Menu
Home Explore People Places Arts History Plants & Animals Science Life & Culture Technology
On this page
Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar trills
Consonantal sound

The voiced alveolar trill is a type of consonantal sound used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents dental, alveolar, and postalveolar trills is ⟨r⟩, and the equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is r. It is commonly called the rolled R, rolling R, or trilled R. Quite often, ⟨r⟩ is used in phonemic transcriptions (especially those found in dictionaries) of languages like English and German that have rhotic consonants that are not an alveolar trill. That is partly for ease of typesetting and partly because ⟨r⟩ is the letter used in the orthographies of such languages.

In many Indo-European languages, a trill may often be reduced to a single vibration in unstressed positions. In Italian, a simple trill typically displays only one or two vibrations, while a geminate trill will have three or more. Languages where trills always have multiple vibrations include Albanian, Spanish, Cypriot Greek, and a number of Armenian and Portuguese dialects.

People with ankyloglossia may find it exceptionally difficult to articulate the sound because of the limited mobility of their tongues.

We don't have any images related to Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar trills yet.
We don't have any YouTube videos related to Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar trills yet.
We don't have any PDF documents related to Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar trills yet.
We don't have any Books related to Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar trills yet.
We don't have any archived web articles related to Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar trills yet.

Voiced alveolar trill

"Alveolar trill" redirects here. For the voiceless consonant, see Voiceless alveolar trill.

Features

Features of the voiced alveolar trill:

dental (behind the upper front teeth), alveolar (at the alveolar ridge), or post-alveolar (behind the alveolar ridge).
  • It is most often apical, which means it is pronounced with the tip of the tongue.4
  • Its phonation is voiced, which means the vocal cords vibrate during the articulation.
  • It is an oral consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only.
  • It is a central consonant, which means it is produced by directing the airstream along the center of the tongue, rather than to the sides.
  • Its airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the intercostal muscles and abdominal muscles, as in most sounds.

Occurrence

Dental

LanguageWordIPAMeaningNotes
Hungarian5arra[ɒr̪ːɒ]'that way'Laminal dental. See Hungarian phonology
Marshallese6dik7[r̪ʲik]'to be small'Palatalized. The language's two other rhotic phonemes, /rˠ/ (velarized) and /rʷ/ (rounded), are post-alveolar.
Romanian8repede[ˈr̪e̞pe̞d̪e̞]'quickly'Apical. See Romanian phonology
Russian9рьяный/ŕjaný[ˈr̪ʲjän̪ɨ̞j]'zealous'Apical, palatalized. Usually only a single vibration, presumably due to the palatalization.10 It contrasts with a post-alveolar trill. See Russian phonology

