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Common Security and Defence Policy
Defence policy of the European Union

The Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP) is the European Union's (EU) course of action in the fields of defence and crisis management, and a main component of the EU's Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP).

The CSDP involves the deployment of military or civilian missions to preserve peace, prevent conflict and strengthen international security in accordance with the principles of the United Nations Charter. Military missions are carried out by EU forces established with secondments from the member states' armed forces. The CSDP also entails collective self-defence amongst member states as well as a Permanent Structured Cooperation (PESCO) in which 26 of the 27 national armed forces pursue structural integration. The CSDP structure – headed by the Union's High Representative (HR/VP), Kaja Kallas, and sometimes referred to as the European Defence Union (EDU) in relation to its prospective development as the EU's defence arm – comprises:

The EU command and control structures are much smaller than the North Atlantic Treaty Organization's (NATO) Command Structure (NCS), which has been established for territorial defence. It has been agreed that NATO's Allied Command Operations (ACO) may be used for the conduct of the EU's missions. The MPCC, established in 2017 and to be strengthened in 2020, is the EU's first permanent military OHQ. In parallel, the European Defence Fund (EDF, established in 2017) marks the first time the EU budget is used to finance multinational defence projects.

Decisions relating to the CSDP are proposed by the High Representative, adopted by the Foreign Affairs Council, generally requiring unanimity, to be then implemented by the High Representative.

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History

Main article: History of the Common Security and Defence Policy

The post-war period saw several short-lived or ill-fated initiatives for European defence integration intended to protect against potential Soviet or German aggression: The Western Union (WU, also referred to as the Brussels Treaty Organisation, BTO) and the proposed European Defence Community (EDC) were respectively cannibalised by the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) and rejected by the French Parliament. The largely dormant Western European Union (WEU) succeeded the WU's remainder in 1955.

In 1970 the European Political Cooperation (EPC) brought about the European Communities' (EC) initial foreign policy coordination. Opposition to the addition of security and defence matters to the EPC led to the reactivation of the WEU in 1984 by its member states, which were also EC member states.

European defence integration gained momentum soon after the end of the Cold War, partly as a result of the EC's failure to prevent the Yugoslav Wars. In 1992, the WEU was given new tasks, and the following year the Treaty of Maastricht founded the EU and replaced the EPC with the Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) pillar. In 1996 NATO agreed to let the WEU develop a so-called European Security and Defence Identity (ESDI).6 The 1998 St. Malo declaration signalled that the traditionally hesitant United Kingdom was prepared to provide the EU with autonomous defence structures.7 This facilitated the transformation of the ESDI into the European Security and Defence Policy (ESDP) in 1999, when it was transferred to the EU. In 2003 the EU deployed its first CSDP missions, and adopted the European Security Strategy identifying common threats and objectives. In 2009, the Treaty of Lisbon introduced the present name, CSDP, while establishing the EEAS, the mutual defence clause and enabling a subset of member states to pursue defence integration within PESCO. In 2011 the WEU, whose tasks had been transferred to the EU, was dissolved. In 2016 a new security strategy was introduced, which along with the Russian annexation of Crimea, the British withdrawal from the EU and the election of Donald Trump as US president have given the CSDP a new impetus.

Deployments

Main article: List of military and civilian missions of the European Union

The first deployment of European troops under the ESDP, following the 1999 declaration of intent, was in March 2003 in the Republic of Macedonia (now North Macedonia). Operation Concordia used NATO assets and was considered a success and replaced by a smaller police mission, EUPOL Proxima, later that year. Since then, there have been other small police, justice and monitoring missions. As well as in the Republic of Macedonia, the EU has maintained its deployment of peacekeepers in Bosnia and Herzegovina, as part of Operation Althea.8

Between May and September 2003 EU troops were deployed to the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) during "Operation Artemis" under a mandate given by UN Security Council Resolution 1484 which aimed to prevent further atrocities and violence in the Ituri Conflict and put the DRC's peace process back on track. This laid out the "framework nation" system to be used in future deployments. The EU returned to the DRC during July–November 2006 with EUFOR RD Congo, which supported the UN mission there during the country's elections.

