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Salt (chemistry)
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<h2 id="history-of-discovery">History of discovery</h2> <p>In 1913 the structure of <a href="/facts/Sodium_chloride/MWcXl3Mb">sodium chloride</a> was determined by <a href="/facts/William_Henry_Bragg/R2b3rxNx">William Henry Bragg</a> and his son <a href="/facts/William_Lawrence_Bragg/MGbHcMPa">William Lawrence Bragg</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:2" href="#fn:2"><sup>2</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:3" href="#fn:3"><sup>3</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:4" href="#fn:4"><sup>4</sup></a> This revealed that there were six equidistant <a href="/facts/Coordination_number/mf48hsoX">nearest-neighbours</a> for each atom, demonstrating that the constituents were not arranged in molecules or finite aggregates, but instead as a network with long-range <a href="/facts/Crystal_structure/bJ4bCeHd">crystalline</a> order.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5"><sup>5</sup></a> Many other <a href="/facts/Inorganic_compound/TfFfzxSz">inorganic compounds</a> were also found to have similar structural features.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6"><sup>6</sup></a> These compounds were soon described as being constituted of ions rather than neutral <a href="/facts/Atom/FoQ4kGN5">atoms</a>, but proof of this hypothesis was not found until the mid-1920s, when <a href="/facts/X-ray_reflectivity/CGk7tUHT">X-ray reflection</a> experiments (which detect the density of electrons), were performed.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7"><sup>7</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8"><sup>8</sup></a> </p><p>Principal contributors to the development of a <a href="/facts/Theoretical/9vrNS1Rr">theoretical</a> treatment of ionic crystal structures were <a href="/facts/Max_Born/6VnUDWhA">Max Born</a>, <a href="/facts/Fritz_Haber/cj5QTJKT">Fritz Haber</a>, <a href="/facts/Alfred_Land%25C3%25A9/axkIBIx8">Alfred Landé</a>, <a href="/facts/Erwin_Madelung/K2HG4RKN">Erwin Madelung</a>, <a href="/facts/Paul_Peter_Ewald/2IKqEFNe">Paul Peter Ewald</a>, and <a href="/facts/Kazimierz_Fajans/ubkxreh4">Kazimierz Fajans</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9"><sup>9</sup></a> Born predicted crystal energies based on the assumption of ionic constituents, which showed good correspondence to <a href="/facts/Thermochemistry/fQS7IsoT">thermochemical</a> measurements, further supporting the assumption.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10"><sup>10</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="formation">Formation</h2> <p>Many metals such as the <a href="/facts/Alkali_metal/IkWbCLk2">alkali metals</a> react directly with the <a href="/facts/Electronegativity/H7Vq7Uah">electronegative</a> <a href="/facts/Halogen/YeFgWHeA">halogens</a> gases to form salts.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11"><sup>11</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12"><sup>12</sup></a> </p><p>Salts form upon evaporation of their <a href="/facts/Solution_(chemistry)/MGchhMQV">solutions</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13"><sup>13</sup></a> Once the solution is <a href="/facts/Supersaturation/YaTN0D1L">supersaturated</a> and the solid compound nucleates.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14"><sup>14</sup></a> This process occurs widely in nature and is the means of formation of the <a href="/facts/Evaporite/vNW8fcEy">evaporite</a> minerals.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15"><sup>15</sup></a> </p><p>Insoluble salts can be precipitated by mixing two solutions, one with the cation and one with the anion in it. Because all solutions are electrically neutral, the two solutions mixed must also contain <a href="/facts/Counterion/RNwGeM3l">counterions</a> of the opposite charges. To ensure that these do not contaminate the precipitated salt, it is important to ensure they do not also precipitate.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16"><sup>16</sup></a> If the two solutions have hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions as the counterions, they will react with one another in what is called an <a href="/facts/Acid%25E2%2580%2593base_reaction/z8pbL0X8">acid–base reaction</a> or a <a href="/facts/Neutralization_reaction/WC1c5fj1">neutralization reaction</a> to form water.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17"><sup>17</sup></a> Alternately the counterions can be chosen to ensure that even when combined into a single solution they will remain soluble as <a href="/facts/Spectator_ions/aN8U1zQq">spectator ions</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18"><sup>18</sup></a> </p><p>If the solvent is water in either the evaporation or precipitation method of formation, in many cases the <a href="/facts/Ionic_crystal/6YbBy9DV">ionic crystal</a> formed also includes <a href="/facts/Water_of_crystallization/sbaKJNJX">water of crystallization</a>, so the product is known as a <a href="/facts/Hydrate/dev82l69">hydrate</a>, and can have very different chemical properties compared to the <a href="/facts/Anhydrous/A7B0fDLE">anhydrous</a> material.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19"><sup>19</sup></a> </p><p>Molten salts will solidify on cooling to below their <a href="/facts/Freezing_point/MY0w0h0k">freezing point</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20"><sup>20</sup></a> This is sometimes used for the <a href="/facts/Solid-state_chemistry/MFpqNGSt">solid-state synthesis</a> of complex salts from solid reactants, which are first melted together.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21"><sup>21</sup></a> In other cases, the solid reactants do not need to be melted, but instead can react through a <a href="/facts/Solid-state_reaction_route/4nb5qugh">solid-state reaction route</a>. In this method, the reactants are repeatedly finely ground into a paste and then heated to a temperature where the ions in neighboring reactants can diffuse together during the time the reactant mixture remains in the oven.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22"><sup>22</sup></a> Other synthetic routes use a solid precursor with the correct <a href="/facts/Stoichiometry/I5p9cJzV">stoichiometric</a> ratio of non-volatile ions, which is heated to drive off other species.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23"><sup>23</sup></a> </p><p>In some reactions between highly reactive metals (usually from <a href="/facts/Alkali_metal/IkWbCLk2">Group 1</a> or <a href="/facts/Alkaline_earth_metal/Ts4U5zIe">Group 2</a>) and highly electronegative halogen gases, or water, the atoms can be ionized by <a href="/facts/Electron_transfer/BIdASS9R">electron transfer</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24"><sup>24</sup></a> a process thermodynamically understood using the <a href="/facts/Born%25E2%2580%2593Haber_cycle/y1aQFnwP">Born–Haber cycle</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25"><sup>25</sup></a> </p><p>Salts are formed by salt-forming reactions </p> <ul><li>A <a href="/facts/Base_(chemistry)/M9wA7qeM">base</a> and an <a href="/facts/Acid/FySU18n1">acid</a>, e.g., <a href="/facts/Ammonia/MtLtJFtz">NH3</a> + <a href="/facts/Hydrochloric_acid/HqItJlUT">HCl</a> → <a href="/facts/Ammonium_chloride/SfXdntlv">NH4Cl</a></li> <li>A <a href="/facts/Metal/PT8hNX6R">metal</a> and an <a href="/facts/Acid/FySU18n1">acid</a>, e.g., <a href="/facts/Magnesium/XyIhd2FG">Mg</a> + <a href="/facts/Sulfuric_acid/Wom6fymJ">H2SO4</a> → <a href="/facts/Magnesium_sulfate/o3GwKEoQ">MgSO4</a> + <a href="/facts/Hydrogen/BoYHjl0J">H2</a></li> <li>A metal and a non-metal, e.g., <a href="/facts/Calcium/hf252CC0">Ca</a> + <a href="/facts/Chlorine/y27UwYBM">Cl2</a> → <a href="/facts/Calcium_chloride/e1EwNPGF">CaCl2</a></li> <li>A <a href="/facts/Base_(chemistry)/M9wA7qeM">base</a> and an <a href="/facts/Acid_anhydride/0LvHIgAY">acid anhydride</a>, e.g., 2 <a href="/facts/Sodium_hydroxide/xjtdYtq7">NaOH</a> + <a href="/facts/Dichlorine_monoxide/hWlf602C">Cl2O</a> → 2 <a href="/facts/Sodium_hypochlorite/sp99uHHQ">NaClO</a> + <a href="/facts/Water/0lkXnJPK">H2O</a></li> <li>An <a href="/facts/Acid/FySU18n1">acid</a> and a <a href="/facts/Base_anhydride/NpRH4jCx">base anhydride</a>, e.g., 2 <a href="/facts/Nitric_acid/UDbwGp6s">HNO3</a> + <a href="/facts/Sodium_oxide/QbdIGb8u">Na2O</a> → 2 <a href="/facts/Sodium_nitrate/8WteItRf">NaNO3</a> + <a href="/facts/Water/0lkXnJPK">H2O</a></li> <li>In the <a href="/facts/Salt_metathesis_reaction/YpadY3lq">salt metathesis reaction</a> where two different salts are mixed in water, their ions recombine, and the new salt is insoluble and precipitates. For example: Pb(NO3)2 + Na2SO4 → PbSO4↓ + 2 NaNO3</li></ul> <h2 id="bonding">Bonding</h2> <p class="note">Main article: <a href="/facts/Ionic_bonding/R6nUJI5u">Ionic bonding</a></p> <p>Ions in salts are primarily held together by the <a href="/facts/Electrostatic_force/V0lR5NKv">electrostatic forces</a> between the charge distribution of these bodies, and in particular, the ionic bond resulting from the long-ranged <a href="/facts/Coulomb%2527s_law/V0lR5NKv">Coulomb</a> attraction between the net negative charge of the anions and net positive charge of the cations.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26"><sup>26</sup></a> There is also a small additional attractive force from <a href="/facts/Van_der_Waals_interactions/jyGU8Vh9">van der Waals interactions</a> which contributes only around 1–2% of the cohesive energy for small ions.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27"><sup>27</sup></a> When a pair of ions comes close enough for their <a href="/facts/Valence_shell/mXPA15VP">outer</a> <a href="/facts/Electron_shell/QxI30eh9">electron shells</a> (most simple ions have <a href="/facts/Closed_shell/TQjRr22P">closed shells</a>) to overlap, a short-ranged repulsive force occurs,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28"><sup>28</sup></a> due to the <a href="/facts/Pauli_exclusion_principle/lsBKGeHD">Pauli exclusion principle</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29"><sup>29</sup></a> The balance between these forces leads to a potential energy well with minimum energy when the nuclei are separated by a specific equilibrium distance.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30"><sup>30</sup></a> </p><p>If the <a href="/facts/Electronic_structure/RuHwQWfp">electronic structure</a> of the two interacting bodies is affected by the presence of one another, covalent interactions (non-ionic) also contribute to the overall energy of the compound formed.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31"><sup>31</sup></a> Salts are rarely purely ionic, i.e. held together only by electrostatic forces. The bonds between even the most <a href="/facts/Electronegative/H7Vq7Uah">electronegative</a>/<a href="/facts/Electropositive/H7Vq7Uah">electropositive</a> pairs such as those in <a href="/facts/Caesium_fluoride/edycrnDL">caesium fluoride</a> exhibit a small degree of <a href="/facts/Covalent_bond/EzMLf3Pz">covalency</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32"><sup>32</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33"><sup>33</sup></a> Conversely, covalent bonds between unlike atoms often exhibit some charge separation and can be considered to have a partial ionic character.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34"><sup>34</sup></a> The circumstances under which a compound will have ionic or covalent character can typically be understood using <a href="/facts/Fajans%2527_rules/6gh27KGS">Fajans' rules</a>, which use only charges and the sizes of each ion. According to these rules, compounds with the most ionic character will have large positive ions with a low charge, bonded to a small negative ion with a high charge.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35"><sup>35</sup></a> More generally <a href="/facts/HSAB_theory/yguwscxc">HSAB theory</a> can be applied, whereby the compounds with the most ionic character are those consisting of hard acids and hard bases: small, highly charged ions with a high difference in electronegativities between the anion and cation.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36"><sup>36</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37"><sup>37</sup></a> This difference in electronegativities means that the charge separation, and resulting dipole moment, is maintained even when the ions are in contact (the excess electrons on the anions are not transferred or polarized to neutralize the cations).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38"><sup>38</sup></a> </p><p>Although chemists classify idealized bond types as being ionic or covalent, the existence of additional types such as <a href="/facts/Hydrogen_bonds/85V86IIg">hydrogen bonds</a> and <a href="/facts/Metallic_bonds/Ht958du4">metallic bonds</a>, for example, has led some philosophers of science to suggest that alternative approaches to understanding bonding are required. This could be by applying <a href="/facts/Quantum_mechanics/BRc3Mzgr">quantum mechanics</a> to calculate binding energies.