Alveolar

LanguageWordIPAMeaningNotes
AfrikaansStandard11rooi[roːi̯]'red'May be a tap [ɾ] instead.12 See Afrikaans phonology
ArabicModern Standardرأى/ra'á[raʔaː]'saw' (verb)In free variation with [ɾ] by many speakers.
Aragonesesotarraño[sotaˈraɲo]'basement'Allophone of /ɾ/.
ArmenianEastern13ռումբ/ŕumb[rumb]ⓘ'cannonball'
Asturianferramienta[feraˈmjeŋta]'tool'Allophone of /ɾ/.
Bengaliরাত/rat[rat̪]'night'More commonly [ɾ ~ ɹ] for most speakers. May occur word-initially; as against [ɾ], which occurs medially and finally. See Bengali phonology
Bretonroue[ruːe]'king'Dominant in and around Léon and Morbihan while many other dialects have adopted the voiced uvular fricative. See Breton phonology
Bulgarianработа/rabota[ˈrabotə]'work'See Bulgarian phonology
Chuvashарăслан/araslan[arəs'lan]'lion'
Czech14chlor[xlɔ̝ːr]'chlorine'Contrasts with /r̝/; may be syllabic. See Czech phonology
DanishFew speakers of the Jutlandic dialect15[example needed]Corresponds to much more back [ʁ ~ ʕ] in standard Danish. See Danish phonology
DutchStandardraam[raːm]'window'See Dutch phonology
EnglishAfrican-American outta the city[æə̯rəˈsɪɾi]'out of the city'A sequence of tapped ɾ between unstressed ə may become a single trill in AAVE.
Scottishcurd[kʌrd]'curd'Only some dialects. Corresponds to [ɾ ~ ɹ] in others. See English phonology
Welsh16bright[braɪt]'bright'Some dialects under Welsh influence. Corresponds to [ɾ ~ ɹ] in others.
Estoniankorrus[ˈkorːus]'floor'See Estonian phonology
Finnishraaka[ˈrɑːkɑ]ⓘ'raw'See Finnish phonology
GreekStandard17άρτος/ártos[ˈartos]'artos'Allophone of /ɾ/. Usual in clusters, otherwise a tap or an approximant.18 See Modern Greek phonology
Cypriot1920βορράς/vorras[vorˈras]'north'Contrasts with /ɾ/.
HindustaniHindiपत्थर / patthar[pət̪t̪ʰər]'stone'See Hindustani phonology
Urduپتھر / patthar
Indonesiangetar [gətar]'vibrate'See Indonesian phonology
Italian21terra[ˈt̪ɛrːä]ⓘ'earth'See Italian phonology
JapaneseShitamachi dialectから kara[kara]'from'Allophone of /ɾ/. See Japanese phonology.
Kansai dialect
Kele22[ⁿrikei]'leg'
Khmerត្រី / trey[trəj]'fish' or 'three'See Khmer phonology
Kyrgyz23ыр/ır[ɯr]'song'
Latvian24rags[räks̪]'horn'See Latvian phonology
Lithuanianir[ɪr]'and'See Lithuanian phonology
Malayکورڠ / kurang[kuräŋ]'less'May be postalveolar approximant [ɹ̠], or more commonly, flap [ɾ]. See Malay phonology
Malayalamറമ്മി/rummy[rəmmiː]'rummy'See Malayalam phonology
MandarinHuguang Southwestern Mandarin鋸子[tɕy˦˩˨ r̩]'saw'Found in the suffix 子 in various localities, including by not limited to Chuandian [zh] (in Jingzhou),25 Zhongxiang,26 Yicheng, Jingmen, and Jiangling.27
Nepaliघर्रा/ghórra[ɡʱʌrːä]'drawer'See Nepali phonology
Polish28krok[krɔk]ⓘ'step'Usually realized as [ɾ]. See Polish phonology.
Portugueserato[ratu]'mouse'Contrasts with /ɾ/. Many northern dialects retain the alveolar trill, and the trill is still dominant in rural areas. See Portuguese phonology and Guttural R.
Scotsbricht[brɪçt]'bright'
Scottish Gaelicceàrr[kʲaːrˠ]'false'Velarized. Pronounced as a trill at the beginning of a word, or as rr, or before consonants d, t, l, n, s; otherwise a voiced alveolar tap. Contrasts with /ɾʲ/ and /ɾ/ intervocally and word-finally. See Scottish Gaelic phonology
Serbo-Croatian2930рт / rt[r̩t]'cape'May be syllabic.31 See Serbo-Croatian phonology
Slovak32krk[kr̩k]'neck'May be a tap, particularly when not syllabic.
Slovene33riž[ríːʃ]'rice'Also described as tap [ɾ],34 and variable between trill [r] and tap [ɾ].35 See Slovene phonology
Spanish36perro[ˈpe̞ro̞]ⓘ'dog'Contrasts with /ɾ/. See Spanish phonology
SwedishSome West coast and Northern dialectsbra[brɑː]'good'See Swedish phonology
Tagalogrambutan[rɐmbuˈtan]'rambutan'Allophone of the more common [ɾ], especially with more conservative speakers.37 See Tagalog phonology
Tamilபறவை/paravai[paraʋaɪ̯]'bird'See Tamil phonology
ThaiStandardชลบุรี/chonbùri[tɕ͡ʰōn.bù.rīː]ⓘ'Chonburi'
Titan38[ⁿrakeiʔin]'girls'
Ukrainianрух/ruh[rux]ⓘ'motion'See Ukrainian phonology
WelshRhagfyr[ˈr̥aɡvɨr]'December'Contrasts with the voiceless alveolar trill, /r̥/. See Welsh phonology
Wu ChineseXuanzhou Wu (Qiugong locality)弟[ri˥˧]'younger brother'Found in the speech of Qiugong residential community, Shuiyang township [zh], Xuanzhou District, Xuanzhou prefecture. Equivalent to /d/ in other Wu varieties (cf. Shanghainese [di˩˦]).
YiddishStandard39בריק/brik[brɪk]'bridge'More commonly a flap [ɾ]; can be uvular [ɢ̆ ~ ʀ] instead.40 See Yiddish phonology
ZapotecTilquiapan41r-ree[rɘˀɘ]'go out (habitually)'Underlyingly two sequences of /ɾ/.

Post-alveolar

See also: Retroflex trill

LanguageWordIPAMeaningNotes
Catalan42ruc[ˈr̠uk]'donkey'Contrasts with /ɾ/. See Catalan phonology
Gokana43bele[bēr̠ē]'we'Allophone of /l/, medially between vowels within the morpheme, and finally in the morphemebefore a following vowel in the same word. It can be a postalveolar tap or simply [l] instead.44
Marshallese45raj46[r̠ˠɑtʲ]'whale'/rˠ/ is velarized and /rʷ/ is rounded. Another rhotic phoneme in the language, /rʲ/, is dental and palatalized.
roj47[r̠ʷɔtʲ]'ebb tide'
Russian48играть/igrať[ɪˈɡr̠ätʲ]'to play'Contrasts with a palatalized dental trill. See Russian phonology

Variable

LanguageWordIPAMeaningNotes
GermanStandard49 (chiefly areas with Upper German or Low German influence as well as immigrant speakers)Schmarrn[ʃmarn]'nonsense'Varies between apical dental and apical alveolar; may be a tap instead.50 See Standard German phonology

Voiced alveolar fricative trill

In Czech, there are two contrasting alveolar trills. Besides the typical apical trill, written r, there is another laminal trill, written ř, in words such as rybáři [ˈrɪbaːr̝ɪ] 'fishermen' and the common surname Dvořák. Its manner of articulation is similar to [r] but is laminal and the body of the tongue is raised. It is thus partially fricative, with the frication sounding rather like [ʒ] but less retracted. It sounds like a simultaneous [r] and [ʒ], and some speakers tend to pronounce it as [rʐ], [ɾʒ], or [ɹʒ]. In the IPA, it is typically written as ⟨r⟩ plus the raising diacritic, ⟨r̝⟩, but it has also been written as laminal ⟨r̻⟩.51 (Before the 1989 IPA Kiel Convention, it had a dedicated symbol ⟨ɼ⟩.) The Kobon language of Papua New Guinea also has a fricative trill, but the degree of frication is variable.