Geographically, EU missions outside the Balkans and the DRC have taken place in Georgia, Indonesia, Sudan, Palestine, and Ukraine–Moldova. There is also a judicial mission in Iraq (EUJUST Lex). On 28 January 2008, the EU deployed its largest and most multi-national mission to Africa, EUFOR Tchad/RCA.9 The UN-mandated mission involves troops from 25 EU states (19 in the field) deployed in areas of eastern Chad and the north-eastern Central African Republic in order to improve security in those regions. EUFOR Tchad/RCA reached full operation capability in mid-September 2008, and handed over security duties to the UN (MINURCAT mission) in mid-March 2009.10

The EU launched its first maritime CSDP operation on 12 December 2008 (Operation Atalanta). The concept of the European Union Naval Force (EU NAVFOR) was created on the back of this operation, which is still successfully combatting piracy off the coast of Somalia almost a decade later. A second such intervention was launched in 2015 to tackle migration problems in the southern Mediterranean (EUNAVFOR Med), working under the name Operation SOPHIA.

Most of the CSDP missions deployed so far are mandated to support security sector reforms (SSR) in host-states. One of the core principles of CSDP support to SSR is local ownership. The EU Council defines ownership as "the appropriation by the local authorities of the commonly agreed objectives and principles".11 Despite EU's strong rhetorical attachment to the local ownership principle, research shows that CSDP missions continue to be an externally driven, top-down and supply-driven endeavour, resulting often in the low degree of local participation.12

Structure

Main article: Structure of the Common Security and Defence Policy

The CSDP involves military or civilian missions being deployed to preserve peace, prevent conflict and strengthen international security in accordance with the principles of the United Nations Charter. Military missions are carried out by EU forces established with contributions from the member states' armed forces. The CSDP also entails collective self-defence amongst member states13 as well as a Permanent Structured Cooperation (PESCO) in which 26 of the 27 national armed forces pursue structural integration. The CSDP structure, headed by the Union's High Representative (HR/VP), Kaja Kallas, comprises:

While the EU has a command and control (C2) structure, it has no standing permanent military structure along the lines of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization's (NATO) Allied Command Operations (ACO), although it has been agreed that ACO resources may be used for the conduct of the EU's CSDP missions. The MPCC, established in 2017 and to be strengthened in 2020, does however represent the EU's first step in developing a permanent military headquarters. In parallel, the newly established European Defence Fund (EDF) marks the first time the EU budget is used to finance multinational defence projects. The CSDP structure is sometimes referred to as the European Defence Union (EDU), especially in relation to its prospective development as the EU's defence arm.14151617

Decisions relating to the CSDP are proposed by the HR/VP, adopted by the FAC, generally requiring unanimity, and then implemented by the HR/VP. The EU command and control (C2) structure is directed by political bodies composed of member states' representatives, and generally requires unanimous decisions. As of April 2019:18

Liaison:       Advice and recommendations       Support and monitoring       Preparatory work     
  • v
  • t
  • e
Political strategic level:[5]
ISSEUCO Pres. (EUCO)Chain of command
Coordination/support
SatCenCIVCOMHR/VP (FAC)
INTCENHR/VP (PMG)HR/VP (PSC)[6] CEUMC (EUMC)
CMPDDGEUMS[3] (EUMS)
Military/civilian strategic level:
Dir MPCC[3] (MPCC)JSCCCiv OpCdr CPCC[1]
Operational level:
MFCdr[4] (MFHQ)HoM[1]
Tactical level:
CC[2] LandCC[2] AirCC[2] MarOther CCs[2]
ForcesForcesForcesForces
1 In the event of a CSDP Civilian Mission also being in the field, the relations with the Civilian Planning and Conduct Capability (CPCC) and its Civilian Operation Commander (Civ OpCdr), as well as the subordinate Head of Mission (HoM), are coordinated as shown. 2 Other Component Commanders (CCs) and service branches which may be established. 3 The MPCC is part of the EUMS and Dir MPCC is double-hatted as DGEUMS. Unless the MPCC is used as Operation Headquarters (OHQ), either a national OHQ offered by member states or the NATO Command Structure (NCS) would serve this purpose. In the latter instance, Deputy Supreme Allied Commander Europe (DSACEUR), rather than Dir MPCC, would serve as Operation Commander (OpCdr). 4 Unless the MPCC is used as Operation Headquarters (OHQ), the MFCdr would be known as a Force Commander (FCdr), and direct a Force Headquarters (FHQ) rather than a MFHQ. Whereas the MFHQ would act both on the operational and tactical level, the FHQ would act purely on the operational level. 5 The political strategic level is not part of the C2 structure per se, but represents the political bodies, with associated support facilities, that determine the missions' general direction. The Council determines the role of the High Representative (HR/VP), who serves as Vice-President of the European Commission, attends European Council meetings, chairs the Foreign Affairs Council (FAC) and may chair the Political and Security Committee (PSC) in times of crisis. The HR/VP proposes and implements CSDP decisions. 6 Same composition as Committee of Permanent Representatives (COREPER) II, which also prepares for the CSDP-related work of the FAC.

