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Japanese serow
Bovid endemic to Japan

The Japanese serow (氈鹿, kamoshika, lit. "coarse pelt deer") (Capricornis crispus) (羚羊) is a Japanese goat-antelope, an even-toed ungulate. It is found in dense woodland in Japan, primarily in northern and central Honshu. The serow is seen as a national symbol of Japan, and is subject to protection in conservation areas.

Adult Japanese serow stand about 81 centimetres (32 in) tall and weigh 30–45 kilograms (66–99 lb). They are black to whitish, and colouring lightens in summer. The fur is very bushy, especially the tail. Both sexes have short, backwards-curving horns, and are difficult to distinguish by sight. Japanese serow are found in dense mountain forests where they eat leaves, shoots, and acorns. They are diurnal and feed in early mornings and late afternoons. Serows are solitary, or gather in couples or small family groups. The animal marks its territory with sweet-and-sour-smelling preorbital gland secretions, and males and females have separate territories that may overlap.

In the mid-20th century, the Japanese serow was hunted to near-extinction. In 1955, the Japanese government passed a law designating it a "Special National Monument" to protect it from poachers. Populations have since grown so greatly that the IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals ranks it "least concern". Complaints from foresters and farmers led in 1979 to the 1955 law's repeal. Since then, the serow has had protected status in 13 designated protected areas over 23 prefectures, and has been subject to culling as a pest outside conservation areas. Conservationists have labelled it a "living national treasure of the forest".

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Taxonomy

Taxonomically Coenraad Jacob Temminck first described the Japanese serow in 1836,2 and named it Antilope crispa. John Edward Gray gave it its current name in 1846.3 Pierre Marie Heude proposed many new genera and species in a system published in 1898; Capricornis became Capricornulus, which included crispus, pryerianus, and saxicola. The system did not find acceptance.4

There is no fossil record of the Japanese serow; its evolutionary history and the closeness of its relation to the Taiwan serow (Capricornis swinhoei) are speculative.5 Its taxonomic position has led to it being called a "living fossil".6 Karyotype studies indicate it was the earliest species to split from the common Capricornis ancestor.7 The closest relative to the Japanese serow is the Taiwan serow (Capricornis swinhoei). Genetically, there is little difference between Japanese and Taiwan serows; their karyotype is essentially the same: 2n=50, FN=60.8 The Taiwan serow is smaller and shorter-haired, with browner fur and a white patch under the chin and throat.9

Phylogenetically, Capricornis is closer to goats and sheep than cattle.10 The nomenclature and status of Capricornis taxa are not completely resolved.11 Some researchers have considered Capricornis a junior synonym of Naemorhedus,12 a classification that includes gorals;13 molecular analysis has not supported this classification.14 Capricornis has a lower canine, which Naemorhedus species usually do not.15

In Japan, the serow is widely thought of as a kind of deer, though deer and serows are in different families. In the past, the Japanese word kamoshika16 was written using the Chinese character for shika, meaning "deer".17 Today, when written using Chinese characters, the characters for "antelope" and "sheep"18 are used. Sometimes the serow is mistaken for a wild boar.19

Appearance and anatomy

The Japanese serow20 is a small bovid21 whose displayed morphology is primitive in relation to other bovids. It has a stocky body whose size varies little between sexes or geographic location; it stands about 70–85 centimetres (28–33 in) tall (70–75 centimetres (28–30 in) at the shoulder)22 and weighs 30–50 kilograms (66–110 lb).23242526 The hoof is cloven.27 Compared to mainland serow, the ears are shorter and the coat is typically longer and woollier—about 10 centimetres (3.9 in) on the body. It has a bushy tail28 of 6–6.5 centimetres (2.4–2.6 in)29 and no mane.30

Its fur is whitish around the neck,31 and fur on the body may be black, black with a dorsal white spot, dark brown, or whitish.32 The coat lightens in summer.33 There are three well-developed skin glands:34 large preorbital glands in both sexes, which increase in size as the animal ages;35 poorly developed36 interdigital glands in all four legs;37 and preputial glands.38 The adult's 32 permanent teeth form by 30 months, and have a dental formula of 0.0.3.33.1.3.3.39 The inner sides of the teeth become blackened with a hard-to-remove substance, likely tree resin.40 The tongue has a V-shaped apex.41

Differentiation between the sexes is not well developed;42 body size, growth, survival, and feeding habits show negligible difference.43 Both sexes have short,44 backwards-curving horns measuring 12–16 centimetres (4.7–6.3 in);45 the sheaths have a series of transverse rings. Horns begin to develop at about four months46 and continue to grow throughout the lifespan.47

Environment affects the size of the first growth ring. Size, curvature, and thickness and number of transverse rings are indicative of age. Up to two years, there are thicker transverse rings, of greater length and flexion than in adults. Into adulthood, thinner horn rings force the thick transverse rings upward. Growth increment slows earlier in maturation in females than in males.48 Researchers use genitalia and sexual behaviour to distinguish the sexes.49 Females have two pairs of mammae.50

Hearing is sensitive51 and eyesight is strong—the serow is able to detect and react to movement from a distance, and it can see well in low lighting. Sense of smell is also strong, and the serow can be observed raising its head and sniffing the air around it.52

Distribution, ecology, and behaviour

Capricornis crispus is the only wild bovine ruminant in Japan,53 and is endemic to three of the four main islands of Japan:54 primarily northern and central Honshu, and small areas in Shikoku and Kyushu.55 It can tolerate colder, snowier climates better than mainland serows.56 The animal is found solitary, in pairs, or in small family groups57 in open grassland and forests at an elevation of about 1,000 metres (3,300 ft),58 and uses caves to rest in.59 It prefers temperate deciduous forest, but also lives in broad-leaved or subalpine coniferous forest60 made up of Japanese beech, Japanese oak,61 alpine meadow, and coniferous plantations.62 Population density is low, at an average of 2.6 per square kilometre (6.7/sq mi),63 and no greater than 20 per square kilometre (52/sq mi).64

C. crispus is philopatric65 and territorial,66 and marks trees with sweet-sour-smelling preorbital gland secretions to indicate its territory.67 Males and females establish separate, overlapping ranges, typically 10–15 hectares (25–37 acres),68 but the male's is typically larger than the female's.69 Aggression is rare, but the serow may react with hostility to territorial breaches.70 Due to the extinction of its once-primary predator, the Japanese wolf, the Japanese black bear is its only predator. It flees with a whistling snort when it detects danger.71 It is an agile, sure-footed mountain dweller that is able to sprint up mountains and to jump from cliff to cliff to safety; hunters have likened this display of agility to the ninja.72

