn (in Mongolian). Retrieved 2017-12-14. https://mongoltoli.mn/dictionary/ ↩

  140. ᠠᠴᠤᠭ ačuɣ (Khalkha: ацаг atsag) or ᠰᠢᠳᠦ sidü (Khalkha: шүд shüd) https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/mn:%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B0%D0%B3#Монголоор ↩

  141. ᠲᠢᠲᠢᠮ titim (Khalkha: тит(и/э)м tit(i/e)m) https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/mn:%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%8D%D0%BC#Монголоор ↩

  142. ᠨᠢᠷᠤᠭᠤ niruɣu (Khalkha: нуруу nuruu) https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D0%BD%D1%83%D1%80%D1%83%D1%83#Mongolian ↩

  143. ᠰᠡᠭᠦᠯ segül (Khalkha: сүүл süül) https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D1%81%D2%AF%D2%AF%D0%BB#Mongolian ↩

  144. ᠪᠣᠭᠤᠨᠢ ᠰᠡᠭᠦᠯ boɣuni segül (Khalkha: богино/богонь сүүл bogino/bogoni süül) https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE#Mongolian ↩

  145. ᠣᠷᠬᠢᠴᠠ orkiča (Khalkha: орхиц orkhits) https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/mn:%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%85%D0%B8%D1%86#Монголоор ↩

  146. ᠴᠠᠴᠤᠯᠭ᠎ᠠ⟨?⟩ čačulɣ‑a (Khalkha: цацлага tsatslaga) ↩

  147. ᠳᠡᠭᠡᠭᠡ degege (Khalkha: дэгээ degee) https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D0%B4%D1%8D%D0%B3%D1%8D%D1%8D#Mongolian ↩

  148. ᠰᠢᠯᠪᠢ silbi (Khalkha: шилбэ shilbe) https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B1%D1%8D#Mongolian ↩

  149. ᠰᠢᠯᠤᠭᠤᠨ ᠰᠢᠯᠪᠢ siluɣun silbi (Khalkha: шулуун шилбэ shuluun shilbe) https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D1%88%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%83%D0%BD#Mongolian ↩

  150. ᠤᠷᠲᠤ ᠰᠢᠳᠦ urtu sidü (Khalkha: урт шүд urt shüd) https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D1%83%D1%80%D1%82#Mongolian ↩

  151. ᠡᠭᠡᠲᠡᠭᠡᠷ ᠰᠢᠯᠪᠢ egeteger silbi (Khalkha: э(э)тгэр шилбэ e(e)tger shilbe) https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/mn:%D1%8D%D1%8D%D1%82%D0%B3%D1%8D%D1%80#Монголоор ↩

  152. ᠮᠠᠲᠠᠭᠠᠷ ᠰᠢᠯᠪᠢ mataɣar silbi (Khalkha: матгар шилбэ matgar shilbe) https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/mn:%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%80#Монголоор ↩

  153. ᠥᠷᠭᠡᠰᠦᠲᠡᠢ ᠰᠢᠯᠪᠢ örgesütei silbi (Khalkha: өргөстэй шилбэ örgöstei shilbe) https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/mn:%D3%A9%D1%80%D0%B3%D3%A9%D1%81#Монголоор ↩

  154. ᠭᠣᠭᠴᠤᠭᠠᠲᠠᠢ ᠰᠢᠯᠪᠢ ɣoɣčuɣatai silbi (Khalkha: гогцоотой шилбэ gogtsootoi shilbe) https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/mn:%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%86%D0%BE%D0%BE#Монголоор ↩

  155. ᠬᠥᠨᠳᠡᠢ ᠰᠢᠯᠪᠢ köndei silbi (Khalkha: хөндий шилбэ khöndii shilbe) https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D1%85%D3%A9%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%B9#Mongolian ↩

  156. ᠨᠤᠮᠤ numu (Khalkha: нум num) https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D0%BD%D1%83%D0%BC#Mongolian ↩

  157. ᠭᠡᠳᠡᠰᠦ gedesü (Khalkha: гэдэс gedes) https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D0%B3%D1%8D%D0%B4%D1%8D%D1%81#Mongolian ↩

  158. ᠠᠷᠤ ᠶᠢᠨ ᠭᠡᠳᠡᠰᠦ⟨?⟩ aru‑yin gedesü (Khalkha: арын гэдэс aryn gedes) ↩

  159. [...] (Khalkha: ятгар зартиг yatgar zartig) https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/mn:%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%80#Монголоор ↩