Strategy

Main article: European Union Global Strategy

The European Union Global Strategy (EUGS) is the updated doctrine of the EU to improve the effectiveness of the CSDP, including the defence and security of the members states, the protection of civilians, cooperation between the member states' armed forces, management of immigration, crises etc. Adopted on 28 June 2016,19 it replaces the European Security Strategy of 2003. The EUGS is complemented by a document titled "Implementation Plan on Security and Defense" (IPSD).20 Deterrence theory is applied to deter aggressors as one of the core mandates of Common Security and Defence Policy, yet lacks credibility due to insufficient resources.21

Forces

Main article: Defence forces of the European Union

A new Action Plan on military mobility and cyber resilience was released 10 November 2022.22

National

The CSDP is implemented using civilian and military contributions from member states' armed forces, which also are obliged to collective self-defence based on Treaty on European Union (TEU).

Five EU states host nuclear weapons: France has its own nuclear programmes, while Belgium, Germany, Italy and the Netherlands host US nuclear weapons as part of NATO's nuclear sharing policy. Combined, the EU possesses 300 warheads, and hosts between 90 and 130 US warheads. Italy hosts 70-90 B61 nuclear bombs, while Germany, Belgium, and the Netherlands 10-20 each one.23 The EU has the third largest arsenal of nuclear weapons, after the United States and Russia.

Expenditure and personnel

Further information: List of countries by military expenditures

The following table presents the military expenditures of the members of the European Union in euros (€). The combined military expenditure of the member states amounted to €223.4 billion in 2018.24 This represents 1.4% of European Union GDP. European military expenditure includes spending on joint projects such as the Eurofighter Typhoon and joint procurement of equipment. The European Union's combined active military forces in 2016 totaled 1,410,626 personnel.25

In a speech in 2012, Swedish General Håkan Syrén criticised the spending levels of European Union countries, saying that in the future those countries' military capability will decrease, creating "critical shortfalls".26

Guide to table:

  • All figure entries in the table below are provided by the European Defence Agency for the year 2017, except for Germany's personnel figure, which is for 2016. Figures from other sources are not included.
  • The "operations & maintenance expenditure" category may in some circumstances also include finances on-top of the nations defence budget.
  • The categories "troops prepared for deployed operations" and "troops prepared for deployed and sustained operation" only include land force personnel.
Member stateExpenditure (€ mn.)Per capita (€)% of GDPOperations & maintenance expenditure (€ mn.)Active military personnelLand troops prepared for deployed and sustained operationsReserve personnel
Austria272,6733010.7457424,1901,100950,000
Belgium285,6723491.168027,7891,2933,300
Bulgaria291,1401091.5611830,2181,1683,000
Croatia309501491.515414,86279618,343
Cyprus314704091.836320,000075,000
Czech Republic323,3101841.4647423,0366723,236
Estonia337483632.311586,17810060,000
Finland344,8735232.159197,5151,738900,000
France3549,7006091.7910,201208,25117,00038,550
Germany3657,3004891.53177,60829,200
Greece377,0863933.82504106,6242,432
Hungary382,2001221.6649223,8461,00020,000
Ireland397801910.311039,5008501,778
Italy4026,3103391.61,583181,11618,300
Latvia417582432.231325,686753,000
Lithuania421,0282562.1314514,35026,000
Luxembourg433894840.563082457
Malta44541220.5181,80830
Netherlands4512,9005071.52,14440,1961,5005,046
Poland4611,9402262.21,918106,5006075,400
Portugal473,9752351.614232,7261,698
Romania485,5901852.027769,5422,96150,000
Slovakia491,5201831.7519813,152846
Slovenia505482041.04726,3427071,000
Spain5115,6602311.21,891120,8127,41015,150
Sweden525,6204601.11,97314,50075034,500
EU53222,1943651.501,287,1712,330,803

Naval forces

The combined component strength of the naval forces of member states is some 514 commissioned warships. Of those in service, 4 are fleet carriers. The EU also has 4 amphibious assault ships and 20 amphibious support ships in service. Of the EU's 49 submarines, 10 are nuclear-powered submarines while 39 are conventional attack submarines.

Operation Atalanta (formally European Union Naval Force Somalia) is the first ever (and still ongoing) naval operation of the European Union. It is part of a larger global action by the EU in the Horn of Africa to deal with the Somali crisis. As of January 2011, twenty-three EU nations participate in the operation.