Features

Features of the voiced alveolar fricative trill:

Examples

LanguageWordIPAMeaningNotes
Czech52535455čtyři[ˈt͡ʃtɪr̝ɪ]ⓘ'four'May be a non-sibilant fricative.56 It contrasts with /r/ and /ʒ/. See Czech phonology
Big BligadigeseHrylorˈhr̥ʲ͡ʀ̥.lor̝/'to emit smoke'Common big bligadigese.
Dzongkha57རུ་ཏོག་/ru-tog[r̝uto]'bone'Usually released as a normal trilled [r], sometimes it has a slightly fricative character vaguely reminiscent of Czech ř. Dzongkha r is followed by the low register tone.
Kashubian58rzéka[r̝eka]'river'Only some northern and northwestern speakers. Formerly common over the whole speaking area.59
Kobon[example needed]Amount of frication variable. May also be a fricative flap
OrmuriStandard (Kaniguram)تڒګب/tařgab[tɑr̝geb]'summer'Corresponds to /ʃ/ in Logar dialect.
PolishSome dialects60rzeka[r̝ɛka]'river'Contrasts with /r/ and /ʐ/. Present in areas from Starogard Gdański to Malbork61 and those south, west and northwest of them,62 area from Lubawa to Olsztyn to Olecko to Działdowo,63 south and east of Wieleń,64 around Wołomin,65 southeast of Ostrów Mazowiecka66 and west of Siedlce,67 from Brzeg to Opole and areas to the north,68 and roughly from Racibórz to Nowy Targ.69 Most speakers, as well as standard Polish, merge it with /ʐ/,70 and speakers maintaining the distinction (which is mostly the elderly) sporadically do as well.71 See Polish phonology
Portuguese72Europeanos rins[u ˈr̝ĩʃ]'the kidneys'Possible realization of the sequence /sr/ for speakers who realize /r/ as [r].73 See Portuguese phonology
SilesianGmina Istebna74umrził[ˈumr̝iw]'(he) died'Contrasts with /r/ and /ʒ/. Merges with /ʐ/ in most Polish dialects.
Jablunkov75[example needed]
SlovakNorthern dialects7677řyka[ˈr̝ɪkä]'river'Only in a few dialects near the Polish border.78 See Slovak phonology
Spanishrana[ˈr̝änä]'frog'Possible realization of /r/ in some dialects, may also be realized as a non-sibilant alveolar fricative [ɹ̝-] or as a sibilant retroflex fricative [ʐ].
Chicahuaxtla Trique79raꞌa[rᶾa˧ʔaː˧] or [r̥ᶴa˧ʔaː˧]'hand'Initial allophone of /r/.
Tsakonian80ρζινοδίτζη[r̝inoðitɕi]'justice of the peace'/ʒ/ appears to have been a fricative trill in the 19th century, and [ʒ] survived latterly only in women's usage in Southern Tsakonian.