The diurnal73 Japanese serow is a browser74 that feeds in early morning and late afternoon, primarily on fleshy or coniferous leaves, plant shoots, and acorns.75 It feeds on alder, sedge, Japanese witch-hazel (Hamamelis japonica), and Japanese cedar.76 It adjusts its diet to what food is locally available,77 and, as a ruminant, the serow has a four-chambered stomach.78 Studies indicate that even severe winters have a negligible impact on the serow's food intake, suggesting that, given its solitary social structure, it selects its territory to ensure sufficient food supply.79 Defecation occurs in set locations.80

Life expectancies may be up to 20–25 years.8182 Parapoxvirus is common, though rarely fatal; infection causes papular and nodular lesions.83 There have been epidemics of contagious pustular dermatitis.84 Bacteria such as E. coli and Lyme borreliosis are common,85 and Toxoplasma gondii has been reported.86 C. crispus is susceptible to numerous parasites, such as the nematode Trichuris discolor and the lungworm Protostrongylus shiozawai.87

Reproduction

Capricornis crispus is socially monogamous.8889 Females reach sexual maturity at 30 months.90 First breeding takes place at age 2.5–3 years; breeding occurs once a year,91 between September and January.92 In a courtship ritual resembling that of goats or gazelles, the male Japanese serow licks the female's mouth, strikes her on the hindlegs with his forelegs, and rubs her genitalia with his horns.93 Both sexes display Flehmen responses.94

Birth takes place between June and August95 after a gestation period of about 210–220 days.96 It takes about half an hour, and the female walks about during the birth. The single fawn is 30 centimetres (1 ft) tall and reaches adult height in a year.97 The fawn stays with its mother for 1–2 years. It then moves gradually from its mother's range until it establishes its own.98 Young that do not disperse on their own may be chased away by the mother.99

Relationship with humans

The earliest record of human contact with the serow is of a small number of prehistoric Jōmon period bones unearthed by archaeologists, primarily in mountainous regions. It is speculated the serow was hunted for its hide and for food.100 What is believed to be the earliest written record appears in the Nihon Shoki (720): the Emperor Tenmu (r. 672–686) sent the hides of a yamashishi to senior statesmen; this yamashishi likely refers to the serow, and recurs elsewhere in the Nihon Shoki.101

The 8th-century Man'yōshū contains a waka poem by Kakinomoto no Hitomaro that mentions a group of shishi; a number of writers have concluded this animal is the serow, but others have pointed out the serow is normally solitary.102 Heian period (794–1185) documents record gifts of serow horns brought to the capital. Japan's earliest extant medical work, the Daidōruijuhō [ja] (808), appears to record the use of serow horn and flesh for medicinal purposes.103

For centuries following the Heian period, mention of the serow becomes scarce. There is some belief that it was still hunted for medicinal use. The Edo period (1603–1868) saw records increase. The Wakan Sansai Zue encyclopaedia of 1712 contains an illustrated entry on the serow. Laws prohibiting hunting [ja] came into effect, but exceptions were made where animals damaged crops.104 Following the Meiji Restoration in 1868, realistic depictions appeared of the serow, beginning with one in Keisuke Ito's Fauna Japonica (1870).105

Hunting and conservation

The serow has long been hunted in Japan, especially in northern Japan where, along with bear-hunting, serow-hunting was strongly associated with matagi culture. Throughout Japan's mountainous regions, the serow has been a valued catch. Its various body parts are used without waste. Prized in particular is its meat—until the mid-20th century, serow meat was so widely eaten in these regions the animal itself was known as "meat".106 Its waterproof hides were used for rafters' backflaps, its horns were ground as a preventive against diseases such as beriberi, and a cure for stomach-aches was made from the serow's small intestines and gall bladder.107

An animal that once inhabited deep forests far from populated areas, the Japanese serow has increasingly penetrated the outskirts of villages.108 In western Honshū, it had become extinct by the 20th century.109 Elsewhere, it had been hunted to such a severe degree that the Japanese government declared it a "Non-Game Species" in a 1925 hunting law. In 1934, the Law for Protection of Cultural Properties designated it a "Natural Monument Species".110111

Poaching continued, leading the government to declare the Japanese serow a "Special Natural Monument" in 1955,112113 at which point overhunting had brought its numbers to 2000–3000.114 Populations grew as the police put an end to poaching, and post-War monoculture conifer plantations created favourable environments for the animal. By the 1980s, population estimates had grown to up to 100,000 and serow range had reached 40,000 square kilometres (15,000 sq mi).115 Between 1978 and 2003, its distribution increased 170%, and the population had stabilized.116

Conflicts with agriculture and forestry led to a 1978 repeal of the full protection the animal received under the 1955 designation. Thenceforth, 13117 designated protection areas were established over 23 prefectures.118 They cover about 20% of the serow range, have a total area of 11,800 square kilometres (4,600 sq mi), and range in size from 143 square kilometres (55 sq mi) to 2,180 square kilometres (840 sq mi). Culling removed 20,000 serows outside of conservation areas between 1978 and 2005.119

The IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals ranked the Japanese serow as "least concern" in 2008, as it has wide distribution in Japan, and a large, stable or increasing population.120 The Law for Protection of Cultural Properties [ja]121 and Wildlife Protection and Hunting Law [ja]122 provide for the legal management of the Japanese serow. In 1979, the Agency for Cultural Affairs, Environmental Agency, and Forestry Agency reached an agreement on serow management measures, such as the establishment of protection areas and culling as pest control. The measures were met with resistance from conservationists, naturalist organizations, and some biologists, as the animal had previously been fully protected. A 1999 amendment to the Wildlife Protection and Hunting Law allowed prefectures to manage wildlife populations; by 2007, seven plans had been established for serow management outside of conservation areas.123

Foresters have raised concerns that the rising serow populations have interfered with post-War mountainside reforestation efforts, as the animal feeds on the saplings124 of Japanese cypress, Japanese cedar, and Japanese red pine, species with commercial significance.125 Serow have caused damage to farm crops in mountain villages,126 and the villagers have objected to conservationists' efforts. Damage by serows to forests has been characterized in parts of Japan in criminal or martial terms: the media have referred to the problems as ningen to shika no sensō ("the war between humans and deer") and kamoshika sensō ("serow war").127

Frustration with the government and conservationists led 400 foresters to launch a lawsuit in the 1980s over serow damage to timber plantations.128 Foresters in Gifu Prefecture have justified the shooting of serows in the legs, as such shooting would not be fatal.129 Estimating accurate population numbers has been difficult.130 Foresters see the serow as a harmful animal, and resent government interference in controlling serow-hunting.131 They have accused the government and wildlife experts of undercounting serows, while conservationists have counteraccused that foresters may inflate population numbers and levels of forestry damage to promote their own interests.132

Conservationists such as Shin Gotō believe that the increased visibility is due not to an absolute increase in populations, but to deforestation which has driven the animal further from its traditional home.133 Serows close to populated areas may feed on farms and cypress, including saplings.134