France and Italy have blue-water navies.54

Guide to table:

  • Ceremonial vessels, research vessels, supply vessels, training vessels, and icebreakers are not included.
  • The table only counts warships that are commissioned (or equivalent) and active.
  • Surface vessels displacing less than 200 tonnes are not included, regardless of other characteristics.
  • The "amphibious support ship" category includes amphibious transport docks and dock landing ships, and tank landing ships.
  • Frigates over 6,000 tonnes are classified as destroyers.
  • The "patrol vessel" category includes missile boats.
  • The "anti-mine ship" category includes mine countermeasures vessels, minesweepers and minehunters.
  • Generally, total tonnage of ships is more important than total number of ships, as it gives a better indication of capability.
Member stateFleet carrierAmphibious assault shipAmphibious support shipDestroyerFrigateCorvettePatrol vesselAnti-mine shipMissile sub.Attack sub.TotalTonnage
Austria00
Belgium55225910,009
Bulgaria1431101815,160
Croatia5272,869
Cyprus550
Czech Republic00
Denmark565491851,235
Estonia332,000
Finland4412205,429
France571583131120184676319,195
Germany5937581564482,790
Greece6091333614116270138,565
Hungary00
Ireland638811,219
Italy64265(1)6636741651110859303,411
Latvia553,025
Lithuania684485,678
Luxembourg00
Malta69221,419
Netherlands7024246422116,308
Poland7152131932819,724
Portugal7257722334,686
Romania7337652123,090
Slovakia00
Slovenia74112435
Spain75176(1)77278579680236346148,607
Sweden8161152214,256
EU4422347538156136448514 ~5161,309,110 ~1,309,110

Land forces

Combined, the member states of the European Union maintain large numbers of various land-based military vehicles and weaponry.

Guide to table:

  • The table is not exhaustive and primarily includes vehicles and EU-NATO member countries under the Conventional Armed Forces in Europe Treaty (CFE treaty). Unless otherwise specified.
  • The CFE treaty only includes vehicles stationed within Europe, vehicles overseas on operations are not counted.
  • The "main battle tank" category also includes tank destroyers (such as the Italian B1 Centauro) or any self-propelled armoured fighting vehicle, capable of heavy firepower. According to the CFE treaty.
  • The "armoured fighting vehicle" category includes any armoured vehicle primarily designed to transport infantry and equipped with an automatic cannon of at least 20 mm calibre. According to the CFE treaty.
  • The "artillery" category includes self-propelled or towed howitzers and mortars of 100 mm calibre and above. Other types of artillery are not included regardless of characteristics. According to the CFE treaty.
  • The "attack helicopter" category includes any rotary wing aircraft armed and equipped to engage targets or equipped to perform other military functions (such as the Apache or the Wildcat). According to the CFE treaty.
  • The "military logistics vehicle" category includes logistics trucks of 4-tonne, 8-tonne, 14-tonne or larger, purposely designed for military tasking. Not under CFE treaty.
Member stateMain battle tankArmoured fighting vehicleArtilleryAttack helicopterMilitary logistics vehicle
Austria5636490
Belgium8252115527
Bulgaria833626811,03512
Croatia847528312710
Cyprus13416923415398
Czech Republic8512350118224
Denmark86462295612
Estonia8774
Finland2001,08072225
France884506,25634928310,746
Germany898151,774401158
Greece901,6222,1871,92029
Hungary9190634358471
Ireland9210736
Italy931,1763,1451,44610710,921
Latvia
Lithuania948896
Luxembourg
Malta
Netherlands951663413521
Poland961,6753,1101,58083
Portugal97220425377
Romania988571,2721,27323
Slovakia993032768
Slovenia765263
Spain1004841,00781127
Sweden120978268
EU1018,41325,42111,259822

Air forces

The air forces of EU member states operate a wide range of military systems and hardware. This is primarily due to the independent requirements of each member state and also the national defence industries of some member states. However such programmes like the Eurofighter Typhoon and Eurocopter Tiger have seen many European nations design, build and operate a single weapons platform. 60% of overall combat fleet was developed and manufactured by member states, 32% are US-origin, but some of these were assembled in Europe, while remaining 8% are soviet-made aircraft. As of 2014, it is estimated that the European Union had around 2,000 serviceable combat aircraft (fighter aircraft and ground-attack aircraft).102

The EUs air-lift capabilities are evolving with the future introduction of the Airbus A400M (another example of EU defence cooperation). The A400M is a tactical airlifter with strategic capabilities.103 Around 140 are initially expected to be operated by 5 member states (Luxembourg, France, Germany, Spain and Belgium).