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39"><sup>39</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40"><sup>40</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="structure">Structure</h2> <p>The lattice energy is the summation of the interaction of all sites with all other sites. For unpolarizable spherical ions, only the charges and distances are required to determine the electrostatic interaction energy. For any particular ideal crystal structure, all distances are geometrically related to the smallest internuclear distance. So for each possible crystal structure, the total electrostatic energy can be related to the electrostatic energy of unit charges at the nearest neighboring distance by a multiplicative constant called the <a href="/facts/Madelung_constant/GF4tAHvp">Madelung constant</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:41" href="#fn:41"><sup>41</sup></a> that can be efficiently computed using an <a href="/facts/Ewald_sum/3zWaGJMz">Ewald sum</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:42" href="#fn:42"><sup>42</sup></a> When a reasonable form is assumed for the additional repulsive energy, the total lattice energy can be modelled using the <a href="/facts/Born%25E2%2580%2593Land%25C3%25A9_equation/bwe2DJ50">Born–Landé equation</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:43" href="#fn:43"><sup>43</sup></a> the <a href="/facts/Born%25E2%2580%2593Mayer_equation/tWet4ovC">Born–Mayer equation</a>, or in the absence of structural information, the <a href="/facts/Kapustinskii_equation/HyxhNzRR">Kapustinskii equation</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:44" href="#fn:44"><sup>44</sup></a> </p><p>Using an even simpler approximation of the ions as impenetrable hard spheres, the arrangement of anions in these systems are often related to <a href="/facts/Close-packing_of_equal_spheres/AqL1HUxe">close-packed</a> arrangements of spheres, with the cations occupying tetrahedral or octahedral <a href="/facts/Interstitial_site/3kvKwQer">interstices</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:45" href="#fn:45"><sup>45</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:46" href="#fn:46"><sup>46</sup></a> Depending on the <a href="/facts/Stoichiometry/I5p9cJzV">stoichiometry</a> of the salt, and the <a href="/facts/Coordination_sphere/s3vUKWjp">coordination</a> (principally determined by the <a href="/facts/Cation-anion_radius_ratio/LqosLfca">radius ratio</a>) of cations and anions, a variety of structures are commonly observed,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:47" href="#fn:47"><sup>47</sup></a> and theoretically rationalized by <a href="/facts/Pauling%2527s_rules/y9hfXjhw">Pauling's rules</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:48" href="#fn:48"><sup>48</sup></a> </p> Common ionic compound structures with close-packed anions<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:49" href="#fn:49"><sup>49</sup></a><table><tbody><tr><th rowspan="2">Stoichiometry</th><th rowspan="2">Cation:anioncoordination</th><th colspan="2">Interstitial sites</th><th colspan="2">Cubic close packing of anions</th><th colspan="2">Hexagonal close packing of anions</th></tr><tr><th>Occupancy</th><th>Critical radiusratio</th><th>Name</th><th>Madelung constant</th><th>Name</th><th>Madelung constant</th></tr><tr><td>MX</td><td>6:6</td><td>all octahedral</td><td>0.4142<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:50" href="#fn:50"><sup>50</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Sodium_chloride/MWcXl3Mb">sodium chloride</a></td><td>1.747565<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:51" href="#fn:51"><sup>51</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Nickeline/fbXdeD92">nickeline</a></td><td><1.73<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:52" href="#fn:52"><sup>52</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:53" href="#fn:53"><sup>53</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td></td><td>4:4</td><td>alternate tetrahedral</td><td>0.2247<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:54" href="#fn:54"><sup>54</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Zinc_blende/5NumvnzR">zinc blende</a></td><td>1.6381<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:55" href="#fn:55"><sup>55</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Wurtzite/QPwdFcCx">wurtzite</a></td><td>1.641<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:56" href="#fn:56"><sup>56</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>MX2</td><td>8:4</td><td>all tetrahedral</td><td>0.2247</td><td><a href="/facts/Fluorite/y2G7C8zk">fluorite</a></td><td>5.03878<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:57" href="#fn:57"><sup>57</sup></a></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td>6:3</td><td>half octahedral (alternate layers fully occupied)</td><td>0.4142</td><td><a href="/facts/Cadmium_chloride/Id9KtSIs">cadmium chloride</a></td><td>5.61<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:58" href="#fn:58"><sup>58</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Cadmium_iodide/kmYqUThz">cadmium iodide</a></td><td>4.71<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:59" href="#fn:59"><sup>59</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>MX3</td><td>6:2</td><td>one-third octahedral</td><td>0.4142</td><td><a href="/facts/Rhodium(III)_bromide/JT4mHh2C">rhodium(III) bromide</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:60" href="#fn:60"><sup>60</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:61" href="#fn:61"><sup>61</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:62" href="#fn:62"><sup>62</sup></a></td><td>6.67<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:63" href="#fn:63"><sup>63</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:64" href="#fn:64"><sup>64</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Bismuth_iodide/qap1BoQB">bismuth iodide</a></td><td>8.26<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:65" href="#fn:65"><sup>65</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:66" href="#fn:66"><sup>66</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>M2X3</td><td>6:4</td><td>two-thirds octahedral</td><td>0.4142</td><td></td><td></td><td><a href="/facts/Corundum/B7RRbcaE">corundum</a></td><td>25.0312<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:67" href="#fn:67"><sup>67</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>ABO3</td><td></td><td>two-thirds octahedral</td><td>0.4142</td><td></td><td></td><td><a href="/facts/Ilmenite/fh2eXgpo">ilmenite</a></td><td>Depends on chargesand structure<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:68" href="#fn:68"><sup>68</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>AB2O4</td><td></td><td>one-eighth tetrahedral and one-half octahedral</td><td><i>r</i>A/<i>r</i>O = 0.2247,<i>r</i>B/<i>r</i>O = 0.4142<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:69" href="#fn:69"><sup>69</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Spinel_group/yKVsD1aP">spinel</a>, <a href="/facts/Spinel_group/yKVsD1aP">inverse spinel</a></td><td>Depends on cationsite distributions<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:70" href="#fn:70"><sup>70</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:71" href="#fn:71"><sup>71</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:72" href="#fn:72"><sup>72</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Olivine/tLLL4rae">olivine</a></td><td>Depends on cationsite distributions<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:73" href="#fn:73"><sup>73</sup></a></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In some cases, the anions take on a simple cubic packing and the resulting common structures observed are: </p> Common ionic compound structures with simple cubic packed anions<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:74" href="#fn:74"><sup>74</sup></a><table><tbody><tr><th rowspan="2">Stoichiometry</th><th rowspan="2">Cation:anioncoordination</th><th rowspan="2">Interstitial sites occupied</th><th colspan="3">Example structure</th></tr><tr><th>Name</th><th>Critical radiusratio</th><th>Madelung constant</th></tr><tr><td>MX</td><td>8:8</td><td>entirely filled</td><td><a href="/facts/Cesium_chloride/MKPHoL6m">cesium chloride</a></td><td>0.7321<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:75" href="#fn:75"><sup>75</sup></a></td><td>1.762675<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:76" href="#fn:76"><sup>76</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>MX2</td><td>8:4</td><td>half filled</td><td><a href="/facts/Calcium_fluoride/fCKHAvp1">calcium fluoride</a></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>M2X</td><td>4:8</td><td>half filled</td><td><a href="/facts/Lithium_oxide/XgwmJIzA">lithium oxide</a></td><td></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Some <a href="/facts/Ionic_liquids/Ypse8taj">ionic liquids</a>, particularly with mixtures of anions or cations, can be cooled rapidly enough that there is not enough time for crystal <a href="/facts/Nucleation/efUVLsLR">nucleation</a> to occur, so an <a href="/facts/Ionic_glass/sbWmMFrI">ionic glass</a> is formed (with no long-range order).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:77" href="#fn:77"><sup>77</sup></a> </p> <h3>Defects</h3> <p class="note">See also: <a href="/facts/Crystallographic_defect/LHJymDro">crystallographic defect</a></p> <p>Within any crystal, there will usually be some defects. To maintain electroneutrality of the crystals, defects that involve loss of a cation will be associated with loss of an anion, i.e. these defects come in pairs.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:78" href="#fn:78"><sup>78</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Frenkel_defect/ANMK86Uu">Frenkel defects</a> consist of a cation vacancy paired with a cation interstitial and can be generated anywhere in the bulk of the crystal,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:79" href="#fn:79"><sup>79</sup></a> occurring most commonly in compounds with a low coordination number and cations that are much smaller than the anions.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:80" href="#fn:80"><sup>80</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Schottky_defect/qMLmgMFf">Schottky defects</a> consist of one vacancy of each type, and are generated at the surfaces of a crystal,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:81" href="#fn:81"><sup>81</sup></a> occurring most commonly in compounds with a high coordination number and when the anions and cations are of similar size.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:82" href="#fn:82"><sup>82</sup></a> If the cations have multiple possible <a href="/facts/Oxidation_state/W53W6s6V">oxidation states</a>, then it is possible for cation vacancies to compensate for electron deficiencies on cation sites with higher oxidation numbers, resulting in a <a href="/facts/Non-stoichiometric_compound/DAssoN0e">non-stoichiometric compound</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:83" href="#fn:83"><sup>83</sup></a> Another non-stoichiometric possibility is the formation of an <a href="/facts/F-center/rsX640wh">F-center</a>, a free electron occupying an anion vacancy.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:84" href="#fn:84"><sup>84</sup></a> When the compound has three or more ionic components, even more defect types are possible.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:85" href="#fn:85"><sup>85</sup></a> All of these point defects can be generated via thermal vibrations and have an <a href="/facts/Thermodynamic_equilibrium/1D7nGm0d">equilibrium</a> concentration. Because they are energetically costly but <a href="/facts/Entropy/s52IXeFz">entropically</a> beneficial, they occur in greater concentration at higher temperatures. Once generated, these pairs of defects can diffuse mostly independently of one another, by hopping between lattice sites. This defect mobility is the source of most transport phenomena within an ionic crystal, including diffusion and <a href="/facts/Solid_state_ionic_conductivity/HF9Xw4N8">solid state ionic conductivity</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:86" href="#fn:86"><sup>86</sup></a> When vacancies collide with interstitials (Frenkel), they can recombine and annihilate one another. Similarly, vacancies are removed when they reach the surface of the crystal (Schottky). Defects in the crystal structure generally expand the <a href="/facts/Lattice_parameter/h3gMKk6V">lattice parameters</a>, reducing the overall density of the crystal.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:87" href="#fn:87"><sup>87</sup></a> Defects also result in ions in distinctly different local environments, which causes them to experience a different <a href="/facts/Crystal_field_theory/yTECtz0r">crystal-field symmetry</a>, especially in the case of different cations exchanging lattice sites.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:88" href="#fn:88"><sup>88</sup></a> This results in a different <a href="/facts/Crystal-field_splitting_parameter/cVMy6RK4">splitting</a> of <a href="/facts/D-Orbitals/tKhgl6mL">d-electron orbitals</a>, so that the optical absorption (and hence colour) can change with defect concentration.