Clearcutting practices may also contribute to the problem, as clearcut forests create areas of rapid herbaceous growth ideal for herbivores, who see population increases. The situation is temporary, though, and after regrowth of trees leads to the forest canopy closing over after 15–20 years, the herbivore populations are displaced as the herbaceous growth ceases to flourish.135

In the 1990s, as the number of young plantations decreased, so did forestry damage from serows. Concern instead turned to damage caused by sika deer, wild boars, and Japanese macaques. In Kyushu in particular, increased grazing and browsing competition from sika deer may be slowing growth of serow populations.136

Conservation areas

Japanese serow conservation areas137
NameEstablishedSizeha (acres)Prefecture(s)
EnglishJapanese
Shimokita PeninsulaShimokita HantōApril 198137,300 (92,000)Aomori
Kita-Ōu MountainsKita-Ōu SankeiFebruary 1984105,000 (260,000)
Kitakami Sankei [ja]Kitakami SankeiJuly 198241,000 (100,000)Iwate
Minami-Ōu MountainsMinami-Ōu SankeiNovember 198457,700 (143,000)
Asahi—Iide MountainsAsahi—Iide SankeiMarch 1985122,000 (300,000)
EchigoNikkōMikuni MountainsEchigo—Nikkō—Mikuni SankeiMay 1984215,200 (532,000)
Kantō MountainsKantō SanchiNovember 198479,000 (200,000)
Minami AlpsMinami ArupusuFebruary 1980122,000 (300,000)
Kita AlpsKita ArupusuNovember 1979195,600 (483,000)
ShirayamaShirayamaFebruary 198253,700 (133,000)
Suzuka MountainsSuzuka SanchiSeptember 198314,100 (35,000)
IbukiHira MountainsIbuki—Hira SankeiMarch 198667,500 (167,000)
Kii MountainsKii SankeiJuly 198979,500 (196,000)
Shikoku MountainsShikoku SanchiTBATBA
Kyushu MountainsKyushu SanchiTBATBA

Cultural significance

Labelled a "living national treasure of the forest",138 the Japanese serow has achieved emblematic status in Japan with national associations. It is seen as a relic species harking back to the formation of the Japanese archipelago as distinct from mainland Asia. In a symbolic gesture in 1973, the Chinese government gifted Japan a giant panda, to which the Japanese government returned two Japanese serow. Municipalities and other regions of Japan have adopted the serow as a local symbol.139

In Japan, the Japanese serow is most commonly known as kamoshika or kamoshishi. It has historically been given a variety of names, often based on its appearance, some of which translate as "mountain sheep", "wool deer", "nine tail cow", and "cow demon". Regional names abound, some of which translate as "dancing beast", "foolish beast", or "idiot". Japanese people often characterize the serow as "weird" or "abnormal", and it is seen as a "phantom animal" as it tends to live alone in the depths of distant forests, and appears to observe forest workers from areas high in the mountains.140

The serow has a reputation in Japan for its speed and agility. Superior athletes are compared to the serow, as it is known not only for its agility, but also its sprinting ability. The Yamaha Motor Company has marketed the XT 225 sport motorcycle as the Yamaha Serow. In Japanese, the word ochiru means both "to fail an exam" and "to fall"; as the serow is known for its sure-footedness on mountain cliffs, students can buy omamori charms marked with a serow hoofprint in the hope it will help them pass exams.141

See also

Notes

Citations

Works cited

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References

  1. Japanese serow (Japanese: ニホンカモシカ, Hepburn: Nihon kamoshika) /wiki/Japanese_language

  2. Tokida 2020; Grubb 2005. - Tokida, K. (2020). "Capricornis crispus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2020: e.T3811A22151909. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-2.RLTS.T3811A22151909.en. Retrieved 11 November 2021. https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/3811/22151909

  3. As Capricornis crispa; Robert Swinhoe amended it for gender agreement in 1870.[2] /wiki/Robert_Swinhoe

  4. Jass & Mead 2004, p. 1. - Jass, Christopher N.; Mead, Jim I. (15 December 2004). "Capricornis crispus". Mammalian Species. 750: 1–10. doi:10.1644/750. ISSN 1545-1410. https://doi.org/10.1644%2F750

  5. Jass & Mead 2004, p. 2. - Jass, Christopher N.; Mead, Jim I. (15 December 2004). "Capricornis crispus". Mammalian Species. 750: 1–10. doi:10.1644/750. ISSN 1545-1410. https://doi.org/10.1644%2F750

  6. Togashi et al. 2009, p. 412. - Togashi, Mikiko; Tsujimoto, Tsunenori; Yamauchi, Kiyoshi; Deguchi, Yoshitaka; Hashizume, Kazuyoshi; Kizaki, Keiichiro; Honjou, Sachika; Izaike, Yoshiaki; Osawa, Takeshi (2009). "Plasma and Fecal Sex Steroid Hormone Profiles During the Estrous Cycle in a Japanese Serow (Capricornis crispus)". Journal of Reproduction and Development. 55 (4): 412–417. doi:10.1262/jrd.20165. PMID 19404003. https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/jrd/55/4/55_20165/_pdf

  7. Wei et al. 2013, p. 6800. - Liu, Wei; Yao, Yong-fang; Yu, Qin; Ni, Qing-yong; Zhang, Ming-wang; Yang, Jian-dong; Mai, Miao-miao; Xu, Huai-liang (2013). "Genetic variation and phylogenetic relationship between three serow species of the genus Capricornis based on the complete mitochondrial DNA control region sequences". Molecular Biology Reports. 40 (12): 6793–6802. doi:10.1007/s11033-013-2796-8. PMID 24057256. S2CID 18421161. https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11033-013-2796-8

  8. Jass & Mead 2004, p. 5. - Jass, Christopher N.; Mead, Jim I. (15 December 2004). "Capricornis crispus". Mammalian Species. 750: 1–10. doi:10.1644/750. ISSN 1545-1410. https://doi.org/10.1644%2F750

  9. Lue 1987, p. 125. - Lue, Kuang-Yang (1987). "A preliminary study on the ecology of Formosan serow Capricornis crispus swinhoei". In Soma, Hiroaki (ed.). The Biology and Management of Capricornis and Related Mountain Antelopes. Springer Netherlands. pp. 125–133. doi:10.1007/978-94-011-8030-6_10. ISBN 978-94-011-8032-0. https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-94-011-8030-6_10

  10. Jass & Mead 2004, p. 5. - Jass, Christopher N.; Mead, Jim I. (15 December 2004). "Capricornis crispus". Mammalian Species. 750: 1–10. doi:10.1644/750. ISSN 1545-1410. https://doi.org/10.1644%2F750

  11. Tokida 2020. - Tokida, K. (2020). "Capricornis crispus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2020: e.T3811A22151909. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-2.RLTS.T3811A22151909.en. Retrieved 11 November 2021. https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/3811/22151909