See also

Notes

  • "Tongue-tie (ankyloglossia)", Mayo Clinic, Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research, May 16, 2012, retrieved 22 October 2013
  • Arvaniti, Amalia (2007), "Greek Phonetics: The State of the Art" (PDF), Journal of Greek Linguistics, 8: 97–208, CiteSeerX 10.1.1.692.1365, doi:10.1075/jgl.8.08arv, archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-12-11
  • Arvaniti, Amalia (2010), "A (brief) review of Cypriot Phonetics and Phonology" (PDF), The Greek Language in Cyprus from Antiquity to the Present Day, University of Athens, pp. 107–124, archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-01-23
  • Chaubal, Tanay V.; Dixit, Mala Baburaj (2011), "Ankyloglossia and its Management", Journal of Indian Society of Periodontology, 15 (3): 270–272, doi:10.4103/0972-124X.85673, PMC 3200025, PMID 22028516
  • Dąbrowska, Anna (2004), Język polski, Wrocław: wydawnictwo Dolnośląskie, ISBN 978-83-7384-063-8
  • Dankovičová, Jana (1999), "Czech", Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A guide to the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 70–74, ISBN 978-0-521-65236-0
  • Dudášová-Kriššáková, Júlia (1995), "Goralské nárečia (poznámky na okraj hesla v Encyklopédii jazykovedy)" (PDF), Slovenská Reč, 60 (2): 92–102
  • Dum-Tragut, Jasmine (2009), Armenian: Modern Eastern Armenian, Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company
  • Greenberg, Mark L. (2006), A Short Reference Grammar of Standard Slovene, Kansas: University of Kansas
  • Grønnum, Nina (2005), Fonetik og fonologi, Almen og Dansk (in Danish) (3rd ed.), Copenhagen: Akademisk Forlag, ISBN 978-87-500-3865-8
  • Pultrová, Lucie (2013), ON THE PHONETIC NATURE OF THE LATIN R (PDF), p. 22
  • Hanulíková, Adriana; Hamann, Silke (2010), "Slovak" (PDF), Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 40 (3): 373–378, doi:10.1017/S0025100310000162
  • Jassem, Wiktor (2003), "Polish", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 33 (1): 103–107, doi:10.1017/S0025100303001191
  • Kara, Dávid Somfai (2003), Kyrgyz, Lincom Europa, ISBN 978-3895868436
  • Kleine, Ane (2003), "Standard Yiddish", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 33 (2): 261–265, doi:10.1017/S0025100303001385
  • Kordić, Snježana (2006), Serbo-Croatian, Languages of the World/Materials; 148, Munich & Newcastle: Lincom Europa, ISBN 978-3-89586-161-1
  • Ladefoged, Peter (2005), Vowels and Consonants (Second ed.), Blackwell
  • Ladefoged, Peter; Maddieson, Ian (1996). The Sounds of the World's Languages. Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-19815-6.
  • Landau, Ernestina; Lončarić, Mijo; Horga, Damir; Škarić, Ivo (1999), "Croatian", Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A guide to the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 66–69, ISBN 978-0-521-65236-0
  • Lass, Roger (1987), "Intradiphthongal Dependencies", in Anderson, John; Durand, Jacques (eds.), Explorations in Dependency Phonology, Dordrecht: Foris Publications Holland, pp. 109–131, ISBN 978-9067652971
  • Lodge, Ken (2009), A Critical Introduction to Phonetics, Continuum International Publishing Group, ISBN 978-0-8264-8873-2
  • Mangold, Max (2005) [First published 1962], Das Aussprachewörterbuch (6th ed.), Mannheim: Dudenverlag, ISBN 978-3-411-04066-7
  • Martínez-Celdrán, Eugenio; Fernández-Planas, Ana Ma.; Carrera-Sabaté, Josefina (2003), "Castilian Spanish", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 33 (2): 255–259, doi:10.1017/S0025100303001373
  • Merrill, Elizabeth (2008), "Tilquiapan Zapotec" (PDF), Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 38 (1): 107–114, doi:10.1017/S0025100308003344
  • Nau, Nicole (1998), Latvian, Lincom Europa, ISBN 978-3-89586-228-1
  • Pretnar, Tone; Tokarz, Emil (1980), Slovenščina za Poljake: Kurs podstawowy języka słoweńskiego, Katowice: Uniwersytet Śląski
  • Recasens, Daniel; Pallarès, Maria Dolors (2001), De la fonètica a la fonologia: les consonants i assimilacions consonàntiques del català, Barcelona: Editorial Ariel, ISBN 978-84-344-2884-3
  • Rogers, Derek; d'Arcangeli, Luciana (2004), "Italian", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 34 (1): 117–121, doi:10.1017/S0025100304001628
  • Šimáčková, Šárka; Podlipský, Václav Jonáš; Chládková, Kateřina (2012), "Czech spoken in Bohemia and Moravia" (PDF), Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 42 (2): 225–232, doi:10.1017/S0025100312000102
  • Siptár, Péter; Törkenczy, Miklós (2000), The Phonology of Hungarian, New York: Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-823841-6
  • Skalozub, Larisa (1963), Palatogrammy i Rentgenogrammy Soglasnyx Fonem Russkogo Literaturnogo Jazyka, Izdatelstvo Kievskogo Universiteta
  • Šuštaršič, Rastislav; Komar, Smiljana; Petek, Bojan (1999), "Slovene", Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A guide to the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet, vol. 23, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 135–139, doi:10.1017/S0025100300004874, ISBN 978-0-521-65236-0, S2CID 249404451
  • Szende, Tamás (1999), "Hungarian", Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A guide to the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 104–107, ISBN 978-0-521-65236-0
  • Torp, Arne (2001). "Retroflex consonants and dorsal /r/: mutually excluding innovations? On the diffusion of dorsal /r/ in Scandinavian". In van de Velde, Hans; van Hout, Roeland (eds.). 'r-atics. Brussels: Etudes & Travaux. pp. 75–90. ISSN 0777-3692. {{cite book}}: |journal= ignored (help)

Bender, Byron (1969), Spoken Marshallese, University of Hawaii Press, ISBN 0-87022-070-5

References

  1. Ladefoged, Peter; Maddieson, Ian (1996). The Sounds of the World's Languages. Oxford: Blackwell. p. 221. ISBN 0-631-19815-6. 0-631-19815-6 ↩

  2. Chaubal & Dixit (2011), pp. 270–272. - Chaubal, Tanay V.; Dixit, Mala Baburaj (2011), "Ankyloglossia and its Management", Journal of Indian Society of Periodontology, 15 (3): 270–272, doi:10.4103/0972-124X.85673, PMC 3200025, PMID 22028516 https://doi.org/10.4103%2F0972-124X.85673 ↩