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:89" href="#fn:89"><sup>89</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="properties">Properties</h2> <h3>Acidity/basicity</h3> <p>Ionic compounds containing <a href="/facts/Hydrogen_ion/6UbSyoz4">hydrogen ions</a> (H+) are classified as <a href="/facts/Acid/FySU18n1">acids</a>, and those containing <a href="/facts/Electropositivity/H7Vq7Uah">electropositive</a> cations<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:90" href="#fn:90"><sup>90</sup></a> and basic anions ions <a href="/facts/Hydroxide/zW0wxpWD">hydroxide</a> (OH−) or <a href="/facts/Oxide/DXtoVe1C">oxide</a> (O2−) are classified as <a href="/facts/Base_(chemistry)/M9wA7qeM">bases</a>. Other ionic compounds are known as salts and can be formed by <a href="/facts/Acid%25E2%2580%2593base_reaction/z8pbL0X8">acid–base reactions</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:91" href="#fn:91"><sup>91</sup></a> Salts that produce <a href="/facts/Hydroxide/zW0wxpWD">hydroxide</a> <a href="/facts/Ions/wrbwhF3z">ions</a> when dissolved in <a href="/facts/Water/0lkXnJPK">water</a> are called <a href="/facts/Alkali_salt/yYwmE5Nk">alkali salts</a>, and salts that produce <a href="/facts/Hydrogen/BoYHjl0J">hydrogen</a> <a href="/facts/Ions/wrbwhF3z">ions</a> when dissolved in <a href="/facts/Water/0lkXnJPK">water</a> are called <a href="/facts/Acid_salt/zIfXtebL">acid salts</a>. If the compound is the result of a reaction between a <a href="/facts/Strong_acid/vJ4rj6Lu">strong acid</a> and a <a href="/facts/Weak_base/FL4HstLK">weak base</a>, the result is an <a href="/facts/Acid_salt/zIfXtebL">acid salt</a>. If it is the result of a reaction between a <a href="/facts/Strong_base/M9wA7qeM">strong base</a> and a <a href="/facts/Weak_acid/vJ4rj6Lu">weak acid</a>, the result is a <a href="/facts/Base_salt/yYwmE5Nk">base salt</a>. If it is the result of a reaction between a strong acid and a strong base, the result is a neutral salt. Weak acids reacted with weak bases can produce ionic compounds with both the <a href="/facts/Conjugate_base/hohgQ07M">conjugate base</a> ion and conjugate acid ion, such as <a href="/facts/Ammonium_acetate/bs2fv321">ammonium acetate</a>. </p><p>Some ions are classed as <a href="/facts/Amphoterism/2UrXEsyl">amphoteric</a>, being able to react with either an acid or a base.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:92" href="#fn:92"><sup>92</sup></a> This is also true of some compounds with ionic character, typically oxides or hydroxides of less-electropositive metals (so the compound also has significant covalent character), such as <a href="/facts/Zinc_oxide/P7sTyDez">zinc oxide</a>, <a href="/facts/Aluminium_hydroxide/e0pXvDGr">aluminium hydroxide</a>, <a href="/facts/Aluminium_oxide/wXM9P6pI">aluminium oxide</a> and <a href="/facts/Lead(II)_oxide/ekk8cog0">lead(II) oxide</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:93" href="#fn:93"><sup>93</sup></a> </p> <h3>Melting and boiling points</h3> <p>Electrostatic forces between particles are strongest when the charges are high, and the distance between the nuclei of the ions is small. In such cases, the compounds generally have very high <a href="/facts/Melting_point/MY0w0h0k">melting</a> and <a href="/facts/Boiling_point/E2BK9QoS">boiling points</a> and a low <a href="/facts/Vapor_pressure/whrEr96T">vapour pressure</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:94" href="#fn:94"><sup>94</sup></a> Trends in melting points can be even better explained when the structure and ionic size ratio is taken into account.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:95" href="#fn:95"><sup>95</sup></a> Above their melting point, salts melt and become <a href="/facts/Molten_salt/b1vjSkwP">molten salts</a> (although some salts such as <a href="/facts/Aluminium_chloride/xrhvSxDr">aluminium chloride</a> and <a href="/facts/Iron(III)_chloride/a51pulq1">iron(III) chloride</a> show molecule-like structures in the liquid phase).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:96" href="#fn:96"><sup>96</sup></a> Inorganic compounds with simple ions typically have small ions, and thus have high melting points, so are solids at room temperature. Some substances with larger ions, however, have a melting point below or near room temperature (often defined as up to 100 °C), and are termed <a href="/facts/Ionic_liquid/Ypse8taj">ionic liquids</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:97" href="#fn:97"><sup>97</sup></a> Ions in ionic liquids often have uneven charge distributions, or bulky <a href="/facts/Substituent/6y9IE6G0">substituents</a> like hydrocarbon chains, which also play a role in determining the strength of the interactions and propensity to melt.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:98" href="#fn:98"><sup>98</sup></a> </p><p>Even when the local structure and bonding of an ionic solid is disrupted sufficiently to melt it, there are still strong long-range electrostatic forces of attraction holding the liquid together and preventing ions boiling to form a gas phase.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:99" href="#fn:99"><sup>99</sup></a> This means that even room temperature ionic liquids have low vapour pressures, and require substantially higher temperatures to boil.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:100" href="#fn:100"><sup>100</sup></a> Boiling points exhibit similar trends to melting points in terms of the size of ions and strength of other interactions.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:101" href="#fn:101"><sup>101</sup></a> When vapourized, the ions are still not freed of one another. For example, in the vapour phase sodium chloride exists as diatomic "molecules".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:102" href="#fn:102"><sup>102</sup></a> </p> <h3>Brittleness</h3> <p>Most salts are very <a href="/facts/Brittle/cn27H2vg">brittle</a>. Once they reach the limit of their strength, they cannot deform <a href="/facts/Malleability/SBJsahEk">malleably</a>, because the strict alignment of positive and negative ions must be maintained. Instead the material undergoes <a href="/facts/Fracture/nxDNAj0d">fracture</a> via <a href="/facts/Cleavage_(crystal)/p4YHe01X">cleavage</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:103" href="#fn:103"><sup>103</sup></a> As the temperature is elevated (usually close to the melting point) a <a href="/facts/Ductile-brittle_transition_temperature/SBJsahEk">ductile–brittle transition</a> occurs, and <a href="/facts/Plastic_flow/z1LEmkQX">plastic flow</a> becomes possible by the motion of <a href="/facts/Dislocation/m1tkJYIq">dislocations</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:104" href="#fn:104"><sup>104</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:105" href="#fn:105"><sup>105</sup></a> </p> <h3>Compressibility</h3> <p>The <a href="/facts/Compressibility/eePznleN">compressibility</a> of a salt is strongly determined by its structure, and in particular the <a href="/facts/Coordination_number/mf48hsoX">coordination number</a>. For example, halides with the caesium chloride structure (coordination number 8) are less compressible than those with the sodium chloride structure (coordination number 6), and less again than those with a coordination number of 4.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:106" href="#fn:106"><sup>106</sup></a> </p> <h3>Solubility</h3> <p class="note">See also: <a href="/facts/Solubility/kLE9h3Jb">Solubility § Solubility of ionic compounds in water</a></p> <p>When simple salts <a href="/facts/Dissolution_(chemistry)/JVM6j8R1">dissolve</a>, they <a href="/facts/Dissociation_(chemistry)/gDRGdeSN">dissociate</a> into individual ions, which are <a href="/facts/Solvation/JVM6j8R1">solvated</a> and dispersed throughout the resulting solution. Salts do not exist in solution.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:107" href="#fn:107"><sup>107</sup></a> In contrast, molecular compounds, which includes most organic compounds, remain intact in solution. </p><p>The <a href="/facts/Solubility/kLE9h3Jb">solubility</a> of salts is highest in <a href="/facts/Polar_solvent/LoMPMz8S">polar solvents</a> (such as <a href="/facts/Water/0lkXnJPK">water</a>) or <a href="/facts/Ionic_liquid/Ypse8taj">ionic liquids</a>, but tends to be low in <a href="/facts/Nonpolar_solvent/LoMPMz8S">nonpolar solvents</a> (such as <a href="/facts/Petrol/lcnxq5BS">petrol</a>/<a href="/facts/Gasoline/lcnxq5BS">gasoline</a>).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:108" href="#fn:108"><sup>108</sup></a> This contrast is principally because the resulting <a href="/facts/Intermolecular_force/xIcFMvL7">ion–dipole interactions</a> are significantly stronger than ion-induced dipole interactions, so the <a href="/facts/Enthalpy_change_of_solution/wuVVEDDs">heat of solution</a> is higher. When the oppositely charged ions in the solid ionic lattice are surrounded by the opposite pole of a polar molecule, the solid ions are pulled out of the lattice and into the liquid. If the <a href="/facts/Solvation/JVM6j8R1">solvation</a> energy exceeds the <a href="/facts/Lattice_energy/MRVJpWfk">lattice energy</a>, the negative net <a href="/facts/Enthalpy_change_of_solution/wuVVEDDs">enthalpy change of solution</a> provides a thermodynamic drive to remove ions from their positions in the crystal and dissolve in the liquid. In addition, the <a href="/facts/Entropy_of_mixing/zDdJNHTe">entropy change of solution</a> is usually positive for most solid solutes like salts, which means that their solubility increases when the temperature increases.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:109" href="#fn:109"><sup>109</sup></a> There are some unusual salts such as <a href="/facts/Cerium(III)_sulfate/oHjDaGg9">cerium(III) sulfate</a>, where this entropy change is negative, due to extra order induced in the water upon solution, and the solubility decreases with temperature.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:110" href="#fn:110"><sup>110</sup></a> </p><p>The <a href="/facts/Lattice_energy/MRVJpWfk">lattice energy</a>, the cohesive forces between these ions within a solid, determines the solubility. The solubility is dependent on how well each ion interacts with the solvent, so certain patterns become apparent. For example, salts of <a href="/facts/Sodium/eYuSPu2V">sodium</a>, <a href="/facts/Potassium/FWPwS7Rj">potassium</a> and ammonium are usually soluble in water. Notable exceptions include <a href="/facts/Ammonium_hexachloroplatinate/cCvDEanc">ammonium hexachloroplatinate</a> and <a href="/facts/Potassium_cobaltinitrite/G27CDGrH">potassium cobaltinitrite</a>. Most <a href="/facts/Nitrates/5AnVlYnL">nitrates</a> and many <a href="/facts/Sulfate/yuWVxsUf">sulfates</a> are water-soluble. Exceptions include <a href="/facts/Barium_sulfate/QrjdoS1k">barium sulfate</a>, <a href="/facts/Calcium_sulfate/mTD8oGaH">calcium sulfate</a> (sparingly soluble), and <a href="/facts/Lead(II)_sulfate/cgDGA4UB">lead(II) sulfate</a>, where the 2+/2− pairing leads to high lattice energies. For similar reasons, most metal <a href="/facts/Carbonate/FES1QHkN">carbonates</a> are not soluble in water. Some soluble carbonate salts are: <a href="/facts/Sodium_carbonate/P6RHvIoK">sodium carbonate</a>, <a href="/facts/Potassium_carbonate/nLvuwSaT">potassium carbonate</a> and <a href="/facts/Ammonium_carbonate/UjMdwbTv">ammonium carbonate</a>. </p> <h4>Strength</h4> <p>Strong salts or strong <a href="/facts/Electrolyte/4YE8bIVa">electrolyte</a> salts are chemical salts composed of <a href="/facts/Strong_electrolyte/PYjrbuG1">strong electrolytes</a>. These salts dissociate completely or almost completely in <a href="/facts/Water/0lkXnJPK">water</a>. They are generally odorless and <a href="/facts/Volatility_(chemistry)/90r3ep6w">nonvolatile</a>. </p><p>Strong salts start with Na__, K__, NH4__, or they end with __NO3, __ClO4, or __CH3COO. Most group 1 and 2 metals form strong salts. Strong salts are especially useful when creating conductive compounds as their constituent ions allow for greater conductivity. </p><p>Weak salts or weak electrolyte salts are composed of weak <a href="/facts/Electrolyte/4YE8bIVa">electrolytes</a>. These salts do not dissociate well in water. They are generally more <a href="/facts/Volatility_(chemistry)/90r3ep6w">volatile</a> than strong salts. They may be similar in <a href="/facts/Odor/WnCopMmH">odor</a> to the <a href="/facts/Acid/FySU18n1">acid</a> or <a href="/facts/Base_(chemistry)/M9wA7qeM">base</a> they are derived from. For example, <a href="/facts/Sodium_acetate/CU1Yc8Jp">sodium acetate</a>, CH3COONa, smells similar to <a href="/facts/Acetic_acid/uyBKA2Pd">acetic acid</a> CH3COOH. </p> <h3>Electrical conductivity</h3> <p>Salts are characteristically <a href="/facts/Insulator_(electricity)/SfSXkrh5">insulators</a>. Although they contain charged atoms or clusters, these materials do not typically <a href="/facts/Electrical_conductivity/akyCKvMy">conduct electricity</a> to any significant extent when the substance is solid. In order to conduct, the charged particles must be <a href="/facts/Electrical_mobility/puR4foqd">mobile</a> rather than stationary in a <a href="/facts/Crystal_structure/bJ4bCeHd">crystal lattice</a>. This is achieved to some degree at high temperatures when the defect concentration increases the ionic mobility and <a href="/facts/Solid_state_ionic_conductivity/HF9Xw4N8">solid state ionic conductivity</a> is observed. When the salts are <a href="/facts/Solution_(chemistry)/MGchhMQV">dissolved in a liquid</a> or are melted into a <a href="/facts/Liquid/t9GkLWzt">liquid</a>, they can conduct electricity because the ions become completely mobile. For this reason, molten salts and solutions containing dissolved salts (e.g., sodium chloride in water) can be used as <a href="/facts/Electrolyte/4YE8bIVa">electrolytes</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:111" href="#fn:111"><sup>111</sup></a> This conductivity gain upon dissolving or melting is sometimes used as a defining characteristic of salts.