  12. Jass & Mead 2004, p. 1. - Jass, Christopher N.; Mead, Jim I. (15 December 2004). "Capricornis crispus". Mammalian Species. 750: 1–10. doi:10.1644/750. ISSN 1545-1410. https://doi.org/10.1644%2F750

  13. Tokida 2020. - Tokida, K. (2020). "Capricornis crispus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2020: e.T3811A22151909. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-2.RLTS.T3811A22151909.en. Retrieved 11 November 2021. https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/3811/22151909

  14. Min, et al. 2004, p. 369. - Min, M. S.; Okumura, H.; Jo, D. J.; An, J. H.; Kim, K. S.; Kim, C. B.; Shin, N. S.; Lee, M. H.; Han, C. H.; Voloshina, I. V.; Lee, H. (2004). "Molecular Phylogenetic Status of the Korean Goral and Japanese Serow Based on Partial Sequences of the Mitochondrial Cytochrome b Gene". Molecules and Cells. 17 (2): 365–372. doi:10.1016/S1016-8478(23)13052-4. ISSN 0219-1032. PMID 15179056. https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS1016-8478%2823%2913052-4

  15. Jass & Mead 2004, p. 1. - Jass, Christopher N.; Mead, Jim I. (15 December 2004). "Capricornis crispus". Mammalian Species. 750: 1–10. doi:10.1644/750. ISSN 1545-1410. https://doi.org/10.1644%2F750

  16. In Japanese, the word kamoshika refers both to serow and antelope species.[10] /wiki/Serow

  17. "Deer" (Japanese: 鹿, Hepburn: shika)[11] /wiki/Japanese_language

  18. Japanese serow ("antelope-sheep") (Japanese: 羚羊, Hepburn: kamoshika)[12] /wiki/Japanese_language

  19. Knight 2003, pp. 128–129. - Knight, John (2003). Waiting for Wolves in Japan: An Anthropological Study of People-Wildlife Relations: An Anthropological Study of People-Wildlife Relations. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-158864-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=iDqxEtYjD4YC

  20. Maruyama, Ikeda & Tokida 1997, p. 271. - Maruyama, N.; Ikeda, H.; Tokida, K. (1997). "9.4 Japan". In Shackleton, David M. (ed.). Wild Sheep and Goats and Their Relatives: Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan for Caprinae. IUCN. pp. 271–274. ISBN 978-2-8317-0353-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=hJBodAXB9eoC&pg=PA271

  21. Jass & Mead 2004, p. 2. - Jass, Christopher N.; Mead, Jim I. (15 December 2004). "Capricornis crispus". Mammalian Species. 750: 1–10. doi:10.1644/750. ISSN 1545-1410. https://doi.org/10.1644%2F750

  22. Abe 2008, p. 113. - Abe, Hisashi, ed. (2008). 日本の哺乳類 (Nihon no Honyuurui) [A Guide to the Mammals of Japan] (in Japanese). Tokai University. ISBN 978-4-486-01802-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=PDukPQAACAAJ

  23. "ニホンカモシカ". Archived from the original on 2020-09-19. Retrieved 2020-06-16. https://web.archive.org/web/20200919183407/http://www2.pref.iwate.jp/~hp0316/rdb/02honyuurui/0644.html

  24. "ニホンカモシカ" (PDF). http://www.tadami-buna.jp/panel-kasidasi/09animal.pdf

  25. "カモシカ|青森県庁ウェブサイト Aomori Prefectural Government". https://www.pref.aomori.lg.jp/bunka/education/kinen_tokuten_02.html

  26. Jass & Mead 2004, p. 2. - Jass, Christopher N.; Mead, Jim I. (15 December 2004). "Capricornis crispus". Mammalian Species. 750: 1–10. doi:10.1644/750. ISSN 1545-1410. https://doi.org/10.1644%2F750

  27. Knight 2003, p. 125. - Knight, John (2003). Waiting for Wolves in Japan: An Anthropological Study of People-Wildlife Relations: An Anthropological Study of People-Wildlife Relations. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-158864-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=iDqxEtYjD4YC

  28. Burton & Burton 2002, p. 2323. - Burton, Maurice; Burton, Robert, eds. (2002). International Wildlife Encyclopedia. Marshall Cavendish. pp. 2323–2324. ISBN 978-0-7614-7266-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=_YicMQmIA7wC&pg=PA2323

  29. Iijima & Tsuchiya 2010, p. 115. - Iijima, Masahiro; Tsuchiya, Kimiyuki (2010). 日本哺乳類大図鑑 (Nihon Honyuurui Daizukan) [The Encyclopedia of Wild Mammals in Japan] (in Japanese). Kaiseisha [ja]. ISBN 978-4-03-971170-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=4BxPSwAACAAJ

  30. Burton & Burton 2002, p. 2323. - Burton, Maurice; Burton, Robert, eds. (2002). International Wildlife Encyclopedia. Marshall Cavendish. pp. 2323–2324. ISBN 978-0-7614-7266-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=_YicMQmIA7wC&pg=PA2323

  31. Iijima & Tsuchiya 2010, p. 114. - Iijima, Masahiro; Tsuchiya, Kimiyuki (2010). 日本哺乳類大図鑑 (Nihon Honyuurui Daizukan) [The Encyclopedia of Wild Mammals in Japan] (in Japanese). Kaiseisha [ja]. ISBN 978-4-03-971170-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=4BxPSwAACAAJ

  32. Jass & Mead 2004, p. 2. - Jass, Christopher N.; Mead, Jim I. (15 December 2004). "Capricornis crispus". Mammalian Species. 750: 1–10. doi:10.1644/750. ISSN 1545-1410. https://doi.org/10.1644%2F750

  33. Burton & Burton 2002, p. 2323. - Burton, Maurice; Burton, Robert, eds. (2002). International Wildlife Encyclopedia. Marshall Cavendish. pp. 2323–2324. ISBN 978-0-7614-7266-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=_YicMQmIA7wC&pg=PA2323

  34. Jass & Mead 2004, p. 3. - Jass, Christopher N.; Mead, Jim I. (15 December 2004). "Capricornis crispus". Mammalian Species. 750: 1–10. doi:10.1644/750. ISSN 1545-1410. https://doi.org/10.1644%2F750

  35. Abe 2008, p. 113. - Abe, Hisashi, ed. (2008). 日本の哺乳類 (Nihon no Honyuurui) [A Guide to the Mammals of Japan] (in Japanese). Tokai University. ISBN 978-4-486-01802-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=PDukPQAACAAJ

  36. Abe 2008, p. 113. - Abe, Hisashi, ed. (2008). 日本の哺乳類 (Nihon no Honyuurui) [A Guide to the Mammals of Japan] (in Japanese). Tokai University. ISBN 978-4-486-01802-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=PDukPQAACAAJ