Guide to tables:

  • The tables are sourced from figures provided by Flight International for the year 2020.
  • Aircraft are grouped into three main types (indicated by colours): red for combat aircraft, green for aerial refueling aircraft, and yellow for strategic and tactical transport aircraft.
  • The two "other" columns include additional aircraft according to their type sorted by colour (i.e. the "other" category in red includes combat aircraft, while the "other" category in grey includes both aerial refueling and transport aircraft). This was done because it was not feasible allocate every aircraft type its own column.
  • Other aircraft such as trainers, helicopters, UAVs and reconnaissance or surveillance aircraft are not included in the below tables or figures.
Fighter and ground-attack
Member stateTyphoonGripenRafaleMirage 2000TornadoF-35F-16F/A-18OtherTotal
Austria1041515
Belgium105(37 ordered)5151
Bulgaria106(16 ordered)12 MiG-297 Su-2519
Croatia1076 (6 ordered)6 MiG-2112
Cyprus108
Czech Republic10914(24 ordered)24 L-15938
Denmark11010 (17 ordered)4151
Estonia111
Finland112(64 ordered)6161
France113139 (63 ordered)93232
Germany114129 (35 ordered)65 IDS & 21 Tornado ECR(35 ordered)212
Greece11519 (5 ordered)29(40 ordered)15211617 F-4217117
Hungary11814 (4 ordered)14
Ireland119
Italy1208933 IDS & 13 Tornado ECR30 (60 ordered)12 Harrier II177121
Latvia122
Lithuania123
Luxembourg124
Malta125
Netherlands12640 (12 ordered)40
Poland127(32 ordered)4812 T-50 (36 ordered)28 MiG-29

32 Su-22

120
Portugal1282525
Romania129(32 ordered)26 (23 ordered)26
Slovakia1302 (12 ordered)2
Slovenia131
Spain13268 (45 ordered)8112 Harrier II161
Sweden13394 (70 ordered)94
EU134301 (80)122 (74)164 (74)12213280 (353)345 (51)1421621567
Aerial refueling and transport
Member stateA330 MRTTKC-130KC-767A400MC-130CN-235C-295C-27JC-390L-410OtherTotal
Austria1353(4 ordered)8 PC-611
Belgium13677
Bulgaria137321 PC-126
Croatia138
Cyprus139
Czech Republic1406612
Denmark14144
Estonia1422 An-28/M282
Finland14333 Learjet 35

6 PC-12NG

12
France14412224 (26 ordered)16272 KC-135 1 A330 5 DHC-6 25 TBM 7005 PC-6 10 EMB-121 6 Falcon 10135
Germany145345 (8 ordered)32 A32153
Greece146582 King Air 35015
Hungary1471 (1 ordered)2 A3193
Ireland1482 (1 ordered)4 PC-12NG6
Italy1494491011 P180

3 Dornier 228

41
Latvia150
Lithuania151325
Luxembourg15211
Malta1531 BNT-23 King Air 2004
Netherlands1544(5 ordered)4
Poland15551637 An-2858
Portugal1564112 (4 ordered)1 Falcon 90018
Romania157671 An-2614
Slovakia158268
Slovenia1591 (1 ordered)12 PC-64
Spain160(1 ordered)14 (13 ordered)728 (16 ordered)7 C212 6 Citation V 3 King Air 9065
Sweden161154 Saab 34010
Shared within EU part of MMF8 (5 ordered)3 C-1711
EU16220 (6)10491 (47)7193 (17)34 (1)3 (14)17160503

Multinational

Established at Union level

The Helsinki Headline Goal Catalogue is a listing of rapid reaction forces composed of 60,000 troops managed by the European Union, but under control of the countries who deliver troops for it.