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:112" href="#fn:112"><sup>112</sup></a> </p><p>In some unusual salts: <a href="/facts/Fast-ion_conductor/oE9l9Em6">fast-ion conductors</a>, and <a href="/facts/Ionic_glass/sbWmMFrI">ionic glasses</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:113" href="#fn:113"><sup>113</sup></a> one or more of the ionic components has a significant mobility, allowing conductivity even while the material as a whole remains solid.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:114" href="#fn:114"><sup>114</sup></a> This is often highly temperature dependent, and may be the result of either a phase change or a high defect concentration.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:115" href="#fn:115"><sup>115</sup></a> These materials are used in all solid-state <a href="/facts/Supercapacitor/JuJDlQCA">supercapacitors</a>, <a href="/facts/Battery_(electricity)/bqEpm4ue">batteries</a>, and <a href="/facts/Fuel_cell/UcMYnCW3">fuel cells</a>, and in various kinds of <a href="/facts/Chemical_sensor/RN8SXbjs">chemical sensors</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:116" href="#fn:116"><sup>116</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:117" href="#fn:117"><sup>117</sup></a> </p> <h3>Colour</h3> <p class="note">See also: <a href="/facts/Colour_of_chemicals/J5va4Cx5">Colour of chemicals</a></p> <p>The <a href="/facts/Color_of_chemicals/J5va4Cx5">colour of a salt</a> is often different from the <a href="/facts/Colour_of_chemicals/J5va4Cx5">colour of an aqueous solution</a> containing the constituent ions,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:118" href="#fn:118"><sup>118</sup></a> or the <a href="/facts/Hydrate/dev82l69">hydrated</a> form of the same compound.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:119" href="#fn:119"><sup>119</sup></a> </p><p>The anions in compounds with bonds with the most ionic character tend to be colorless (with an <a href="/facts/Absorption_band/PgVaAI6j">absorption band</a> in the ultraviolet part of the spectrum).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:120" href="#fn:120"><sup>120</sup></a> In compounds with less ionic character, their color deepens through yellow, orange, red, and black (as the absorption band shifts to longer wavelengths into the visible spectrum).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:121" href="#fn:121"><sup>121</sup></a> </p><p>The absorption band of simple cations shifts toward a shorter wavelength when they are involved in more covalent interactions.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:122" href="#fn:122"><sup>122</sup></a> This occurs during <a href="/facts/Solvation/JVM6j8R1">hydration</a> of metal ions, so colorless <a href="/facts/Anhydrous/A7B0fDLE">anhydrous</a> salts with an anion absorbing in the infrared can become colorful in solution.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:123" href="#fn:123"><sup>123</sup></a> </p><p>Salts exist in many different <a href="/facts/Color/XDvW7ESP">colors</a>, which arise either from their constituent anions, cations or <a href="/facts/Solvation/JVM6j8R1">solvates</a>. For example: </p> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Sodium_chromate/BdfzxKn8">sodium chromate</a> Na2CrO4 is made yellow by the <a href="/facts/Chromate_ion/6xkFLIJw">chromate ion</a> CrO2−4.</li> <li><a href="/facts/Potassium_dichromate/MwRzD3gW">potassium dichromate</a> K2Cr2O7 is made red-orange by the <a href="/facts/Dichromate_ion/6xkFLIJw">dichromate ion</a> Cr2O2−7.</li> <li><a href="/facts/Cobalt(II)_nitrate/PTw8yESY">cobalt(II) nitrate</a> hexahydrate Co(NO3)2·6H2O is made red by the chromophore of <a href="/facts/Water_of_crystallization/sbaKJNJX">hydrated</a> cobalt(II) [Co(H2O)6]2+.</li> <li><a href="/facts/Copper(II)_sulfate/Ya6fPoQe">copper(II) sulfate</a> pentahydrate CuSO4·5H2O is made blue by the hydrated copper(II) cation.</li> <li><a href="/facts/Potassium_permanganate/nyjjuDlo">potassium permanganate</a> KMnO4 is made violet by the <a href="/facts/Permanganate/nJa04jVh">permanganate</a> anion MnO−4.</li> <li><a href="/facts/Nickel(II)_chloride/KWLuUr0V">nickel(II) chloride</a> hexahydrate NiCl2·6H2O is made green by the hydrated nickel(II) chloride [NiCl2(H2O)4].</li> <li><a href="/facts/Sodium_chloride/MWcXl3Mb">sodium chloride</a> NaCl and <a href="/facts/Magnesium_sulfate/o3GwKEoQ">magnesium sulfate</a> heptahydrate MgSO4·7H2O are colorless or white because the constituent <a href="/facts/Cations/wrbwhF3z">cations</a> and <a href="/facts/Anions/wrbwhF3z">anions</a> do not absorb light in the part of the spectrum that is visible to humans.</li></ul> <p>Some <a href="/facts/Minerals/LkUFbNmv">minerals</a> are salts, some of which are <a href="/facts/Soluble/kLE9h3Jb">soluble</a> in water.[<i>dubious – discuss</i>] Similarly, inorganic <a href="/facts/Pigment/I3clCYkF">pigments</a> tend not to be salts, because insolubility is required for fastness. Some organic <a href="/facts/Dye/a1NSlcsG">dyes</a> are salts, but they are virtually insoluble in water. </p> <h3>Taste and odor</h3> <p>Salts can elicit all five <a href="/facts/Basic_taste/mdB8ysuK">basic tastes</a>, e.g., <a href="/facts/Saltiness/mdB8ysuK">salty</a> (<a href="/facts/Sodium_chloride/MWcXl3Mb">sodium chloride</a>), <a href="/facts/Sweet/pWt6LlXy">sweet</a> (<a href="/facts/Lead_diacetate/t2syV9hJ">lead diacetate</a>, which will cause <a href="/facts/Lead_poisoning/STwlKj7c">lead poisoning</a> if ingested), <a href="/facts/Sour_(taste)/mdB8ysuK">sour</a> (<a href="/facts/Potassium_bitartrate/M3Y7eBSd">potassium bitartrate</a>), <a href="/facts/Bitter_(taste)/mdB8ysuK">bitter</a> (<a href="/facts/Magnesium_sulfate/o3GwKEoQ">magnesium sulfate</a>), and <a href="/facts/Umami/H3otVQWf">umami</a> or <a href="/facts/Umami/H3otVQWf">savory</a> (<a href="/facts/Monosodium_glutamate/cADzIYgU">monosodium glutamate</a>). </p><p>Salts of strong acids and strong bases ("strong salts") are non-<a href="/facts/Volatility_(chemistry)/90r3ep6w">volatile</a> and often odorless, whereas salts of either weak acids or weak bases ("weak salts") may smell like the <a href="/facts/Conjugate_acid/hohgQ07M">conjugate acid</a> (e.g., acetates like acetic acid (<a href="/facts/Vinegar/yC27CDkw">vinegar</a>) and cyanides like <a href="/facts/Hydrogen_cyanide/vNtA0Mxe">hydrogen cyanide</a> (<a href="/facts/Almond/oArfgmdq">almonds</a>)) or the conjugate base (e.g., ammonium salts like <a href="/facts/Ammonia/MtLtJFtz">ammonia</a>) of the component ions. That slow, partial decomposition is usually accelerated by the presence of water, since <a href="/facts/Hydrolysis/JTvwIHPs">hydrolysis</a> is the other half of the <a href="/facts/Reversible_reaction/V3Afejgb">reversible reaction</a> equation of formation of weak salts. </p> <h2 id="uses">Uses</h2> <p>Salts have long had a wide variety of uses and applications. Many <a href="/facts/Minerals/LkUFbNmv">minerals</a> are ionic.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:124" href="#fn:124"><sup>124</sup></a> Humans have processed <a href="/facts/Common_salt/SCplalQ3">common salt</a> (sodium chloride) for over 8000 years, using it first as a food seasoning and preservative, and now also in manufacturing, <a href="/facts/Agriculture/TGztqzJs">agriculture</a>, water conditioning, for de-icing roads, and many other uses.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:125" href="#fn:125"><sup>125</sup></a> Many salts are so widely used in society that they go by common names unrelated to their chemical identity. Examples of this include <a href="/facts/Borax/IQrXRJ3N">borax</a>, <a href="/facts/Calomel/0fucDWnb">calomel</a>, <a href="/facts/Milk_of_magnesia/0hKR5Ica">milk of magnesia</a>, <a href="/facts/Muriatic_acid/HqItJlUT">muriatic acid</a>, <a href="/facts/Oil_of_vitriol/Wom6fymJ">oil of vitriol</a>, <a href="/facts/Saltpeter/vVeaDn51">saltpeter</a>, and <a href="/facts/Slaked_lime/Kz2KzRd8">slaked lime</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:126" href="#fn:126"><sup>126</sup></a> </p><p>Soluble salts can easily be dissolved to provide <a href="/facts/Electrolyte/4YE8bIVa">electrolyte</a> solutions. This is a simple way to control the concentration and <a href="/facts/Ionic_strength/72GKfhmE">ionic strength</a>. The concentration of solutes affects many <a href="/facts/Colligative_properties/8LEPNRpn">colligative properties</a>, including increasing the <a href="/facts/Osmotic_pressure/6oWKTsXV">osmotic pressure</a>, and causing <a href="/facts/Freezing-point_depression/B5fSARUv">freezing-point depression</a> and <a href="/facts/Boiling-point_elevation/5v7E58Jr">boiling-point elevation</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:127" href="#fn:127"><sup>127</sup></a> Because the solutes are charged ions they also increase the electrical conductivity of the solution.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:128" href="#fn:128"><sup>128</sup></a> The increased ionic strength reduces the thickness of the <a href="/facts/Electrical_double_layer/QhTTkyVs">electrical double layer</a> around <a href="/facts/Colloid/9EVucqND">colloidal</a> particles, and therefore the stability of <a href="/facts/Emulsion/YMSqSCuH">emulsions</a> and <a href="/facts/Suspension_(chemistry)/S3xp96TL">suspensions</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:129" href="#fn:129"><sup>129</sup></a> </p><p>The chemical identity of the ions added is also important in many uses. For example, <a href="/facts/Fluoride/LpqNMzwa">fluoride</a> containing compounds are dissolved to supply fluoride ions for <a href="/facts/Water_fluoridation/RyXmr2El">water fluoridation</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:130" href="#fn:130"><sup>130</sup></a> </p><p>Solid salts have long been used as paint pigments, and are resistant to organic solvents, but are sensitive to acidity or basicity.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:131" href="#fn:131"><sup>131</sup></a> Since 1801 <a href="/facts/Pyrotechnician/o3jzhgPM">pyrotechnicians</a> have described and widely used metal-containing salts as sources of colour in fireworks.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:132" href="#fn:132"><sup>132</sup></a> Under intense heat, the electrons in the metal ions or small molecules can be excited.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:133" href="#fn:133"><sup>133</sup></a> These electrons later return to lower energy states, and release light with a colour spectrum characteristic of the species present.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:134" href="#fn:134"><sup>134</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:135" href="#fn:135"><sup>135</sup></a> </p><p>In <a href="/facts/Chemical_synthesis/3KXsVVwC">chemical synthesis</a>, salts are often used as <a href="/facts/Precursor_(chemistry)/dUw8Mx2Y">precursors</a> for high-temperature solid-state synthesis.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:136" href="#fn:136"><sup>136</sup></a> </p><p>Many metals are geologically most abundant as salts within <a href="/facts/Ore/kgc9DssX">ores</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:137" href="#fn:137"><sup>137</sup></a> To obtain the <a href="/facts/Chemical_element/0jducgWD">elemental</a> materials, these ores are processed by <a href="/facts/Smelting/Ghdvhlga">smelting</a> or <a href="/facts/Electrolysis/pU75nCDI">electrolysis</a>, in which <a href="/facts/Redox_reaction/Pyd5RVcj">redox reactions</a> occur (often with a reducing agent such as carbon) such that the metal ions gain electrons to become neutral atoms.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:138" href="#fn:138"><sup>138</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:139" href="#fn:139"><sup>139</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="nomenclature">Nomenclature</h2> <p class="note">See also: <a href="/facts/IUPAC_nomenclature_of_inorganic_chemistry/nzfwwsdG">IUPAC nomenclature of inorganic chemistry</a></p> <p>According to the <a href="/facts/Nomenclature/YhTgjjyY">nomenclature</a> recommended by <a href="/facts/IUPAC/2AV6myCK">IUPAC</a>, salts are named according to their composition, not their structure.