  37. Atoji, Suzuki & Sugimura 1988, p. 159. - Atoji, Yasuro; Suzuki, Yoshitaka; Sugimura, Makoto (December 1988). "Lectin Histochemistry of the Interdigital Gland in the Japanese Serow (Capricornis crispus) in Winter" (PDF). Journal of Anatomy. 161 (161): 159–170. PMC 1262100. PMID 3254889. http://europepmc.org/articles/PMC1262100/pdf/janat00171-0159.pdf&sa=U&ei=st_dUYwJzYOUBcySgcAH&ved=0CBwQFjAC&sig2=uQmZmALIlqgYc9AWHnP0aw&usg=AFQjCNFSGRqxg9dFb300_zV-oHoVZo-bBw

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  39. Jass & Mead 2004, p. 3. - Jass, Christopher N.; Mead, Jim I. (15 December 2004). "Capricornis crispus". Mammalian Species. 750: 1–10. doi:10.1644/750. ISSN 1545-1410. https://doi.org/10.1644%2F750

  40. Nawa 2009, p. 23. - Nawa, Akira (2009). 森の賢者カモシカ: 鈴鹿山地の定点観察記 (Mori no Kenja Kamoshika: Suzuka Sanchi no Teiten Kansatsu-ki) [Serow, Sage of the Forest: Record of Observation in the Suzuka Mountains] (in Japanese). Sunrise Publishing. ISBN 978-4-88325-389-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=5iBNQwAACAAJ

  41. Jass & Mead 2004, p. 4. - Jass, Christopher N.; Mead, Jim I. (15 December 2004). "Capricornis crispus". Mammalian Species. 750: 1–10. doi:10.1644/750. ISSN 1545-1410. https://doi.org/10.1644%2F750

  42. Tokida 2020. - Tokida, K. (2020). "Capricornis crispus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2020: e.T3811A22151909. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-2.RLTS.T3811A22151909.en. Retrieved 11 November 2021. https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/3811/22151909

  43. Ochiai & Susaki 2002, p. 970. - Ochiai, K.; Susaki, K. (2002). "Effects of Territoriality on Population Density in the Japanese serow (Capricornis crispus)". Journal of Mammalogy. 83 (4): 964–972. doi:10.1644/1545-1542(2002)083<0964:eotopd>2.0.co;2. JSTOR 1383502. https://doi.org/10.1644%2F1545-1542%282002%29083%3C0964%3Aeotopd%3E2.0.co%3B2

  44. Burton & Burton 2002, p. 2324. - Burton, Maurice; Burton, Robert, eds. (2002). International Wildlife Encyclopedia. Marshall Cavendish. pp. 2323–2324. ISBN 978-0-7614-7266-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=_YicMQmIA7wC&pg=PA2323

  45. A mean of 14.5 centimetres (5.7 in) for 30 males and 13.7 centimetres (5.4 in) for 30 females was found in a 1985 study at Gifu University.[28] /wiki/Gifu_University

  46. Jass & Mead 2004, p. 4. - Jass, Christopher N.; Mead, Jim I. (15 December 2004). "Capricornis crispus". Mammalian Species. 750: 1–10. doi:10.1644/750. ISSN 1545-1410. https://doi.org/10.1644%2F750

  47. Abe 2008, p. 113. - Abe, Hisashi, ed. (2008). 日本の哺乳類 (Nihon no Honyuurui) [A Guide to the Mammals of Japan] (in Japanese). Tokai University. ISBN 978-4-486-01802-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=PDukPQAACAAJ

  48. Jass & Mead 2004, p. 4. - Jass, Christopher N.; Mead, Jim I. (15 December 2004). "Capricornis crispus". Mammalian Species. 750: 1–10. doi:10.1644/750. ISSN 1545-1410. https://doi.org/10.1644%2F750

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  50. Jass & Mead 2004, p. 2. - Jass, Christopher N.; Mead, Jim I. (15 December 2004). "Capricornis crispus". Mammalian Species. 750: 1–10. doi:10.1644/750. ISSN 1545-1410. https://doi.org/10.1644%2F750

  51. Nawa 2009, p. 26. - Nawa, Akira (2009). 森の賢者カモシカ: 鈴鹿山地の定点観察記 (Mori no Kenja Kamoshika: Suzuka Sanchi no Teiten Kansatsu-ki) [Serow, Sage of the Forest: Record of Observation in the Suzuka Mountains] (in Japanese). Sunrise Publishing. ISBN 978-4-88325-389-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=5iBNQwAACAAJ

  52. Nawa 2009, p. 25. - Nawa, Akira (2009). 森の賢者カモシカ: 鈴鹿山地の定点観察記 (Mori no Kenja Kamoshika: Suzuka Sanchi no Teiten Kansatsu-ki) [Serow, Sage of the Forest: Record of Observation in the Suzuka Mountains] (in Japanese). Sunrise Publishing. ISBN 978-4-88325-389-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=5iBNQwAACAAJ

  53. Honda, Tatsukawa & Miura 1987, p. 365. - Honda, Katsuhisa; Tatsukawa, Ryo; Miura, Shingo (1987). "Heavy metal accumulation in wild Japanese serow". In Soma, Hiroaki (ed.). The Biology and Management of Capricornis and Related Mountain Antelopes. Springer. pp. 365–387. ISBN 978-94-011-8030-6.

  54. Maruyama, Ikeda & Tokida 1997, p. 271. - Maruyama, N.; Ikeda, H.; Tokida, K. (1997). "9.4 Japan". In Shackleton, David M. (ed.). Wild Sheep and Goats and Their Relatives: Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan for Caprinae. IUCN. pp. 271–274. ISBN 978-2-8317-0353-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=hJBodAXB9eoC&pg=PA271

  55. Maruyama, Ikeda & Tokida 1997, p. 271. - Maruyama, N.; Ikeda, H.; Tokida, K. (1997). "9.4 Japan". In Shackleton, David M. (ed.). Wild Sheep and Goats and Their Relatives: Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan for Caprinae. IUCN. pp. 271–274. ISBN 978-2-8317-0353-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=hJBodAXB9eoC&pg=PA271

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  57. Tokida 2020. - Tokida, K. (2020). "Capricornis crispus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2020: e.T3811A22151909. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-2.RLTS.T3811A22151909.en. Retrieved 11 November 2021. https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/3811/22151909

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  60. Tokida 2020. - Tokida, K. (2020). "Capricornis crispus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2020: e.T3811A22151909. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-2.RLTS.T3811A22151909.en. Retrieved 11 November 2021. https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/3811/22151909

  61. Doko & Chen 2013, p. 53. - Doko, Tomoko; Chen, Wenbo (2013). "The Geographical distribution and habitat use of the Japanese serow (Naemorhedus crispus) in the Fuji-Tanzawa region, Japan" (PDF). Journal of Environmental Information Science. 41 (5): 53–62. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-07-14. Retrieved 2014-06-25. https://web.archive.org/web/20140714134611/http://web.sfc.keio.ac.jp/~dokochan/doc/doko_etal2013JEIS_serow.pdf