  3. Mayo Clinic (2012). - "Tongue-tie (ankyloglossia)", Mayo Clinic, Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research, May 16, 2012, retrieved 22 October 2013 http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/tongue-tie/DS01200/DSECTION=complications ↩

  4. Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996), p. 228. - Ladefoged, Peter; Maddieson, Ian (1996). The Sounds of the World's Languages. Oxford: Blackwell. p. 221. ISBN 0-631-19815-6.Ladefoged, Peter; Maddieson, Ian (1996). The Sounds of the World's Languages. Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-19815-6. ↩

  5. Siptár & Törkenczy (2000), pp. 75–76, Szende (1999), p. 104 - Siptár, Péter; Törkenczy, Miklós (2000), The Phonology of Hungarian, New York: Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-823841-6 ↩

  6. Bender (1969), p. xv - Bender, Byron (1969), Spoken Marshallese, University of Hawaii Press, ISBN 0-87022-070-5 https://archive.org/details/spokenmarshalles0000bend ↩

  7. "Marshallese-English Dictionary". http://www.trussel2.com/MOD/MED2D.htm#dik ↩

  8. Ovidiu Drăghici, Limba Română contemporană. Fonetică. Fonologie. Ortografie. Lexicologie (PDF), retrieved April 19, 2013[dead link‍] http://cis01.central.ucv.ro/litere/idd/cursuri/an_1/limba_rom_cont/lrc_an1_draghici.pdf ↩

  9. Skalozub (1963), p. ?; cited in Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996), p. 221 - Skalozub, Larisa (1963), Palatogrammy i Rentgenogrammy Soglasnyx Fonem Russkogo Literaturnogo Jazyka, Izdatelstvo Kievskogo Universiteta ↩

  10. Skalozub (1963), p. ?; cited in Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996), p. 221 - Skalozub, Larisa (1963), Palatogrammy i Rentgenogrammy Soglasnyx Fonem Russkogo Literaturnogo Jazyka, Izdatelstvo Kievskogo Universiteta ↩

  11. Lass (1987), p. 117. - Lass, Roger (1987), "Intradiphthongal Dependencies", in Anderson, John; Durand, Jacques (eds.), Explorations in Dependency Phonology, Dordrecht: Foris Publications Holland, pp. 109–131, ISBN 978-9067652971 ↩

  12. Lass (1987), p. 117. - Lass, Roger (1987), "Intradiphthongal Dependencies", in Anderson, John; Durand, Jacques (eds.), Explorations in Dependency Phonology, Dordrecht: Foris Publications Holland, pp. 109–131, ISBN 978-9067652971 ↩

  13. Dum-Tragut (2009), p. 19. - Dum-Tragut, Jasmine (2009), Armenian: Modern Eastern Armenian, Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company ↩

  14. Pultrová (2013), p. 22. - Pultrová, Lucie (2013), ON THE PHONETIC NATURE OF THE LATIN R (PDF), p. 22 http://www.eruditio-antiqua.mom.fr/vol5/EA5c.Pultrova.pdf ↩

  15. Torp (2001), p. 78. - Torp, Arne (2001). "Retroflex consonants and dorsal /r/: mutually excluding innovations? On the diffusion of dorsal /r/ in Scandinavian". In van de Velde, Hans; van Hout, Roeland (eds.). 'r-atics. Brussels: Etudes & Travaux. pp. 75–90. ISSN 0777-3692. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/254818745 ↩

  16. Garrett, Peter; Coupland, Nikola; Williams, Angie, eds. (15 July 2003). Investigating Language Attitudes: Social Meanings of Dialect, Ethnicity and Performance. University of Wales Press. p. 73. ISBN 9781783162086. 9781783162086 ↩

  17. Arvaniti (2007), pp. 14–18 - Arvaniti, Amalia (2007), "Greek Phonetics: The State of the Art" (PDF), Journal of Greek Linguistics, 8: 97–208, CiteSeerX 10.1.1.692.1365, doi:10.1075/jgl.8.08arv, archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-12-11 https://web.archive.org/web/20131211020607/http://www.kent.ac.uk/secl/ell/staff/amalia-arvaniti/docs/Greek%20Phonetics%20-%20The%20State%20of%20the%20Art.pdf ↩

  18. Arvaniti (2007), pp. 14–18 - Arvaniti, Amalia (2007), "Greek Phonetics: The State of the Art" (PDF), Journal of Greek Linguistics, 8: 97–208, CiteSeerX 10.1.1.692.1365, doi:10.1075/jgl.8.08arv, archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-12-11 https://web.archive.org/web/20131211020607/http://www.kent.ac.uk/secl/ell/staff/amalia-arvaniti/docs/Greek%20Phonetics%20-%20The%20State%20of%20the%20Art.pdf ↩

  19. Arvaniti (2010), pp. 3–4. - Arvaniti, Amalia (2010), "A (brief) review of Cypriot Phonetics and Phonology" (PDF), The Greek Language in Cyprus from Antiquity to the Present Day, University of Athens, pp. 107–124, archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-01-23 https://web.archive.org/web/20160123141552/https://www.kent.ac.uk/secl/ell/staff/amalia-arvaniti/docs/ArvanitiCY.pdf ↩