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:140" href="#fn:140"><sup>140</sup></a> In the most simple case of a binary salt with no possible ambiguity about the charges and thus the <a href="/facts/Stoichiometry/I5p9cJzV">stoichiometry</a>, the common name is written using two words.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:141" href="#fn:141"><sup>141</sup></a> The name of the cation (the unmodified element name for monatomic cations) comes first, followed by the name of the anion.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:142" href="#fn:142"><sup>142</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:143" href="#fn:143"><sup>143</sup></a> For example, MgCl2 is named <a href="/facts/Magnesium_chloride/uk1f69LG">magnesium chloride</a>, and Na2SO4 is named <a href="/facts/Sodium_sulfate/KWzpxTmj">sodium sulfate</a> (SO2−4, <a href="/facts/Sulfate/yuWVxsUf">sulfate</a>, is an example of a <a href="/facts/Polyatomic_ion/FcPWAyLm">polyatomic ion</a>). To obtain the <a href="/facts/Empirical_formula/xd0vSIlm">empirical formula</a> from these names, the stoichiometry can be deduced from the charges on the ions, and the requirement of overall charge neutrality.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:144" href="#fn:144"><sup>144</sup></a> </p><p>If there are multiple different cations and/or anions, multiplicative prefixes (<i>di-</i>, <i>tri-</i>, <i>tetra-</i>, ...) are often required to indicate the relative compositions,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:145" href="#fn:145"><sup>145</sup></a> and cations then anions are listed in alphabetical order.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:146" href="#fn:146"><sup>146</sup></a> For example, KMgCl3 is named <a href="/facts/Magnesium_potassium_trichloride/N7RQQwRd">magnesium potassium trichloride</a> to distinguish it from K2MgCl4, magnesium dipotassium tetrachloride<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:147" href="#fn:147"><sup>147</sup></a> (note that in both the empirical formula and the written name, the cations appear in alphabetical order, but the order varies between them because the <a href="/facts/Symbol_(chemistry)/2Fe1VAL0">symbol</a> for <a href="/facts/Potassium/FWPwS7Rj">potassium</a> is K).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:148" href="#fn:148"><sup>148</sup></a> When one of the ions already has a multiplicative prefix within its name, the alternate multiplicative prefixes (<i>bis-</i>, <i>tris-</i>, <i>tetrakis-</i>, ...) are used.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:149" href="#fn:149"><sup>149</sup></a> For example, Ba(BrF4)2 is named barium bis(tetrafluoridobromate).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:150" href="#fn:150"><sup>150</sup></a> </p><p>Compounds containing one or more elements which can exist in a variety of charge/<a href="/facts/Oxidation_state/W53W6s6V">oxidation states</a> will have a stoichiometry that depends on which oxidation states are present, to ensure overall neutrality. This can be indicated in the name by specifying either the oxidation state of the elements present, or the charge on the ions.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:151" href="#fn:151"><sup>151</sup></a> Because of the risk of ambiguity in allocating oxidation states, IUPAC prefers direct indication of the ionic charge numbers.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:152" href="#fn:152"><sup>152</sup></a> These are written as an <a href="/facts/Arabic_numerals/LryNhh26">arabic</a> integer followed by the sign (... , 2−, 1−, 1+, 2+, ...) in parentheses directly after the name of the cation (without a space separating them).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:153" href="#fn:153"><sup>153</sup></a> For example, FeSO4 is named <a href="/facts/Iron(2%252B)_sulfate/zyc7Fukb">iron(2+) sulfate</a> (with the 2+ charge on the <a href="/facts/Fe2%252B/AGImjWqq">Fe2+</a> ions balancing the 2− charge on the sulfate ion), whereas Fe2(SO4)3 is named <a href="/facts/Iron(3%252B)_sulfate/FCJ0r4j3">iron(3+) sulfate</a> (because the two iron ions in each <a href="/facts/Formula_unit/P6LUge8g">formula unit</a> each have a charge of 3+, to balance the 2− on each of the three sulfate ions).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:154" href="#fn:154"><sup>154</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Stock_nomenclature/FbrV1lmQ">Stock nomenclature</a>, still in common use, writes the <a href="/facts/Oxidation_number/W53W6s6V">oxidation number</a> in <a href="/facts/Roman_numerals/7BA8nn78">Roman numerals</a> (... , −II, −I, 0, I, II, ...). So the examples given above would be named <a href="/facts/Iron(II)_sulfate/zyc7Fukb">iron(II) sulfate</a> and <a href="/facts/Iron(III)_sulfate/FCJ0r4j3">iron(III) sulfate</a> respectively.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:155" href="#fn:155"><sup>155</sup></a> For simple ions the ionic charge and the oxidation number are identical, but for polyatomic ions they often differ. For example, the <a href="/facts/Uranyl(2%252B)/XoqDjPHM">uranyl(2+)</a> ion, UO2+2, has uranium in an oxidation state of +6, so would be called a dioxouranium(VI) ion in Stock nomenclature.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:156" href="#fn:156"><sup>156</sup></a> An even older naming system for metal cations, also still widely used, appended the suffixes <i>-ous</i> and <i>-ic</i> to the <a href="/facts/Latin/pM3Kge85">Latin</a> root of the name, to give special names for the low and high oxidation states.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:157" href="#fn:157"><sup>157</sup></a> For example, this scheme uses "ferrous" and "ferric", for iron(II) and iron(III) respectively,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:158" href="#fn:158"><sup>158</sup></a> so the examples given above were classically named <a href="/facts/Ferrous_sulfate/zyc7Fukb">ferrous sulfate</a> and <a href="/facts/Ferric_sulfate/FCJ0r4j3">ferric sulfate</a>. </p><p>Common salt-forming cations include: </p> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Ammonium/jYm8wc1n">Ammonium</a> NH+4</li> <li><a href="/facts/Calcium/hf252CC0">Calcium</a> Ca2+</li> <li><a href="/facts/Iron/QK1JYy8E">Iron</a> Fe2+ and Fe3+</li> <li><a href="/facts/Magnesium/XyIhd2FG">Magnesium</a> Mg2+</li> <li><a href="/facts/Potassium/FWPwS7Rj">Potassium</a> K+</li> <li><a href="/facts/Pyridinium/txxbe0vf">Pyridinium</a> C5H5NH+</li> <li><a href="/facts/Quaternary_ammonium_cation/bNpF1goc">Quaternary ammonium</a> NR+4, R being an <a href="/facts/Alkyl/vmEk8X4v">alkyl</a> group or an <a href="/facts/Aryl/M3z7QRXd">aryl</a> group</li> <li><a href="/facts/Sodium/eYuSPu2V">Sodium</a> Na+</li> <li><a href="/facts/Copper/I8PEE8oX">Copper</a> Cu2+</li></ul> <p>Common salt-forming anions (parent acids in parentheses where available) include: </p> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Acetate/U90VVczy">Acetate</a> CH3COO− (<a href="/facts/Acetic_acid/uyBKA2Pd">acetic acid</a>)</li> <li><a href="/facts/Carbonate/FES1QHkN">Carbonate</a> CO2−3 (<a href="/facts/Carbonic_acid/fjjVAhwt">carbonic acid</a>)</li> <li><a href="/facts/Chloride/m9NUaUDR">Chloride</a> Cl− (<a href="/facts/Hydrochloric_acid/HqItJlUT">hydrochloric acid</a>)</li> <li><a href="/facts/Citrate/EgKGQBdl">Citrate</a> HOC(COO−)(CH2COO−)2 (<a href="/facts/Citric_acid/EgKGQBdl">citric acid</a>)</li> <li><a href="/facts/Cyanide/t0o8FMKI">Cyanide</a> C≡N− (<a href="/facts/Hydrocyanic_acid/vNtA0Mxe">hydrocyanic acid</a>)</li> <li><a href="/facts/Fluoride/LpqNMzwa">Fluoride</a> F− (<a href="/facts/Hydrofluoric_acid/wdXqu4bE">hydrofluoric acid</a>)</li> <li><a href="/facts/Nitrate/5AnVlYnL">Nitrate</a> NO−3 (<a href="/facts/Nitric_acid/UDbwGp6s">nitric acid</a>)</li> <li><a href="/facts/Nitrite/qkz2XScK">Nitrite</a> NO−2 (<a href="/facts/Nitrous_acid/xaVd1w2D">nitrous acid</a>)</li> <li><a href="/facts/Oxide/DXtoVe1C">Oxide</a> O2− (<a href="/facts/Water/0lkXnJPK">water</a>)</li> <li><a href="/facts/Phosphate/FDGVCxUG">Phosphate</a> PO3−4 (<a href="/facts/Phosphoric_acid/l6NbwyCv">phosphoric acid</a>)</li> <li><a href="/facts/Sulfate/yuWVxsUf">Sulfate</a> SO2−4 (<a href="/facts/Sulfuric_acid/Wom6fymJ">sulfuric acid</a>)</li></ul> <p>Salts with varying number of hydrogen atoms replaced by cations as compared to their parent acid can be referred to as <i>monobasic</i>, <i>dibasic</i>, or <i>tribasic</i>, identifying that one, two, or three hydrogen atoms have been replaced; <i>polybasic</i> salts refer to those with more than one hydrogen atom replaced. Examples include: </p> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Monosodium_phosphate/v1o4fvpj">Sodium phosphate monobasic</a> (NaH2PO4)</li> <li><a href="/facts/Disodium_phosphate/B7JQX0o7">Sodium phosphate dibasic</a> (Na2HPO4)</li> <li><a href="/facts/Trisodium_phosphate/ho0E4DcI">Sodium phosphate tribasic</a> (Na3PO4)</li></ul> <h2 id="non-salt">Non-salt</h2> <h3>Zwitterion</h3> <p><a href="/facts/Zwitterion/P6PzHHcS">Zwitterions</a> contain an anionic and a cationic centre in the same <a href="/facts/Molecule/N9ljSfFq">molecule</a>, but are not considered salts. Examples of zwitterions are <a href="/facts/Amino_acid/WDxYwBny">amino acids</a>, many <a href="/facts/Metabolite/nAyywVtA">metabolites</a>, <a href="/facts/Peptide/C4ltc7UG">peptides</a>, and <a href="/facts/Protein/Jxmagu3E">proteins</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:159" href="#fn:159"><sup>159</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="see-also">See also</h2> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Bonding_in_solids/IS7BMGvI">Bonding in solids</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Ioliomics/eFTHqLAr">Ioliomics</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Salt_metathesis_reaction/YpadY3lq">Salt metathesis reaction</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Bresle_method/H8l6Tu8q">Bresle method</a> (the method used to test for salt presence during coating applications)</li> <li><a href="/facts/Carboxylate/vEDekXRr">Carboxylate</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Halide/ujYu8kGD">Halide</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Ionic_bond/R6nUJI5u">Ionic bonds</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Natron/1lm9rD1y">Natron</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Salinity/X6mB1YAM">Salinity</a></li></ul> <h2 id="notes">Notes</h2> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Mark_Kurlansky/cCeQtd59">Mark Kurlansky</a> (2002). <i>Salt: A World History</i>. Walker Publishing Company. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 0-14-200161-9.</li></ul> <h3>Bibliography</h3> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Neil_Ashcroft/q0h0CMfW">Ashcroft, Neil W.</a>; <a href="/facts/David_Mermin/ALGkFowC">Mermin, N. David</a> (1977). <a href="https://archive.org/details/solidstatephysic00ashc"><i>Solid state physics</i></a> (27th repr. ed.). New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-03-083993-1.</li> <li>Atkins, Peter; de Paula, Julio (2006). <i>Atkins' physical chemistry</i> (8th ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-19-870072-2.</li> <li>Barrow, Gordon M. (1988). <a href="https://archive.org/details/physicalchemistr00gord_0"><i>Physical chemistry</i></a> (5th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-07-003905-6.</li> <li>Brown, Theodore L.; LeMay, H. Eugene Jr; Bursten, Bruce E.; Lanford, Steven; Sagatys, Dalius; Duffy, Neil (2009). <i>Chemistry: the central science: a broad perspective</i> (2nd ed.). Frenchs Forest, N.S.W.: Pearson Australia. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-4425-1147-7.</li> <li>Freemantle, Michael (2009). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kvM2YEftV2cC&pg=PP1"><i>An introduction to ionic liquids</i></a>. Cambridge: Royal Society of Chemistry. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-84755-161-0.</li> <li>International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry, Division of Chemical Nomenclature (2005). Neil G. Connelly (ed.). <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160203110828/http://www.iupac.org/nc/home/publications/iupac-books/books-db/book-details.html?tx_wfqbe_pi1%5Bbookid%5D=5"><i>Nomenclature of inorganic chemistry: IUPAC recommendations 2005</i></a> (New ed.). Cambridge: RSC Publ. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-85404-438-2. Archived from <a href="http://www.iupac.org/nc/home/publications/iupac-books/books-db/book-details.html?tx_wfqbe_pi1%5Bbookid%5D=5">the original</a> on 2016-02-03. Retrieved 2023-02-05.</li> <li><a href="/facts/Charles_Kittel/oMLd0J9y">Kittel, Charles</a> (2005). <i><a href="/facts/Introduction_to_Solid_State_Physics_(Kittel_book)/AHYGtnuX">Introduction to Solid State Physics</a></i> (8th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-471-41526-8.</li> <li>McQuarrie, Donald A.; Rock, Peter A. (1991). <i>General chemistry</i> (3rd ed.). New York: W.H. Freeman and Co. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-7167-2169-7.</li> <li><a href="/facts/Linus_Pauling/cBNBzs5c">Pauling, Linus</a> (1960). <a href="https://archive.org/details/natureofchemical00paul"><i>The nature of the chemical bond and the structure of molecules and crystals: an introduction to modern structural chemistry</i></a> (3rd ed.). Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-8014-0333-0. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)</li> <li>Russell, Michael S. (2009). <i>The chemistry of fireworks</i> (2nd ed.). Cambridge, UK: RSC Pub. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-85404-127-5.</li> <li>Wenk, Hans-Rudolph; Bulakh, Andrei (2004). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vUVdAAAAQBAJ&pg=PT774"><i>Minerals: Their Constitution and Origin</i></a> (1st ed.). New York: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-107-39390-5.</li> <li>Wold, Aaron; Dwight, Kirby (1993). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=N-QRBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA71"><i>Solid State Chemistry Synthesis, Structure, and Properties of Selected Oxides and Sulfides</i></a>. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-94-011-1476-9.</li> <li>Zumdahl, Steven S. (1989). <a href="https://archive.org/details/experimentalchem0000hall"><i>Chemistry</i></a> (2nd ed.). Lexington, Mass.: D.C. Heath. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-669-16708-5.</li> <li>Zumdahl, Steven; Zumdahl, Susan (2015). <i>Chemistry: An Atoms First Approach</i>. Cengage Learning. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-305-68804-9.</li></ul> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>IUPAC, Compendium of Chemical Terminology, 2nd ed. (the "Gold Book") (1997). Online corrected version: (2006–) "salt". doi:10.1351/goldbook.S05447 <a href="/wiki/International_Union_of_Pure_and_Applied_Chemistry" target="_blank">/wiki/International_Union_of_Pure_and_Applied_Chemistry</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>Bragg, W. H.; Bragg, W. L. (1 July 1913). "The Reflection of X-rays by Crystals". Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences. 88 (605): 428–438. Bibcode:1913RSPSA..88..428B. doi:10.1098/rspa.1913.0040. S2CID 13112732. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>Bragg, W. H. (22 September 1913). "The Reflection of X-rays by Crystals. (II.)". Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences. 89 (610): 246–248. Bibcode:1913RSPSA..89..246B. doi:10.1098/rspa.1913.0082. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frspa.1913.0082" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frspa.1913.0082</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:4"><p>Sherman, Jack (August 1932). "Crystal Energies of Ionic Compounds and Thermochemical Applications". Chemical Reviews. 11 (1): 93–170. doi:10.1021/cr60038a002. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:5"><p>Sherman, Jack (August 1932). "Crystal Energies of Ionic Compounds and Thermochemical Applications". Chemical Reviews. 11 (1): 93–170. doi:10.1021/cr60038a002. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:6"><p>Sherman, Jack (August 1932). "Crystal Energies of Ionic Compounds and Thermochemical Applications". Chemical Reviews. 11 (1): 93–170. doi:10.1021/cr60038a002. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:7"><p>Sherman, Jack (August 1932). "Crystal Energies of Ionic Compounds and Thermochemical Applications". Chemical Reviews. 11 (1): 93–170. doi:10.1021/cr60038a002. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:8"><p>James, R. W.; Brindley, G. W. (1 November 1928). "A Quantitative Study of the Reflexion of X-Rays by Sylvine". Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences. 121 (787): 155–171. Bibcode:1928RSPSA.121..155J. doi:10.1098/rspa.1928.0188. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frspa.1928.0188" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frspa.1928.0188</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:9"><p>Pauling 1960, p. 505. - Pauling, Linus (1960). The nature of the chemical bond and the structure of molecules and crystals: an introduction to modern structural chemistry (3rd ed.). Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-0333-0. <a href="https://archive.org/details/natureofchemical00paul" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/natureofchemical00paul</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:10"><p>Sherman, Jack (August 1932). "Crystal Energies of Ionic Compounds and Thermochemical Applications". Chemical Reviews. 11 (1): 93–170. doi:10.1021/cr60038a002. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:11"><p>Zumdahl 1989, p. 312. - Zumdahl, Steven S. (1989). Chemistry (2nd ed.). Lexington, Mass.: D.C. Heath. ISBN 978-0-669-16708-5. <a href="https://archive.org/details/experimentalchem0000hall" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/experimentalchem0000hall</a> <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:12"><p>Wold & Dwight 1993, p. 71. - Wold, Aaron; Dwight, Kirby (1993). Solid State Chemistry Synthesis, Structure, and Properties of Selected Oxides and Sulfides. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands. ISBN 978-94-011-1476-9. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=N-QRBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA71" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=N-QRBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA71</a> <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:13"><p>Wold & Dwight 1993, p. 82. - Wold, Aaron; Dwight, Kirby (1993). Solid State Chemistry Synthesis, Structure, and Properties of Selected Oxides and Sulfides. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands. ISBN 978-94-011-1476-9. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=N-QRBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA71" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=N-QRBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA71</a> <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:14"><p>Wold & Dwight 1993, p. 82. - Wold, Aaron; Dwight, Kirby (1993). Solid State Chemistry Synthesis, Structure, and Properties of Selected Oxides and Sulfides. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands. ISBN 978-94-011-1476-9. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=N-QRBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA71" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=N-QRBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA71</a> <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:15"><p>Wenk, Hans-Rudolf; Bulakh, Andrei (2003). Minerals: their constitution and origin (Reprinted with corrections. ed.). New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 351. ISBN 978-0-521-52958-7. Archived from the original on 2017-12-03. <a href="978-0-521-52958-7" target="_blank">978-0-521-52958-7</a> <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:16"><p>Zumdahl 1989, p. 133–140. - Zumdahl, Steven S. (1989). Chemistry (2nd ed.). Lexington, Mass.: D.C. Heath. ISBN 978-0-669-16708-5. <a href="https://archive.org/details/experimentalchem0000hall" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/experimentalchem0000hall</a> <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:17"><p>Zumdahl 1989, p. 144–145. - Zumdahl, Steven S. (1989). Chemistry (2nd ed.). Lexington, Mass.: D.C. Heath. ISBN 978-0-669-16708-5. <a href="https://archive.org/details/experimentalchem0000hall" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/experimentalchem0000hall</a> <a href="#fnref:17" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:18"><p>Zumdahl 1989, p. 133–140. - Zumdahl, Steven S. (1989). Chemistry (2nd ed.). Lexington, Mass.: D.C. Heath. ISBN 978-0-669-16708-5. <a href="https://archive.org/details/experimentalchem0000hall" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/experimentalchem0000hall</a> <a href="#fnref:18" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:19"><p>Brown 2009, p. 417. - Brown, Theodore L.; LeMay, H. Eugene Jr; Bursten, Bruce E.; Lanford, Steven; Sagatys, Dalius; Duffy, Neil (2009). Chemistry: the central science: a broad perspective (2nd ed.). Frenchs Forest, N.S.W.: Pearson Australia. ISBN 978-1-4425-1147-7. <a href="#fnref:19" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:20"><p>Wold & Dwight 1993, p. 79. - Wold, Aaron; Dwight, Kirby (1993). Solid State Chemistry Synthesis, Structure, and Properties of Selected Oxides and Sulfides. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands. ISBN 978-94-011-1476-9. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=N-QRBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA71" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=N-QRBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA71</a> <a href="#fnref:20" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:21"><p>Wold & Dwight 1993, pp. 79–81. - Wold, Aaron; Dwight, Kirby (1993). Solid State Chemistry Synthesis, Structure, and Properties of Selected Oxides and Sulfides. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands. ISBN 978-94-011-1476-9. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=N-QRBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA71" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=N-QRBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA71</a> <a href="#fnref:21" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:22"><p>Wold & Dwight 1993, p. 71. - Wold, Aaron; Dwight, Kirby (1993). Solid State Chemistry Synthesis, Structure, and Properties of Selected Oxides and Sulfides. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands. ISBN 978-94-011-1476-9. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=N-QRBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA71" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=N-QRBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA71</a> <a href="#fnref:22" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:23"><p>Wold & Dwight 1993, p. 71. - Wold, Aaron; Dwight, Kirby (1993). Solid State Chemistry Synthesis, Structure, and Properties of Selected Oxides and Sulfides. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands. ISBN 978-94-011-1476-9. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=N-QRBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA71" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=N-QRBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA71</a> <a href="#fnref:23" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:24"><p>Zumdahl 1989, p. 312–313. - Zumdahl, Steven S. (1989). Chemistry (2nd ed.). Lexington, Mass.: D.C. Heath. ISBN 978-0-669-16708-5. <a href="https://archive.org/details/experimentalchem0000hall" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/experimentalchem0000hall</a> <a href="#fnref:24" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:25"><p>Barrow 1988, p. 161–162. - Barrow, Gordon M. (1988). Physical chemistry (5th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-003905-6. <a href="https://archive.org/details/physicalchemistr00gord_0" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/physicalchemistr00gord_0</a> <a href="#fnref:25" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:26"><p>Pauling 1960, p. 6. - Pauling, Linus (1960). The nature of the chemical bond and the structure of molecules and crystals: an introduction to modern structural chemistry (3rd ed.). Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-0333-0. <a href="https://archive.org/details/natureofchemical00paul" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/natureofchemical00paul</a> <a href="#fnref:26" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:27"><p>Kittel 2005, p. 61. - Kittel, Charles (2005). Introduction to Solid State Physics (8th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-471-41526-8. <a href="#fnref:27" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:28"><p>Pauling 1960, p. 507. - Pauling, Linus (1960). The nature of the chemical bond and the structure of molecules and crystals: an introduction to modern structural chemistry (3rd ed.). Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-0333-0. <a href="https://archive.org/details/natureofchemical00paul" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/natureofchemical00paul</a> <a href="#fnref:28" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:29"><p>Ashcroft & Mermin 1977, p. 379. - Ashcroft, Neil W.; Mermin, N. David (1977). Solid state physics (27th repr. ed.). New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. ISBN 978-0-03-083993-1. <a href="https://archive.org/details/solidstatephysic00ashc" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/solidstatephysic00ashc</a> <a href="#fnref:29" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:30"><p>Pauling 1960, p. 507. - Pauling, Linus (1960). The nature of the chemical bond and the structure of molecules and crystals: an introduction to modern structural chemistry (3rd ed.). Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-0333-0. <a href="https://archive.org/details/natureofchemical00paul" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/natureofchemical00paul</a> <a href="#fnref:30" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:31"><p>Pauling 1960, p. 65. - Pauling, Linus (1960). The nature of the chemical bond and the structure of molecules and crystals: an introduction to modern structural chemistry (3rd ed.). Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-0333-0. <a href="https://archive.org/details/natureofchemical00paul" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/natureofchemical00paul</a> <a href="#fnref:31" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:32"><p>Hannay, N. Bruce; Smyth, Charles P. (February 1946). "The Dipole Moment of Hydrogen Fluoride and the Ionic Character of Bonds". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 68 (2): 171–173. doi:10.1021/ja01206a003. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:32" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:33"><p>Pauling, Linus (1948). "The modern theory of valency". Journal of the Chemical Society (Resumed). 17: 1461–1467. doi:10.1039/JR9480001461. PMID 18893624. Archived from the original on 2021-12-07. Retrieved 2021-12-01. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211207153730/https://authors.library.caltech.edu/59671/" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20211207153730/https://authors.library.caltech.edu/59671/</a> <a href="#fnref:33" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:34"><p>Pauling 1960, p. 65. - Pauling, Linus (1960). The nature of the chemical bond and the structure of molecules and crystals: an introduction to modern structural chemistry (3rd ed.). Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-0333-0. <a href="https://archive.org/details/natureofchemical00paul" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/natureofchemical00paul</a> <a href="#fnref:34" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:35"><p>Lalena, John. N.; Cleary, David. A. (2010). Principles of inorganic materials design (2nd ed.). Hoboken, N.J: John Wiley. ISBN 978-0-470-56753-1. <a href="978-0-470-56753-1" target="_blank">978-0-470-56753-1</a> <a href="#fnref:35" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:36"><p>Pearson, Ralph G. (November 1963). "Hard and Soft Acids and Bases". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 85 (22): 3533–3539. doi:10.1021/ja00905a001. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:36" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:37"><p>Pearson, Ralph G. (October 1968). "Hard and soft acids and bases, HSAB, part II: Underlying theories". Journal of Chemical Education. 45 (10): 643. Bibcode:1968JChEd..45..643P. doi:10.1021/ed045p643. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:37" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:38"><p>Barrow 1988, p. 676. - Barrow, Gordon M. (1988). Physical chemistry (5th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-003905-6. <a href="https://archive.org/details/physicalchemistr00gord_0" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/physicalchemistr00gord_0</a> <a href="#fnref:38" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:39"><p>Hendry, Robin Findlay (2008). "Two Conceptions of the Chemical Bond". Philosophy of Science. 75 (5): 909–920. doi:10.1086/594534. S2CID 120135228. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:39" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:40"><p>Seifert, Vanessa (27 November 2023). "Do bond classifications help or hinder chemistry?". chemistryworld.com. Retrieved 22 January 2024. <a href="https://www.chemistryworld.com/opinion/do-bond-classifications-help-or-hinder-chemistry/4018431.article" target="_blank">https://www.chemistryworld.com/opinion/do-bond-classifications-help-or-hinder-chemistry/4018431.article</a> <a href="#fnref:40" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:41"><p>Pauling 1960, p. 507. - Pauling, Linus (1960). The nature of the chemical bond and the structure of molecules and crystals: an introduction to modern structural chemistry (3rd ed.). Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-0333-0. <a href="https://archive.org/details/natureofchemical00paul" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/natureofchemical00paul</a> <a href="#fnref:41" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:42"><p>Kittel 2005, p. 64. - Kittel, Charles (2005). Introduction to Solid State Physics (8th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-471-41526-8. <a href="#fnref:42" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:43"><p>Pauling 1960, p. 509. - Pauling, Linus (1960). The nature of the chemical bond and the structure of molecules and crystals: an introduction to modern structural chemistry (3rd ed.). Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-0333-0. <a href="https://archive.org/details/natureofchemical00paul" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/natureofchemical00paul</a> <a href="#fnref:43" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:44"><p>Carter, Robert (2016). "Lattice Energy" (PDF). CH370 Lecture Material. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2015-05-13. Retrieved 2016-01-19. <a href="http://alpha.chem.umb.edu/chemistry/ch370/CH370_Lectures/Lecture%20Documents/Ch07_2_LatticeEnergy.pdf" target="_blank">http://alpha.chem.umb.edu/chemistry/ch370/CH370_Lectures/Lecture%20Documents/Ch07_2_LatticeEnergy.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:44" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:45"><p>Ashcroft & Mermin 1977, p. 383. - Ashcroft, Neil W.; Mermin, N. David (1977). Solid state physics (27th repr. ed.). New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. ISBN 978-0-03-083993-1. <a href="https://archive.org/details/solidstatephysic00ashc" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/solidstatephysic00ashc</a> <a href="#fnref:45" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:46"><p>Zumdahl 1989, p. 444–445. - Zumdahl, Steven S. (1989). Chemistry (2nd ed.). Lexington, Mass.: D.C. Heath. ISBN 978-0-669-16708-5. <a href="https://archive.org/details/experimentalchem0000hall" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/experimentalchem0000hall</a> <a href="#fnref:46" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:47"><p>Moore, Lesley E. Smart; Elaine A. (2005). Solid state chemistry: an introduction (3. ed.). Boca Raton, Fla. [u.a.]: Taylor & Francis, CRC. p. 44. ISBN 978-0-7487-7516-3.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) <a href="978-0-7487-7516-3" target="_blank">978-0-7487-7516-3</a> <a href="#fnref:47" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:48"><p>Ashcroft & Mermin 1977, pp. 382–387. - Ashcroft, Neil W.; Mermin, N. David (1977). Solid state physics (27th repr. ed.). New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. ISBN 978-0-03-083993-1. <a href="https://archive.org/details/solidstatephysic00ashc" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/solidstatephysic00ashc</a> <a href="#fnref:48" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:49"><p>Moore, Lesley E. Smart; Elaine A. (2005). Solid state chemistry: an introduction (3. ed.). Boca Raton, Fla. [u.a.]: Taylor & Francis, CRC. p. 44. ISBN 978-0-7487-7516-3.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) <a href="978-0-7487-7516-3" target="_blank">978-0-7487-7516-3</a> <a href="#fnref:49" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:50"><p>Ashcroft & Mermin 1977, p. 383. - Ashcroft, Neil W.; Mermin, N. David (1977). Solid state physics (27th repr. ed.). New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. ISBN 978-0-03-083993-1. <a href="https://archive.org/details/solidstatephysic00ashc" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/solidstatephysic00ashc</a> <a href="#fnref:50" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:51"><p>Kittel 2005, p. 65. - Kittel, Charles (2005). Introduction to Solid State Physics (8th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-471-41526-8. <a href="#fnref:51" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:52"><p>This structure type has a variable lattice parameter c/a ratio, and the exact Madelung constant depends on this. <a href="#fnref:52" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:53"><p>Zemann, J. (1 January 1958). "Berechnung von Madelung'schen Zahlen für den NiAs-Typ". Acta Crystallographica. 11 (1): 55–56. Bibcode:1958AcCry..11...55Z. doi:10.1107/S0365110X5800013X. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1107%2FS0365110X5800013X" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1107%2FS0365110X5800013X</a> <a href="#fnref:53" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:54"><p>Ashcroft & Mermin 1977, p. 386. - Ashcroft, Neil W.; Mermin, N. David (1977). Solid state physics (27th repr. ed.). New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. ISBN 978-0-03-083993-1. <a href="https://archive.org/details/solidstatephysic00ashc" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/solidstatephysic00ashc</a> <a href="#fnref:54" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:55"><p>Kittel 2005, p. 65. - Kittel, Charles (2005). Introduction to Solid State Physics (8th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-471-41526-8. <a href="#fnref:55" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:56"><p>Sherman, Jack (August 1932). "Crystal Energies of Ionic Compounds and Thermochemical Applications". Chemical Reviews. 11 (1): 93–170. doi:10.1021/cr60038a002. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:56" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:57"><p>Dienes, Richard J. Borg, G.J. (1992). The physical chemistry of solids. Boston: Academic Press. p. 123. ISBN 978-0-12-118420-9.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) <a href="978-0-12-118420-9" target="_blank">978-0-12-118420-9</a> <a href="#fnref:57" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:58"><p>Brackett, Thomas E.; Brackett, Elizabeth B. (1965). "The Lattice Energies of the Alkaline Earth Halides". Journal of Physical Chemistry. 69 (10): 3611–3614. doi:10.1021/j100894a062. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:58" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:59"><p>Dienes, Richard J. Borg, G.J. (1992). The physical chemistry of solids. Boston: Academic Press. p. 123. ISBN 978-0-12-118420-9.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) <a href="978-0-12-118420-9" target="_blank">978-0-12-118420-9</a> <a href="#fnref:59" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:60"><p>This structure has been referred to in references as yttrium(III) chloride and chromium(III) chloride, but both are now known as the RhBr3 structure type. <a href="/wiki/Yttrium(III)_chloride" target="_blank">/wiki/Yttrium(III)_chloride</a> <a href="#fnref:60" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:61"><p>"YCl3 – Yttrium trichloride". ChemTube3D. University of Liverpool. 2008. Archived from the original on 27 January 2016. Retrieved 19 January 2016. <a href="http://www.chemtube3d.com/solidstate/_YCl3(final).htm" target="_blank">http://www.chemtube3d.com/solidstate/_YCl3(final).htm</a> <a href="#fnref:61" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:62"><p>Ellis, Arthur B. []; et al. (1995). Teaching general chemistry: a materials science companion (3. print ed.). Washington: American Chemical Society. p. 121. ISBN 978-0-8412-2725-5. <a href="978-0-8412-2725-5" target="_blank">978-0-8412-2725-5</a> <a href="#fnref:62" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:63"><p>Hoppe, R. (January 1966). "Madelung Constants". Angewandte Chemie International Edition in English. 5 (1): 95–106. doi:10.1002/anie.196600951. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:63" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:64"><p>The reference lists this structure as MoCl3, which is now known as the RhBr3 structure. <a href="/wiki/Molybdenum(III)_chloride" target="_blank">/wiki/Molybdenum(III)_chloride</a> <a href="#fnref:64" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:65"><p>Hoppe, R. (January 1966). "Madelung Constants". Angewandte Chemie International Edition in English. 5 (1): 95–106. doi:10.1002/anie.196600951. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:65" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:66"><p>The reference lists this structure as FeCl3, which is now known as the BiI3 structure type. <a href="/wiki/Iron(III)_chloride" target="_blank">/wiki/Iron(III)_chloride</a> <a href="#fnref:66" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:67"><p>Dienes, Richard J. Borg, G.J. (1992). The physical chemistry of solids. Boston: Academic Press. p. 123. ISBN 978-0-12-118420-9.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) <a href="978-0-12-118420-9" target="_blank">978-0-12-118420-9</a> <a href="#fnref:67" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:68"><p>This structure type can accommodate any charges on A and B that add up to six. When both are three the charge structure is equivalent to that of corrundum.[46] The structure also has a variable lattice parameter c/a ratio, and the exact Madelung constant depends on this. <a href="#fnref:68" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:69"><p>However, in some cases such as MgAl2O4 the larger cation occupies the smaller tetrahedral site.[47] <a href="/wiki/Spinel" target="_blank">/wiki/Spinel</a> <a href="#fnref:69" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:70"><p>Verwey, E. J. W. (1947). "Physical Properties and Cation Arrangement of Oxides with Spinel Structures I. Cation Arrangement in Spinels". Journal of Chemical Physics. 