  62. Tokida 2020. - Tokida, K. (2020). "Capricornis crispus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2020: e.T3811A22151909. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-2.RLTS.T3811A22151909.en. Retrieved 11 November 2021. https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/3811/22151909

  63. Tokida 2020. - Tokida, K. (2020). "Capricornis crispus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2020: e.T3811A22151909. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-2.RLTS.T3811A22151909.en. Retrieved 11 November 2021. https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/3811/22151909

  64. Abe 2008, p. 113. - Abe, Hisashi, ed. (2008). 日本の哺乳類 (Nihon no Honyuurui) [A Guide to the Mammals of Japan] (in Japanese). Tokai University. ISBN 978-4-486-01802-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=PDukPQAACAAJ

  65. Abe 2008, p. 113. - Abe, Hisashi, ed. (2008). 日本の哺乳類 (Nihon no Honyuurui) [A Guide to the Mammals of Japan] (in Japanese). Tokai University. ISBN 978-4-486-01802-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=PDukPQAACAAJ

  66. Jass & Mead 2004, p. 5. - Jass, Christopher N.; Mead, Jim I. (15 December 2004). "Capricornis crispus". Mammalian Species. 750: 1–10. doi:10.1644/750. ISSN 1545-1410. https://doi.org/10.1644%2F750

  67. Ono 2000, p. 25. - Ono, Yūichi (2000). ニホンカモシカのたどった道: 野生動物との共生を探る (Nihonkamoshika no tadotta michi: Yasei doubutsu to no kyōsei wo saguru) [The Path Taken by the Japanese Serow: Exploring Symbiosis with Wildlife] (in Japanese). Chuokoron-Shinsha. ISBN 978-4-12-101539-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=YkqKPQAACAAJ

  68. Knight 2003, p. 126. - Knight, John (2003). Waiting for Wolves in Japan: An Anthropological Study of People-Wildlife Relations: An Anthropological Study of People-Wildlife Relations. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-158864-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=iDqxEtYjD4YC

  69. Abe 2008, p. 113. - Abe, Hisashi, ed. (2008). 日本の哺乳類 (Nihon no Honyuurui) [A Guide to the Mammals of Japan] (in Japanese). Tokai University. ISBN 978-4-486-01802-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=PDukPQAACAAJ

  70. Jass & Mead 2004, p. 5. - Jass, Christopher N.; Mead, Jim I. (15 December 2004). "Capricornis crispus". Mammalian Species. 750: 1–10. doi:10.1644/750. ISSN 1545-1410. https://doi.org/10.1644%2F750

  71. Burton & Burton 2002, p. 2324. - Burton, Maurice; Burton, Robert, eds. (2002). International Wildlife Encyclopedia. Marshall Cavendish. pp. 2323–2324. ISBN 978-0-7614-7266-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=_YicMQmIA7wC&pg=PA2323

  72. Knight 2003, p. 130. - Knight, John (2003). Waiting for Wolves in Japan: An Anthropological Study of People-Wildlife Relations: An Anthropological Study of People-Wildlife Relations. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-158864-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=iDqxEtYjD4YC

  73. Tokida 2020. - Tokida, K. (2020). "Capricornis crispus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2020: e.T3811A22151909. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-2.RLTS.T3811A22151909.en. Retrieved 11 November 2021. https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/3811/22151909

  74. Jiang et al. 2008, p. 1220. - Jiang, Zhaowen; Torii, Harumi; Takatsuki, Seiki; Ohba, Takahiro (2008). "Local Variation in Diet Composition of the Japanese Serow During Winter". Zoological Science. 25 (12): 1220–1226. doi:10.2108/zsj.25.1220. PMID 19267649. S2CID 22040240. https://doi.org/10.2108%2Fzsj.25.1220

  75. Tokida 2020. - Tokida, K. (2020). "Capricornis crispus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2020: e.T3811A22151909. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-2.RLTS.T3811A22151909.en. Retrieved 11 November 2021. https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/3811/22151909

  76. Burton & Burton 2002, p. 2324. - Burton, Maurice; Burton, Robert, eds. (2002). International Wildlife Encyclopedia. Marshall Cavendish. pp. 2323–2324. ISBN 978-0-7614-7266-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=_YicMQmIA7wC&pg=PA2323

  77. Natori & Porter 2007, p. 1443. - Natori, Y.; Porter, W. P. (2007). "Model of Japanese Serow (Capricornis crispus) Energetics Predicts Distribution on Honshu, Japan". Ecological Applications. 17 (5): 1441–1459. Bibcode:2007EcoAp..17.1441N. doi:10.1890/06-1785.1. ISSN 1051-0761. PMID 17708220. https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007EcoAp..17.1441N

  78. Honda, Tatsukawa & Miura 1987, p. 368. - Honda, Katsuhisa; Tatsukawa, Ryo; Miura, Shingo (1987). "Heavy metal accumulation in wild Japanese serow". In Soma, Hiroaki (ed.). The Biology and Management of Capricornis and Related Mountain Antelopes. Springer. pp. 365–387. ISBN 978-94-011-8030-6.

  79. Natori & Porter 2007, p. 1456. - Natori, Y.; Porter, W. P. (2007). "Model of Japanese Serow (Capricornis crispus) Energetics Predicts Distribution on Honshu, Japan". Ecological Applications. 17 (5): 1441–1459. Bibcode:2007EcoAp..17.1441N. doi:10.1890/06-1785.1. ISSN 1051-0761. PMID 17708220. https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007EcoAp..17.1441N

  80. Abe 2008, p. 113. - Abe, Hisashi, ed. (2008). 日本の哺乳類 (Nihon no Honyuurui) [A Guide to the Mammals of Japan] (in Japanese). Tokai University. ISBN 978-4-486-01802-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=PDukPQAACAAJ

  81. Estimates place life expectancy at birth at 4.8–6.5 years,[1]

  82. Tokida 2020; Jass & Mead 2004, p. 4. - Tokida, K. (2020). "Capricornis crispus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2020: e.T3811A22151909. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-2.RLTS.T3811A22151909.en. Retrieved 11 November 2021. https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/3811/22151909

  83. Jass & Mead 2004, p. 4. - Jass, Christopher N.; Mead, Jim I. (15 December 2004). "Capricornis crispus". Mammalian Species. 750: 1–10. doi:10.1644/750. ISSN 1545-1410. https://doi.org/10.1644%2F750

  84. Inoshima 2010, p. 701. - Inoshima, Yasuo (2010). "Spatial and Temporal Genetic Homogeneity of Orf Viruses Infecting Japanese Serows (Capricornis crispus)". Journal of Veterinary Medical Science. 72 (6): 701–707. doi:10.1292/jvms.09-0467. hdl:20.500.12099/39514. PMID 20124763. Archived from the original on 2022-11-26. Retrieved 2014-06-30. https://web.archive.org/web/20221126051635/http://repository.lib.gifu-u.ac.jp/handle/123456789/39514