  160. ᠭᠡᠵᠢᠭᠡ geǰige (Khalkha: гэзэг gezeg) https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/mn:%D0%B3%D1%8D%D0%B7%D1%8D%D0%B3#Монголоор ↩

  161. ᠡᠪᠡᠷ eber (Khalkha: эвэр ever) https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D1%8D%D0%B2%D1%8D%D1%80#Mongolian ↩

  162. ᠵᠠᠪᠠᠵᠢ ǰabaǰi (Khalkha: зав(и/ь)ж zavij) https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/mn:%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B6#Монголоор ↩

  163. ᠰᠡᠷᠡᠭᠡ ᠡᠪᠡᠷ serege eber (Khalkha: сэрээ эвэр seree ever) https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D1%81%D1%8D%D1%80%D1%8D%D1%8D#Mongolian ↩

  164. ᠠᠴᠠ ača (Khalkha: ац ats) https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D0%B0%D1%86#Mongolian ↩

  165. [...] (Khalkha: жалжгар эвэр jaljgar ever) ↩

  166. ᠰᠣᠶᠤᠭ᠎ᠠ⟨?⟩ soyuɣ‑a (Khalkha: соёо soyoo) ↩

  167. ᠵᠠᠷᠲᠢᠭ ǰartiɣ (Khalkha: зартиг zartig Wylie: 'jar-thig) /wiki/Wylie_transliteration ↩

  168. Lessing, Ferdinand (1960). Mongolian-English Dictionary (PDF). University of California Press. Note that this dictionary uses the transliterations c, ø, x, y, z, ai, and ei; instead of č, ö, q, ü, ǰ, ayi, and eyi;: xii  as well as problematically and incorrectly treats all rounded vowels (o/u/ö/ü) after the initial syllable as u or ü.[45] https://altaica.ru/LIBRARY/mong/Lessing.pdf ↩

  169. Poppe, Nicholas (1974). Grammar of Written Mongolian. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. ISBN 978-3-447-00684-2. 978-3-447-00684-2 ↩

  170. Grønbech, Kaare; Krueger, John Richard (1993). An Introduction to Classical (literary) Mongolian: Introduction, Grammar, Reader, Glossary. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. ISBN 978-3-447-03298-8. 978-3-447-03298-8 ↩

  171. Daniels, Peter T.; Bright, William (1996). The World's Writing Systems. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-507993-7. 978-0-19-507993-7 ↩

  172. Skorodumova, L. G. (2000). Vvedenie v staropismenny mongolskiy yazyk Введение в старописьменный монгольский язык (PDF) (in Russian). Muravey-Gayd. ISBN 5-8463-0015-4. Введение в старописьменный монгольский язык5-8463-0015-4 ↩

  173. Clauson, Gerard (2005-11-04). Studies in Turkic and Mongolic Linguistics. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-43012-3. 978-1-134-43012-3 ↩

  174. Svantesson, Jan-Olof; Tsendina, Anna; Karlsson, Anastasia; Franzen, Vivan (2005-02-10). The Phonology of Mongolian. OUP Oxford. ISBN 978-0-19-151461-6. 978-0-19-151461-6 ↩

  175. Janhunen, Juha (2006-01-27). The Mongolic Languages. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-79690-7. 978-1-135-79690-7 ↩

  176. "Exploring Mongolian Manuscript Collections in Russia and Beyond" (PDF). www.manuscript-cultures.uni-hamburg.de. Retrieved 2019-07-17. https://www.manuscript-cultures.uni-hamburg.de/cal-details/images/Exploring_Mongolian_Manuscript_Collections_in_Russia_and_Beyond.pdf ↩

  177. Bat-Ireedui, Jantsangiyn; Sanders, Alan J. K. (2015-08-14). Colloquial Mongolian: The Complete Course for Beginners. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-30598-9. 978-1-317-30598-9 ↩

  178. "Little" Altan Tobchi 'Golden Summary'[33]: 74 [16]: 415 /wiki/Altan_Tobchi ↩

  179. Bodhicaryāvatāra 'The Journey to Enlightenment' commentary[54]: 394 [33]: 193 [27]: 126 [55] /wiki/Bodhisattvacary%C4%81vat%C4%81ra ↩

  180. Suvarṇaprabhāsa-sūtra or altan gerel kemekü yeke kölgen sudur orošibai 'The Mahāyāna sūtra called the Golden Ray'[4]: 125 /wiki/Golden_Light_Sutra ↩

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