Forces introduced at Union level include:

  • The battle groups (BG) adhere to the CSDP, and are based on contributions from a coalition of member states. Each of the eighteen Battlegroups consists of a battalion-sized force (1,500 troops) reinforced with combat support elements.163164 The groups rotate actively, so that two are ready for deployment at all times. The forces are under the direct control of the Council of the European Union. The Battlegroups reached full operational capacity on 1 January 2007, although, as of January 2013 they are yet to see any military action.165 They are based on existing ad hoc missions that the European Union (EU) has undertaken and has been described by some as a new "standing army" for Europe.166 The troops and equipment are drawn from the EU member states under a "lead nation". In 2004, United Nations Secretary-General Kofi Annan welcomed the plans and emphasised the value and importance of the Battlegroups in helping the UN deal with troublespots.167
  • The Medical Command (EMC) is a planned medical command centre in support of EU missions, formed as part of the Permanent Structured Cooperation (PESCO).168 The EMC will provide the EU with a permanent medical capability to support operations abroad, including medical resources and a rapidly deployable medical task force. The EMC will also provide medical evacuation facilities, triage and resuscitation, treatment and holding of patients until they can be returned to duty, and emergency dental treatment. It will also contribute to harmonising medical standards, certification and legal (civil) framework conditions.169
  • The Force Crisis Response Operation Core (EUFOR CROC) is a flagship defence project under development as part of Permanent Structured Cooperation (PESCO). EURFOR CROC will contribute to the creation of a "full spectrum force package" to speed up provision of military forces and the EU's crisis management capabilities.170 Rather than creating a standing force, the project involves creating a concrete catalogue of military force elements that would speed up the establishment of a force when the EU decides to launch an operation. It is land-focused and aims to generate a force of 60,000 troops from the contributing states alone. While it does not establish any form of "European army", it foresees an deployable, interoperable force under a single command.171 Germany is the lead country for the project, but the French are heavily involved and it is tied to President Emmanuel Macron's proposal to create a standing intervention force. The French see it as an example of what PESCO is about.172

Provided through Article 42.3 TEU

This section presents an incomplete list of forces and bodies established intergovernmentally amongst a subset of member states. These organisations will deploy forces based on the collective agreement of their member states. They are typically technically listed as being able to be deployed under the auspices of NATO, the United Nations, the European Union (EU) through Article 42.3 of TEU, the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, or any other international entity.

However, with the exception of the Eurocorps, very few have actually been deployed for any real military operation, and none under the CSDP at any point in its history.

Land Forces:

Aerial:

  • The European Air Transport Command exercises operational control of the majority of the aerial refueling capabilities and military transport fleets of its participating nations. Located at Eindhoven Airbase in the Netherlands, the command also bears a limited responsibility for exercises, aircrew training and the harmonisation of relevant national air transport regulations.175176 The command was established in 2010 to provide a more efficient management of the participating nations' assets and resources in this field.

Naval:

Participation, relationship with NATO

Further information: European Union–NATO relations

Out of the 27 EU member states, 23 are also members of NATO. Another four NATO members are EU applicants—Albania, Montenegro, North Macedonia and Turkey. Two others—Iceland and Norway—have opted to remain outside of the EU, however participate in the EU's single market. The memberships of the EU and NATO are distinct, and some EU member states are traditionally neutral on defence issues. Several EU member states were formerly members of the Warsaw Pact. Denmark had an opt-out from the CSDP,180 however voted in a referendum in 2022 to begin to participate in the policy area.

  Non-European countries   Transcontinental countries Comparison of the two main Euro-Atlantic defence organisations
  European Union(in respect of its defence arm, the Common Security and Defence Policy) NATO
Mutual defence clauseArticle 42.7 of the consolidated version of the Treaty on European Union:

"If a Member State is the victim of armed aggression on its territory, the other Member States shall have towards it an obligation of aid and assistance by all the means in their power, in accordance with Article 51 of the United Nations Charter. This shall not prejudice the specific character of the security and defence policy of certain Member States. [...]"

Article 5 of the North Atlantic Treaty:

"The Parties agree that an armed attack against one or more of them [on their territory] shall be considered an attack against them all and consequently they agree that, if such an armed attack occurs, each of them, in exercise of the right of individual or collective self-defence recognised by Article 51 of the Charter of the United Nations, will assist the Party or Parties so attacked by taking forthwith, individually and in concert with the other Parties, such action as it deems necessary, including the use of armed force, to restore and maintain the security of the North Atlantic area. [...]"