  20. "βορράς", Cypriot Greek Lexicographic Database, Ερευνητικό Πρόγραμμα Συντυσές, 2011, archived from the original on 13 April 2021, retrieved 5 March 2014 https://web.archive.org/web/20210413014733/http://lexcy.library.ucy.ac.cy/Lexicon.aspx ↩

  21. Rogers & d'Arcangeli (2004), p. 117. - Rogers, Derek; d'Arcangeli, Luciana (2004), "Italian", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 34 (1): 117–121, doi:10.1017/S0025100304001628 https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025100304001628 ↩

  22. Ladefoged (2005), p. 165 - Ladefoged, Peter (2005), Vowels and Consonants (Second ed.), Blackwell ↩

  23. Kara (2003), p. 11. - Kara, Dávid Somfai (2003), Kyrgyz, Lincom Europa, ISBN 978-3895868436 ↩

  24. Nau (1998), p. 6. - Nau, Nicole (1998), Latvian, Lincom Europa, ISBN 978-3-89586-228-1 ↩

  25. Lu, Liuxin (2023), "荆州方言后缀"子"的泛化现象研究", 今古文創 (in Chinese) (28), Yichang: China Three Gorges University: 134-136 ↩

  26. Wen, Ming (2011), "钟祥方言的颤音", 语文知识 (in Chinese) (2), Chongqing: Southwest University ↩

  27. Su, Junbo (2019), "再谈湖北方言的颤音" [More on the Trill in Hubei Dialects], Dialect (in Chinese) (2), Wuhan: 228-232 ↩

  28. Jassem (2003), p. 103. - Jassem, Wiktor (2003), "Polish", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 33 (1): 103–107, doi:10.1017/S0025100303001191 https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025100303001191 ↩

  29. Kordić (2006), p. 5. - Kordić, Snježana (2006), Serbo-Croatian, Languages of the World/Materials; 148, Munich & Newcastle: Lincom Europa, ISBN 978-3-89586-161-1 ↩

  30. Landau et al. (1999), p. 66. - Landau, Ernestina; Lončarić, Mijo; Horga, Damir; Škarić, Ivo (1999), "Croatian", Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A guide to the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 66–69, ISBN 978-0-521-65236-0 ↩

  31. Kordić (2006), p. 4. - Kordić, Snježana (2006), Serbo-Croatian, Languages of the World/Materials; 148, Munich & Newcastle: Lincom Europa, ISBN 978-3-89586-161-1 ↩

  32. Hanulíková & Hamann (2010), p. 374. - Hanulíková, Adriana; Hamann, Silke (2010), "Slovak" (PDF), Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 40 (3): 373–378, doi:10.1017/S0025100310000162 http://www.fon.hum.uva.nl/silke/articles/Hanulikova&Hamann_2010.pdf ↩

  33. Pretnar & Tokarz (1980), p. 21. - Pretnar, Tone; Tokarz, Emil (1980), Slovenščina za Poljake: Kurs podstawowy języka słoweńskiego, Katowice: Uniwersytet Śląski ↩

  34. Šuštaršič, Komar & Petek (1999), p. 135. - Šuštaršič, Rastislav; Komar, Smiljana; Petek, Bojan (1999), "Slovene", Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A guide to the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet, vol. 23, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 135–139, doi:10.1017/S0025100300004874, ISBN 978-0-521-65236-0, S2CID 249404451 https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025100300004874 ↩

  35. Greenberg (2006), pp. 17 and 20. - Greenberg, Mark L. (2006), A Short Reference Grammar of Standard Slovene, Kansas: University of Kansas http://www.seelrc.org:8080/grammar/mainframe.jsp?nLanguageID=8 ↩

  36. Martínez-Celdrán, Fernández-Planas & Carrera-Sabaté (2003), p. 255. - Martínez-Celdrán, Eugenio; Fernández-Planas, Ana Ma.; Carrera-Sabaté, Josefina (2003), "Castilian Spanish", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 33 (2): 255–259, doi:10.1017/S0025100303001373 https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025100303001373 ↩

  37. Schachter and Reid (2008) http://www2.hawaii.edu/~reid/Combined%20Files/A71.%202008.%20Tagalog%20chapter%2049.pdf ↩

  38. Ladefoged (2005), p. 165 - Ladefoged, Peter (2005), Vowels and Consonants (Second ed.), Blackwell ↩

  39. Kleine (2003), p. 263 - Kleine, Ane (2003), "Standard Yiddish", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 33 (2): 261–265, doi:10.1017/S0025100303001385 https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025100303001385 ↩

  40. Kleine (2003), p. 263 - Kleine, Ane (2003), "Standard Yiddish", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 33 (2): 261–265, doi:10.1017/S0025100303001385 https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025100303001385 ↩

  41. Merrill (2008), p. 109. - Merrill, Elizabeth (2008), "Tilquiapan Zapotec" (PDF), Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 38 (1): 107–114, doi:10.1017/S0025100308003344 http://www.balsas-nahuatl.org/mixtec/Christian_articles/Otomanguean/Merrill.pdf ↩