15 (4): 174–180. Bibcode:1947JChPh..15..174V. doi:10.1063/1.1746464. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:70" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:71"><p>Verwey, E. J. W.; de Boer, F.; van Santen, J. H. (1948). "Cation Arrangement in Spinels". The Journal of Chemical Physics. 16 (12): 1091. Bibcode:1948JChPh..16.1091V. doi:10.1063/1.1746736. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.1746736" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.1746736</a> <a href="#fnref:71" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:72"><p>Thompson, P.; Grimes, N. W. (27 September 2006). "Madelung calculations for the spinel structure". Philosophical Magazine. Vol. 36, no. 3. pp. 501–505. Bibcode:1977PMag...36..501T. doi:10.1080/14786437708239734. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:72" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:73"><p>Alberti, A.; Vezzalini, G. (1978). "Madelung energies and cation distributions in olivine-type structures". Zeitschrift für Kristallographie – Crystalline Materials. 147 (1–4): 167–176. Bibcode:1978ZK....147..167A. doi:10.1524/zkri.1978.147.14.167. hdl:11380/738457. S2CID 101158673. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:73" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:74"><p>Ellis, Arthur B. []; et al. (1995). Teaching general chemistry: a materials science companion (3. print ed.). Washington: American Chemical Society. p. 121. ISBN 978-0-8412-2725-5. <a href="978-0-8412-2725-5" target="_blank">978-0-8412-2725-5</a> <a href="#fnref:74" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:75"><p>Ashcroft & Mermin 1977, p. 384. - Ashcroft, Neil W.; Mermin, N. David (1977). Solid state physics (27th repr. ed.). New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. ISBN 978-0-03-083993-1. <a href="https://archive.org/details/solidstatephysic00ashc" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/solidstatephysic00ashc</a> <a href="#fnref:75" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:76"><p>Kittel 2005, p. 65. - Kittel, Charles (2005). Introduction to Solid State Physics (8th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-471-41526-8. <a href="#fnref:76" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:77"><p>Souquet, J (October 1981). "Electrochemical properties of ionically conductive glasses". Solid State Ionics. 5: 77–82. doi:10.1016/0167-2738(81)90198-3. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:77" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:78"><p>Schmalzried, Hermann (1965). "Point defects in ternary ionic crystals". Progress in Solid State Chemistry. 2: 265–303. doi:10.1016/0079-6786(65)90009-9. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:78" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:79"><p>Schmalzried, Hermann (1965). "Point defects in ternary ionic crystals". Progress in Solid State Chemistry. 2: 265–303. doi:10.1016/0079-6786(65)90009-9. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:79" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:80"><p>Prakash, Satya (1945). Advanced inorganic chemistry. New Delhi: S. Chand & Company Ltd. p. 554. ISBN 978-81-219-0263-2. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help) <a href="978-81-219-0263-2" target="_blank">978-81-219-0263-2</a> <a href="#fnref:80" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:81"><p>Schmalzried, Hermann (1965). "Point defects in ternary ionic crystals". Progress in Solid State Chemistry. 2: 265–303. doi:10.1016/0079-6786(65)90009-9. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:81" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:82"><p>Prakash, Satya (1945). Advanced inorganic chemistry. New Delhi: S. Chand & Company Ltd. p. 554. ISBN 978-81-219-0263-2. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help) <a href="978-81-219-0263-2" target="_blank">978-81-219-0263-2</a> <a href="#fnref:82" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:83"><p>Schmalzried, Hermann (1965). "Point defects in ternary ionic crystals". Progress in Solid State Chemistry. 2: 265–303. doi:10.1016/0079-6786(65)90009-9. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:83" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:84"><p>Kittel 2005, p. 376. - Kittel, Charles (2005). Introduction to Solid State Physics (8th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-471-41526-8. <a href="#fnref:84" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:85"><p>Schmalzried, Hermann (1965). "Point defects in ternary ionic crystals". Progress in Solid State Chemistry. 2: 265–303. doi:10.1016/0079-6786(65)90009-9. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:85" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:86"><p>Schmalzried, Hermann (1965). "Point defects in ternary ionic crystals". Progress in Solid State Chemistry. 2: 265–303. doi:10.1016/0079-6786(65)90009-9. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:86" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:87"><p>Schmalzried, Hermann (1965). "Point defects in ternary ionic crystals". Progress in Solid State Chemistry. 2: 265–303. doi:10.1016/0079-6786(65)90009-9. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:87" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:88"><p>Schmalzried, Hermann (1965). "Point defects in ternary ionic crystals". Progress in Solid State Chemistry. 2: 265–303. doi:10.1016/0079-6786(65)90009-9. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:88" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:89"><p>Schmalzried, Hermann (1965). "Point defects in ternary ionic crystals". Progress in Solid State Chemistry. 2: 265–303. doi:10.1016/0079-6786(65)90009-9. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:89" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:90"><p>"Periodic Trends and Oxides". Archived from the original on 2015-12-29. Retrieved 2015-11-10. <a href="http://www.wou.edu/las/physci/ch412/oxides.html" target="_blank">http://www.wou.edu/las/physci/ch412/oxides.html</a> <a href="#fnref:90" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:91"><p>Whitten, Kenneth W.; Galley, Kenneth D.; Davis, Raymond E. (1992). General Chemistry (4th ed.). Saunders. p. 128. ISBN 978-0-03-072373-5. <a href="978-0-03-072373-5" target="_blank">978-0-03-072373-5</a> <a href="#fnref:91" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:92"><p>Davidson, David (November 1955). "Amphoteric molecules, ions and salts". Journal of Chemical Education. 32 (11): 550. Bibcode:1955JChEd..32..550D. doi:10.1021/ed032p550. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:92" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:93"><p>Weller, Mark; Overton, Tina; Rourke, Jonathan; Armstrong, Fraser (2014). Inorganic chemistry (Sixth ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 129–130. ISBN 978-0-19-964182-6. <a href="978-0-19-964182-6" target="_blank">978-0-19-964182-6</a> <a href="#fnref:93" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:94"><p>McQuarrie & Rock 1991, p. 503. - McQuarrie, Donald A.; Rock, Peter A. (1991). General chemistry (3rd ed.). New York: W.H. Freeman and Co. ISBN 978-0-7167-2169-7. <a href="#fnref:94" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:95"><p>Pauling, Linus (1928-04-01). "The Influence of Relative Ionic Sizes on the Properties of Ionic Compounds". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 50 (4): 1036–1045. doi:10.1021/ja01391a014. ISSN 0002-7863. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:95" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:96"><p>Tosi, M. P. (2002). Gaune-Escard, Marcelle (ed.). Molten Salts: From Fundamentals to Applications. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands. p. 1. ISBN 978-94-010-0458-9. Archived from the original on 2017-12-03. <a href="978-94-010-0458-9" target="_blank">978-94-010-0458-9</a> <a href="#fnref:96" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:97"><p>Freemantle 2009, p. 1. - Freemantle, Michael (2009). An introduction to ionic liquids. Cambridge: Royal Society of Chemistry. ISBN 978-1-84755-161-0. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kvM2YEftV2cC&pg=PP1" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=kvM2YEftV2cC&pg=PP1</a> <a href="#fnref:97" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:98"><p>Freemantle 2009, pp. 3–4. - Freemantle, Michael (2009). An introduction to ionic liquids. Cambridge: Royal Society of Chemistry. ISBN 978-1-84755-161-0. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kvM2YEftV2cC&pg=PP1" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=kvM2YEftV2cC&pg=PP1</a> <a href="#fnref:98" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:99"><p>Rebelo, Luis P. N.; Canongia Lopes, José N.; Esperança, José M. S. S.; Filipe, Eduardo (2005-04-01). "On the Critical Temperature, Normal Boiling Point, and Vapor Pressure of Ionic Liquids". The Journal of Physical Chemistry B. 109 (13): 6040–6043. doi:10.1021/jp050430h. ISSN 1520-6106. 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"The ductile–brittle transition in ionic solids". Philosophical Magazine. Vol. 4, no. 48. pp. 1316–1324. Bibcode:1959PMag....4.1316J. doi:10.1080/14786435908233367. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:104" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:105"><p>Kelly, A.; Tyson, W. R.; Cottrell, A. H. (1967-03-01). "Ductile and brittle crystals". Philosophical Magazine. Vol. 15, no. 135. pp. 567–586. Bibcode:1967PMag...15..567K. doi:10.1080/14786436708220903. ISSN 0031-8086. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:105" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:106"><p>Stillwell, Charles W. (January 1937). "Crystal chemistry. V. The properties of binary compounds". Journal of Chemical Education. 14 (1): 34. 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Retrieved 2023-02-05. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160203110828/http://www.iupac.org/nc/home/publications/iupac-books/books-db/book-details.html?tx_wfqbe_pi1%5Bbookid%5D=5" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20160203110828/http://www.iupac.org/nc/home/publications/iupac-books/books-db/book-details.html?tx_wfqbe_pi1%5Bbookid%5D=5</a> <a href="#fnref:153" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:154"><p>IUPAC 2005, p. 77. - International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry, Division of Chemical Nomenclature (2005). Neil G. Connelly (ed.). Nomenclature of inorganic chemistry: IUPAC recommendations 2005 (New ed.). Cambridge: RSC Publ. ISBN 978-0-85404-438-2. Archived from the original on 2016-02-03. Retrieved 2023-02-05. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160203110828/http://www.iupac.org/nc/home/publications/iupac-books/books-db/book-details.html?tx_wfqbe_pi1%5Bbookid%5D=5" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20160203110828/http://www.iupac.org/nc/home/publications/iupac-books/books-db/book-details.html?tx_wfqbe_pi1%5Bbookid%5D=5</a> <a href="#fnref:154" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:155"><p>IUPAC 2005, pp. 77–78. - International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry, Division of Chemical Nomenclature (2005). Neil G. Connelly (ed.). Nomenclature of inorganic chemistry: IUPAC recommendations 2005 (New ed.). Cambridge: RSC Publ. ISBN 978-0-85404-438-2. Archived from the original on 2016-02-03. Retrieved 2023-02-05. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160203110828/http://www.iupac.org/nc/home/publications/iupac-books/books-db/book-details.html?tx_wfqbe_pi1%5Bbookid%5D=5" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20160203110828/http://www.iupac.org/nc/home/publications/iupac-books/books-db/book-details.html?tx_wfqbe_pi1%5Bbookid%5D=5</a> <a href="#fnref:155" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:156"><p>Fernelius, W. Conard (November 1982). "Numbers in chemical names". Journal of Chemical Education. 59 (11): 964. Bibcode:1982JChEd..59..964F. doi:10.1021/ed059p964. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:156" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:157"><p>Brown 2009, p. 38. - Brown, Theodore L.; LeMay, H. Eugene Jr; Bursten, Bruce E.; Lanford, Steven; Sagatys, Dalius; Duffy, Neil (2009). Chemistry: the central science: a broad perspective (2nd ed.). Frenchs Forest, N.S.W.: Pearson Australia. ISBN 978-1-4425-1147-7. <a href="#fnref:157" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:158"><p>Brown 2009, p. 38. - Brown, Theodore L.; LeMay, H. Eugene Jr; Bursten, Bruce E.; Lanford, Steven; Sagatys, Dalius; Duffy, Neil (2009). Chemistry: the central science: a broad perspective (2nd ed.). Frenchs Forest, N.S.W.: Pearson Australia. ISBN 978-1-4425-1147-7. <a href="#fnref:158" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:159"><p>Voet, D. & Voet, J. G. (2005). Biochemistry (3rd ed.). Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons Inc. p. 68. ISBN 9780471193500. Archived from the original on 2007-09-11. <a href="9780471193500" target="_blank">9780471193500</a> <a href="#fnref:159" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> </ol>