 Political strategic organisation
Highest officeHigh Representative (HR/VP)Secretary General
Principal decision-making bodyForeign Affairs CouncilNorth Atlantic Council
Liaison bodyEuropean External Action ServiceInternational Staff
SeatKortenberg building (Brussels, Belgium) NATO headquarters (Brussels, Belgium)
 Military strategic organisation
Supreme commander Director of the Military Planning and Conduct Capability Supreme Allied Commander Europe
Headquarters Military Planning and Conduct Capability (Brussels, Belgium) Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe (Mons, Belgium)
Chair of chiefs of defence assembly Chairman of the European Union Military Committee Chair of the NATO Military Committee
Chiefs of defence assembly European Union Military Committee NATO Military Committee
Advisory body European Union Military Staff International Military Staff
 MembershipPermanent Structured CooperationMembership
Member states of both the EU and NATO
 BelgiumFounderFounderFounder
 Bulgaria2007Founder2004
 Croatia2013Founder2009
 Czech Republic2004Founder1999
 Denmark19732023Founder
 Estonia2004Founder2004
 Finland1995Founder2023
 FranceFounderFounderFounder
 GermanyFounderFounder1955
 Greece1981Founder1952
 Hungary2004Founder1999
 ItalyFounderFounderFounder
 Latvia2004Founder2004
 Lithuania2004Founder2004
 LuxembourgFounderFounderFounder
 NetherlandsFounderFounderFounder
 Poland2004Founder1999
 Portugal1986FounderFounder
 Romania2007Founder2004
 Slovakia2004Founder2004
 Slovenia2004Founder2004
 Spain1986Founder1982
 Sweden1995Founder2024
Non-NATO EU member states
 Austria1995FounderPartnership for Peace
 Cyprus 2004FounderNo
 Ireland1973FounderPartnership for Peace
 Malta2004NoPartnership for Peace
Non-EU NATO member states
 AlbaniaCandidate—2009
 IcelandNo—Founder
 MontenegroCandidate—2017
 North MacedoniaCandidate—2020
 NorwayDefence Agency agreement—Founder
 Turkey Candidate—1952
 United KingdomNo—Founder
European countries outside both the EU and NATO
 Andorra No—No
 Armenia No—Individual Partnership Action Plan
 Azerbaijan No—Individual Partnership Action Plan
 BelarusNo—Partnership for Peace
 Bosnia and HerzegovinaCandidate—Membership Action Plan
 Georgia Candidate—Intensified Dialogue
 Kazakhstan No—Individual Partnership Action Plan
 KosovoApplicant / Potential candidate—No
 Liechtenstein No—No
 MoldovaCandidate—Individual Partnership Action Plan
 Monaco No—No
 Russia No—Partnership for Peace
 San Marino No—No
 SerbiaCandidate—Individual Partnership Action Plan
  SwitzerlandDefence Agency agreement—Partnership for Peace
 UkraineCandidate—Intensified Dialogue
 Vatican City No—No
NATO member states located in North America, which are therefore ineligible for EU membership
 Canada——Founder
 United States——Founder
Members of NATO's Partnership for Peace located outside Europe, which are therefore neither eligible for EU nor NATO membership
 Kyrgyzstan——Partnership for Peace
 Tajikistan——Partnership for Peace
 Turkmenistan——Partnership for Peace
 Uzbekistan——Partnership for Peace

The Berlin Plus agreement is the short title of a comprehensive package of agreements made between NATO and the EU on 16 December 2002.181 These agreements were based on conclusions of NATO's 1999 Washington summit, sometimes referred to as the CJTF mechanism,182 and allowed the EU to draw on some of NATO's military assets in its own peacekeeping operations.

EUCAP Somalia

The EUCAP Somalia183 is an example of an unarmed, non-executive, civilian Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP) Mission. aimed at strengthening maritime security capacities, police sector, as well as promoting the Rule of Law in Somalia.184 It provides strategic level advice, mentoring and training, on issues ranging from coast guard and police functions to police-prosecution cooperation and the drafting of laws. Initially launched as EUCAP Nestor185 in 2012, the mission was reconfigured to focus on Somalia, thus renamed by the Council of the European Union, EUCAP Somalia in 2016.

In December 2024, the Council of European Union extended the Mission’s mandate to February 2027.

The most prominent goals of the Mission are to help Somalia to generate well trained police forces in line with the Somali Transition Plan, contribute to secure one of the EU’s vital maritime trade routes, and assist to draft and implement sound legislative frameworks, including accountability systems.

Background

The mission was established in response to the persistent challenges posed by maritime insecurity in the Western Indian Ocean, particularly piracy, illegal fishing, human trafficking, and arms smuggling. These issues severely impacted both the security and economic stability of Somalia and the surrounding region. Somalia’s extensive coastline (the longest in mainland Africa) was unprotected for years due to the collapse of the government in the early 1990s.186 Piracy flourished in the absence of effective maritime governance, leading to international efforts to assist the country in reclaiming control over its waters. EUCAP Somalia emerged as part of these efforts, complementing other international missions such as Operation Atalanta and EUTM Somalia.