  42. Recasens & Pallarès (1995), p. 288. sfnp error: no target: CITEREFRecasensPallarès1995 (help) ↩

  43. L.F. Brosnahan, Outlines of the phonology of the Gokana dialect of Ogoni (PDF), archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-04-03, retrieved 2013-11-24 https://web.archive.org/web/20130403122650/http://www.journalofwestafricanlanguages.org/Files/pdf/01-1/jwal-01-1-Brosnahan.pdf ↩

  44. L.F. Brosnahan, Outlines of the phonology of the Gokana dialect of Ogoni (PDF), archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-04-03, retrieved 2013-11-24 https://web.archive.org/web/20130403122650/http://www.journalofwestafricanlanguages.org/Files/pdf/01-1/jwal-01-1-Brosnahan.pdf ↩

  45. Bender (1969), p. xvii-xviii - Bender, Byron (1969), Spoken Marshallese, University of Hawaii Press, ISBN 0-87022-070-5 https://archive.org/details/spokenmarshalles0000bend ↩

  46. "Marshallese-English Dictionary". http://www.trussel2.com/MOD/MED2R.htm#raj ↩

  47. "Marshallese-English Dictionary". http://www.trussel2.com/MOD/MED2R.htm#roj ↩

  48. Skalozub (1963), p. ?; cited in Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996), p. 221 - Skalozub, Larisa (1963), Palatogrammy i Rentgenogrammy Soglasnyx Fonem Russkogo Literaturnogo Jazyka, Izdatelstvo Kievskogo Universiteta ↩

  49. Mangold (2005), p. 53 - Mangold, Max (2005) [First published 1962], Das Aussprachewörterbuch (6th ed.), Mannheim: Dudenverlag, ISBN 978-3-411-04066-7 ↩

  50. Mangold (2005), p. 53 - Mangold, Max (2005) [First published 1962], Das Aussprachewörterbuch (6th ed.), Mannheim: Dudenverlag, ISBN 978-3-411-04066-7 ↩

  51. For example, Ladefoged (1971). ↩

  52. Dankovičová (1999), pp. 70–71 - Dankovičová, Jana (1999), "Czech", Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A guide to the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 70–74, ISBN 978-0-521-65236-0 ↩

  53. Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996), pp. 228–230 and 233 - Ladefoged, Peter; Maddieson, Ian (1996). The Sounds of the World's Languages. Oxford: Blackwell. p. 221. ISBN 0-631-19815-6.Ladefoged, Peter; Maddieson, Ian (1996). The Sounds of the World's Languages. Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-19815-6. ↩

  54. Lodge (2009), p. 46. - Lodge, Ken (2009), A Critical Introduction to Phonetics, Continuum International Publishing Group, ISBN 978-0-8264-8873-2 https://books.google.com/books?id=_nVT_qNvbusC ↩

  55. Šimáčková, Podlipský & Chládková (2012), p. 226 - Šimáčková, Šárka; Podlipský, Václav Jonáš; Chládková, Kateřina (2012), "Czech spoken in Bohemia and Moravia" (PDF), Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 42 (2): 225–232, doi:10.1017/S0025100312000102 http://www.fon.hum.uva.nl/katerina/documents/illustration-of-Czech.pdf ↩

  56. Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996), pp. 228–230 and 233 - Ladefoged, Peter; Maddieson, Ian (1996). The Sounds of the World's Languages. Oxford: Blackwell. p. 221. ISBN 0-631-19815-6.Ladefoged, Peter; Maddieson, Ian (1996). The Sounds of the World's Languages. Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-19815-6. ↩

  57. van Driem, George. The Grammar of Dzongkha (PDF). Dzongkha Development Corporation, Royal Government of Bhutan. p. 93. Archived from the original on 2016-10-04. https://web.archive.org/web/20161004073753/https://www.himalayanlanguages.org/files/driem/pdfs/1992Dzongkha.pdf ↩

  58. Jerzy Treder. "Fonetyka i fonologia". Archived from the original on 2016-03-04. https://web.archive.org/web/20160304000614/http://www.rastko.net/rastko-ka/index2.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=227&pop=1&page=0&Itemid=26 ↩

  59. Jerzy Treder. "Fonetyka i fonologia". Archived from the original on 2016-03-04. https://web.archive.org/web/20160304000614/http://www.rastko.net/rastko-ka/index2.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=227&pop=1&page=0&Itemid=26 ↩

  60. Gwary polskie - Frykatywne rż (ř), Gwarypolskie.uw.edu.pl, archived from the original on 2013-11-13, retrieved 2013-11-06 https://web.archive.org/web/20131113214551/http://www.gwarypolskie.uw.edu.pl/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=218&Itemid=58 ↩

  61. Gwary polskie - Frykatywne rż (ř), Gwarypolskie.uw.edu.pl, archived from the original on 2013-11-13, retrieved 2013-11-06 https://web.archive.org/web/20131113214551/http://www.gwarypolskie.uw.edu.pl/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=218&Itemid=58 ↩

  62. Gwary polskie - Frykatywne rż (ř), Gwarypolskie.uw.edu.pl, archived from the original on 2013-11-13, retrieved 2013-11-06 https://web.archive.org/web/20131113214551/http://www.gwarypolskie.uw.edu.pl/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=218&Itemid=58 ↩