  85. Jass & Mead 2004, p. 4. - Jass, Christopher N.; Mead, Jim I. (15 December 2004). "Capricornis crispus". Mammalian Species. 750: 1–10. doi:10.1644/750. ISSN 1545-1410. https://doi.org/10.1644%2F750

  86. Sakae & Ishida 2012, p. 224; Jass & Mead 2004, p. 4. - Sakae, C.; Ishida, T. (February 2012). "Direct Evidence for Toxoplasma gondii Infection in a Wild Serow (Capricornis crispus) from Mainland Japan". Journal of Parasitology. 98 (1): 224–225. doi:10.1645/GE-2881.1. ISSN 1937-2345. PMID 21882974. S2CID 7779970. https://doi.org/10.1645%2FGE-2881.1

  87. Jass & Mead 2004, p. 4. - Jass, Christopher N.; Mead, Jim I. (15 December 2004). "Capricornis crispus". Mammalian Species. 750: 1–10. doi:10.1644/750. ISSN 1545-1410. https://doi.org/10.1644%2F750

  88. Although the Japanese serow is generally monogamous, a 1996 study showed that 20% of males to be polygynous with two females.[7]

  89. Kishimoto 2003, p. 147. - Kishimoto, Ryosuke (2003). "Social monogamy and social polygyny in a solitary ungulate, the Japanese Serow (Capricornis crispus)". In Reichard, Ulrich H.; Boesch, Christophe (eds.). Monogamy: Mating Strategies and Partnerships in Birds, Humans and Other Mammals. Cambridge University Press. pp. 147–158. ISBN 978-0-521-52577-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=zIu2K6KFsXEC&pg=PA147

  90. Tokida 2020. - Tokida, K. (2020). "Capricornis crispus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2020: e.T3811A22151909. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-2.RLTS.T3811A22151909.en. Retrieved 11 November 2021. https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/3811/22151909

  91. Burton & Burton 2002, p. 2324. - Burton, Maurice; Burton, Robert, eds. (2002). International Wildlife Encyclopedia. Marshall Cavendish. pp. 2323–2324. ISBN 978-0-7614-7266-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=_YicMQmIA7wC&pg=PA2323

  92. Togashi et al. 2009, p. 415. - Togashi, Mikiko; Tsujimoto, Tsunenori; Yamauchi, Kiyoshi; Deguchi, Yoshitaka; Hashizume, Kazuyoshi; Kizaki, Keiichiro; Honjou, Sachika; Izaike, Yoshiaki; Osawa, Takeshi (2009). "Plasma and Fecal Sex Steroid Hormone Profiles During the Estrous Cycle in a Japanese Serow (Capricornis crispus)". Journal of Reproduction and Development. 55 (4): 412–417. doi:10.1262/jrd.20165. PMID 19404003. https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/jrd/55/4/55_20165/_pdf

  93. Burton & Burton 2002, p. 2323. - Burton, Maurice; Burton, Robert, eds. (2002). International Wildlife Encyclopedia. Marshall Cavendish. pp. 2323–2324. ISBN 978-0-7614-7266-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=_YicMQmIA7wC&pg=PA2323

  94. Jass & Mead 2004, p. 5. - Jass, Christopher N.; Mead, Jim I. (15 December 2004). "Capricornis crispus". Mammalian Species. 750: 1–10. doi:10.1644/750. ISSN 1545-1410. https://doi.org/10.1644%2F750

  95. Burton & Burton 2002, p. 2323. - Burton, Maurice; Burton, Robert, eds. (2002). International Wildlife Encyclopedia. Marshall Cavendish. pp. 2323–2324. ISBN 978-0-7614-7266-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=_YicMQmIA7wC&pg=PA2323

  96. Jass & Mead 2004, p. 3. - Jass, Christopher N.; Mead, Jim I. (15 December 2004). "Capricornis crispus". Mammalian Species. 750: 1–10. doi:10.1644/750. ISSN 1545-1410. https://doi.org/10.1644%2F750

  97. Burton & Burton 2002, p. 2324. - Burton, Maurice; Burton, Robert, eds. (2002). International Wildlife Encyclopedia. Marshall Cavendish. pp. 2323–2324. ISBN 978-0-7614-7266-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=_YicMQmIA7wC&pg=PA2323

  98. Knight 2003, p. 126. - Knight, John (2003). Waiting for Wolves in Japan: An Anthropological Study of People-Wildlife Relations: An Anthropological Study of People-Wildlife Relations. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-158864-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=iDqxEtYjD4YC

  99. Jass & Mead 2004, p. 5. - Jass, Christopher N.; Mead, Jim I. (15 December 2004). "Capricornis crispus". Mammalian Species. 750: 1–10. doi:10.1644/750. ISSN 1545-1410. https://doi.org/10.1644%2F750

  100. Nawa 2009, p. 166. - Nawa, Akira (2009). 森の賢者カモシカ: 鈴鹿山地の定点観察記 (Mori no Kenja Kamoshika: Suzuka Sanchi no Teiten Kansatsu-ki) [Serow, Sage of the Forest: Record of Observation in the Suzuka Mountains] (in Japanese). Sunrise Publishing. ISBN 978-4-88325-389-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=5iBNQwAACAAJ

  101. Nawa 2009, pp. 166–167. - Nawa, Akira (2009). 森の賢者カモシカ: 鈴鹿山地の定点観察記 (Mori no Kenja Kamoshika: Suzuka Sanchi no Teiten Kansatsu-ki) [Serow, Sage of the Forest: Record of Observation in the Suzuka Mountains] (in Japanese). Sunrise Publishing. ISBN 978-4-88325-389-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=5iBNQwAACAAJ

  102. Nawa 2009, p. 167. - Nawa, Akira (2009). 森の賢者カモシカ: 鈴鹿山地の定点観察記 (Mori no Kenja Kamoshika: Suzuka Sanchi no Teiten Kansatsu-ki) [Serow, Sage of the Forest: Record of Observation in the Suzuka Mountains] (in Japanese). Sunrise Publishing. ISBN 978-4-88325-389-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=5iBNQwAACAAJ

  103. Nawa 2009, p. 168. - Nawa, Akira (2009). 森の賢者カモシカ: 鈴鹿山地の定点観察記 (Mori no Kenja Kamoshika: Suzuka Sanchi no Teiten Kansatsu-ki) [Serow, Sage of the Forest: Record of Observation in the Suzuka Mountains] (in Japanese). Sunrise Publishing. ISBN 978-4-88325-389-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=5iBNQwAACAAJ

  104. Nawa 2009, p. 168. - Nawa, Akira (2009). 森の賢者カモシカ: 鈴鹿山地の定点観察記 (Mori no Kenja Kamoshika: Suzuka Sanchi no Teiten Kansatsu-ki) [Serow, Sage of the Forest: Record of Observation in the Suzuka Mountains] (in Japanese). Sunrise Publishing. ISBN 978-4-88325-389-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=5iBNQwAACAAJ