Mandates

From 2012 to 2016

EUCAP Nestor's mandate is divided into two objectives: strengthening the maritime capacities of the beneficiary countries (excluding Somalia) and training a coastal police force and judges in Somalia, the primary aim being to get the countries in the region to work together to strengthen action at sea. EUCAP Nestor operates in five countries: Djibouti, Kenya, Seychelles, Somalia (Puntland/Somaliland) and Tanzania. This is why it is relatively large in terms of staff numbers, with almost 200 people spread across the different countries. These experts provide legal, strategic and operational advice on maritime safety.187

From 2016 to 2021

When the name was changed in December 2016, so too was the mandate. EUCAP Somalia will drop its regional ambitions and focus solely on Somalia, and more specifically on the Coast Guard, with a view to strengthening ‘Somali maritime law enforcement capabilities’. The mandate is not limited to piracy, but covers any criminal activity or offence committed on the coast or in the sea.188

From 2021 to 2024

In December 2020, the Council of the European Union extended EUCAP's mandate until 31 December 2024. From 2021 onwards, the mission will also be helping Somalia to strengthen its police capabilities, in particular by developing the Federal Darwish police force and reinforcing the INTERPOL National Central Bureau in Mogadishu.189 The EU's budget for the period 2023-2024 allocated is 81 million €.190

Current mandate from 2025 to 2027

In December 2024, the Council of European Union extended the Mission’s mandate to February 2027. EUCAP Somalia is tasked to advise, train, and equip the Somali Police Force and to support the development of a legal framework for Somalia’s internal security architecture. The mission’s work also includes providing monitoring support to regional maritime police forces, including the Somaliland and Puntland Maritime Police Forces, to bolster maritime law enforcement and security. The Mission’s budget for its current mandate is €110 million and total staff of 169 members.

Three pillars of EUCAP Somalia

  1. Support the development of Somali Police Forces by enhancing their capabilities through advising, training and equipping Somali Police Forces in line with the Somali Security Sector Development Plan, ensuring the police are better prepared to maintain security and stability across the country.
  2. Strengthen Maritime Police Capacities in and around the three main Somali ports (Mogadishu, Berbera and Bossaso) by providing capacity building on coast guard functions.
  3. Promote the rule of law by working with Somali authorities to enhance accountability within the police force and across the criminal justice chain. This includes supporting the development of legal frameworks necessary for the effective functioning of law enforcement, and security actors in both land and maritime domains, fostering governance and accountability.

Achievements

Since its reconfiguration in 2016, EUCAP Somalia has made significant strides in enhancing Somalia’s maritime security capabilities. Recent achievements include improving the Somali Police Force's (SPF) command, control, and communication capabilities, as well as enhancing their ability to manage security incidents in Mogadishu. EUCAP has deployed a specialized multinational team to support the SPF's Maritime Police Unit and has played a key role in the development of Somaliland’s Coast Guard, conducting joint exercises with EUNAVFOR Operation ATALANTA. The mission also trained and equipped the Puntland Maritime Police Force, enhancing their capacity to enforce maritime law. Additionally, EUCAP has supported the Somali Attorney General’s Maritime Crimes Unit by providing training in internal procedures and investigations and launching an internship program for young lawyers. Despite the progress, Somalia continues to face challenges in maritime governance due to political instability and resource limitations, but EUCAP remains committed to addressing these issues with Somali authorities and international partners.191

Mission's achievements during mandate 2022 - 24

  • Increased the Somali Police Force command, control and communication capability.
  • Trained Somali Police Force trainers for co-training activities.
  • Enabling the establishment of the Maritime Rescue and Coordination Center in Mogadishu to enhance maritime security coordination along the Somali coastline and in regional waters.
  • Supported the development of Somaliland Coast Guard, including through joint exercises with EUNAVFOR Operation ATALANTA and the provision of maritime equipment.
  • Trained mobile training units for Somaliland Coast Guard and Somaliland Police.
  • Trained and equipped the Puntland Maritime Police Force - Maritime Police Unit, enhancing their law enforcement capabilities.
  • Supporting the maritime crimes unit of the Somali Attorney General's Office in internal procedures and maritime crimes investigations as well as an internship program for young lawyers in Mogadishu and Puntland.
  • European Union portal

See also

  • European Union portal

Defence-related EU initiatives

Pan-European defence organisations (intergovernmental)

Regional, integorvernmental defence organisations in Europe

Atlanticist intergovernmental defence organisations

Notes

Further reading

Wikisource has original text related to this article: Article 42–46 of the Treaty on European Union: Provisions on the Common Security and Defence Policy

References

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