  63. Gwary polskie - Frykatywne rż (ř), Gwarypolskie.uw.edu.pl, archived from the original on 2013-11-13, retrieved 2013-11-06 https://web.archive.org/web/20131113214551/http://www.gwarypolskie.uw.edu.pl/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=218&Itemid=58 ↩

  64. Gwary polskie - Frykatywne rż (ř), Gwarypolskie.uw.edu.pl, archived from the original on 2013-11-13, retrieved 2013-11-06 https://web.archive.org/web/20131113214551/http://www.gwarypolskie.uw.edu.pl/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=218&Itemid=58 ↩

  65. Gwary polskie - Frykatywne rż (ř), Gwarypolskie.uw.edu.pl, archived from the original on 2013-11-13, retrieved 2013-11-06 https://web.archive.org/web/20131113214551/http://www.gwarypolskie.uw.edu.pl/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=218&Itemid=58 ↩

  66. Gwary polskie - Frykatywne rż (ř), Gwarypolskie.uw.edu.pl, archived from the original on 2013-11-13, retrieved 2013-11-06 https://web.archive.org/web/20131113214551/http://www.gwarypolskie.uw.edu.pl/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=218&Itemid=58 ↩

  67. Gwary polskie - Frykatywne rż (ř), Gwarypolskie.uw.edu.pl, archived from the original on 2013-11-13, retrieved 2013-11-06 https://web.archive.org/web/20131113214551/http://www.gwarypolskie.uw.edu.pl/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=218&Itemid=58 ↩

  68. Gwary polskie - Frykatywne rż (ř), Gwarypolskie.uw.edu.pl, archived from the original on 2013-11-13, retrieved 2013-11-06 https://web.archive.org/web/20131113214551/http://www.gwarypolskie.uw.edu.pl/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=218&Itemid=58 ↩

  69. Gwary polskie - Frykatywne rż (ř), Gwarypolskie.uw.edu.pl, archived from the original on 2013-11-13, retrieved 2013-11-06 https://web.archive.org/web/20131113214551/http://www.gwarypolskie.uw.edu.pl/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=218&Itemid=58 ↩

  70. Gwary polskie - Frykatywne rż (ř), Gwarypolskie.uw.edu.pl, archived from the original on 2013-11-13, retrieved 2013-11-06 https://web.archive.org/web/20131113214551/http://www.gwarypolskie.uw.edu.pl/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=218&Itemid=58 ↩

  71. Gwary polskie - Frykatywne rż (ř), Gwarypolskie.uw.edu.pl, archived from the original on 2013-11-13, retrieved 2013-11-06 https://web.archive.org/web/20131113214551/http://www.gwarypolskie.uw.edu.pl/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=218&Itemid=58 ↩

  72. Grønnum (2005), p. 157 - Grønnum, Nina (2005), Fonetik og fonologi, Almen og Dansk (in Danish) (3rd ed.), Copenhagen: Akademisk Forlag, ISBN 978-87-500-3865-8 https://books.google.com/books?id=9RtCAgAAQBAJ ↩

  73. Grønnum (2005), p. 157 - Grønnum, Nina (2005), Fonetik og fonologi, Almen og Dansk (in Danish) (3rd ed.), Copenhagen: Akademisk Forlag, ISBN 978-87-500-3865-8 https://books.google.com/books?id=9RtCAgAAQBAJ ↩

  74. Dąbrowska (2004), p. ? - Dąbrowska, Anna (2004), Język polski, Wrocław: wydawnictwo Dolnośląskie, ISBN 978-83-7384-063-8 ↩

  75. Dąbrowska (2004), p. ? - Dąbrowska, Anna (2004), Język polski, Wrocław: wydawnictwo Dolnośląskie, ISBN 978-83-7384-063-8 ↩

  76. Gwary polskie - Frykatywne rż (ř), Gwarypolskie.uw.edu.pl, archived from the original on 2013-11-13, retrieved 2013-11-06 https://web.archive.org/web/20131113214551/http://www.gwarypolskie.uw.edu.pl/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=218&Itemid=58 ↩

  77. Dudášová-Kriššáková (1995), pp. 98. - Dudášová-Kriššáková, Júlia (1995), "Goralské nárečia (poznámky na okraj hesla v Encyklopédii jazykovedy)" (PDF), Slovenská Reč, 60 (2): 92–102 http://www.juls.savba.sk/ediela/sr/1995/2/sr1995-2-lq.pdf ↩

  78. Gwary polskie - Frykatywne rż (ř), Gwarypolskie.uw.edu.pl, archived from the original on 2013-11-13, retrieved 2013-11-06 https://web.archive.org/web/20131113214551/http://www.gwarypolskie.uw.edu.pl/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=218&Itemid=58 ↩

  79. A. Raymond Elliott, P. Hernández Cruz & F. Sandoval Cruz, "Dàj guruguiˈ yumiguiì 'de como apareció la gente del mundo': leyenda en triqui de Chicahuaxtla". Tlalocan vol. 25, 2020, p.153. ↩

  80. Scutt, C. A. (November 1913). "The Tsakonian Dialect". The Annual of the British School at Athens. 19: 20. doi:10.1017/s0068245400009163. S2CID 163493476. https://zenodo.org/records/2276745#.YPL9wBjhU0M ↩