  105. Nawa 2009, p. 168. - Nawa, Akira (2009). 森の賢者カモシカ: 鈴鹿山地の定点観察記 (Mori no Kenja Kamoshika: Suzuka Sanchi no Teiten Kansatsu-ki) [Serow, Sage of the Forest: Record of Observation in the Suzuka Mountains] (in Japanese). Sunrise Publishing. ISBN 978-4-88325-389-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=5iBNQwAACAAJ

  106. "Meat" (Japanese: 肉, Hepburn: niku)[49] /wiki/Japanese_language

  107. Knight 2003, p. 145. - Knight, John (2003). Waiting for Wolves in Japan: An Anthropological Study of People-Wildlife Relations: An Anthropological Study of People-Wildlife Relations. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-158864-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=iDqxEtYjD4YC

  108. Knight 2003, p. 150. - Knight, John (2003). Waiting for Wolves in Japan: An Anthropological Study of People-Wildlife Relations: An Anthropological Study of People-Wildlife Relations. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-158864-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=iDqxEtYjD4YC

  109. Tokida 2020. - Tokida, K. (2020). "Capricornis crispus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2020: e.T3811A22151909. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-2.RLTS.T3811A22151909.en. Retrieved 11 November 2021. https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/3811/22151909

  110. "Natural Monument" (Japanese: 天然記念物, Hepburn: ten'nen kinenbutsu) /wiki/Japanese_language

  111. Tokida 2020. - Tokida, K. (2020). "Capricornis crispus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2020: e.T3811A22151909. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-2.RLTS.T3811A22151909.en. Retrieved 11 November 2021. https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/3811/22151909

  112. "Special Natural Monument" (Japanese: 特別天然記念物, Hepburn: tokubetsu ten'nen kinenbutsu) /wiki/Japanese_language

  113. Maruyama, Ikeda & Tokida 1997, p. 271. - Maruyama, N.; Ikeda, H.; Tokida, K. (1997). "9.4 Japan". In Shackleton, David M. (ed.). Wild Sheep and Goats and Their Relatives: Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan for Caprinae. IUCN. pp. 271–274. ISBN 978-2-8317-0353-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=hJBodAXB9eoC&pg=PA271

  114. Burton & Burton 2002, p. 2323. - Burton, Maurice; Burton, Robert, eds. (2002). International Wildlife Encyclopedia. Marshall Cavendish. pp. 2323–2324. ISBN 978-0-7614-7266-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=_YicMQmIA7wC&pg=PA2323

  115. Maruyama, Ikeda & Tokida 1997, p. 271. - Maruyama, N.; Ikeda, H.; Tokida, K. (1997). "9.4 Japan". In Shackleton, David M. (ed.). Wild Sheep and Goats and Their Relatives: Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan for Caprinae. IUCN. pp. 271–274. ISBN 978-2-8317-0353-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=hJBodAXB9eoC&pg=PA271

  116. Tokida 2020. - Tokida, K. (2020). "Capricornis crispus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2020: e.T3811A22151909. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-2.RLTS.T3811A22151909.en. Retrieved 11 November 2021. https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/3811/22151909

  117. 15 such areas were originally proposed. Disputes with landowners have prevented their establishment in Kyushu and Shikoku.[1]

  118. Maruyama, Ikeda & Tokida 1997, p. 273. - Maruyama, N.; Ikeda, H.; Tokida, K. (1997). "9.4 Japan". In Shackleton, David M. (ed.). Wild Sheep and Goats and Their Relatives: Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan for Caprinae. IUCN. pp. 271–274. ISBN 978-2-8317-0353-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=hJBodAXB9eoC&pg=PA271

  119. Tokida 2020. - Tokida, K. (2020). "Capricornis crispus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2020: e.T3811A22151909. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-2.RLTS.T3811A22151909.en. Retrieved 11 November 2021. https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/3811/22151909

  120. Tokida 2020. - Tokida, K. (2020). "Capricornis crispus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2020: e.T3811A22151909. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-2.RLTS.T3811A22151909.en. Retrieved 11 November 2021. https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/3811/22151909

  121. Law for Protection of Cultural Properties (Japanese: 文化財保護法, Hepburn: bunkazai hogo-hō) /wiki/Japanese_language

  122. Wildlife Protection and Hunting Law (Japanese: 鳥獣の保護及び狩猟の適正化に関する法律, Hepburn: chōjū no hogo oyobi shuryō no tekiseika ni kansuru hōritsu) /wiki/Japanese_language

  123. Tokida 2020. - Tokida, K. (2020). "Capricornis crispus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2020: e.T3811A22151909. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-2.RLTS.T3811A22151909.en. Retrieved 11 November 2021. https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/3811/22151909

  124. Knight 2003, pp. 157–158. - Knight, John (2003). Waiting for Wolves in Japan: An Anthropological Study of People-Wildlife Relations: An Anthropological Study of People-Wildlife Relations. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-158864-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=iDqxEtYjD4YC

  125. Maruyama, Ikeda & Tokida 1997, p. 271. - Maruyama, N.; Ikeda, H.; Tokida, K. (1997). "9.4 Japan". In Shackleton, David M. (ed.). Wild Sheep and Goats and Their Relatives: Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan for Caprinae. IUCN. pp. 271–274. ISBN 978-2-8317-0353-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=hJBodAXB9eoC&pg=PA271

  126. Knight 2003, p. 137. - Knight, John (2003). Waiting for Wolves in Japan: An Anthropological Study of People-Wildlife Relations: An Anthropological Study of People-Wildlife Relations. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-158864-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=iDqxEtYjD4YC

  127. Knight 2003, p. 147. - Knight, John (2003). Waiting for Wolves in Japan: An Anthropological Study of People-Wildlife Relations: An Anthropological Study of People-Wildlife Relations. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-158864-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=iDqxEtYjD4YC

  128. Knight 2003, pp. 148–150. - Knight, John (2003). Waiting for Wolves in Japan: An Anthropological Study of People-Wildlife Relations: An Anthropological Study of People-Wildlife Relations. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-158864-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=iDqxEtYjD4YC

  129. Knight 2003, p. 147. - Knight, John (2003). Waiting for Wolves in Japan: An Anthropological Study of People-Wildlife Relations: An Anthropological Study of People-Wildlife Relations. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-158864-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=iDqxEtYjD4YC

  130. Knight 2003, p. 151. - Knight, John (2003). Waiting for Wolves in Japan: An Anthropological Study of People-Wildlife Relations: An Anthropological Study of People-Wildlife Relations. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-158864-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=iDqxEtYjD4YC

  131. Knight 2003, p. 157. - Knight, John (2003). Waiting for Wolves in Japan: An Anthropological Study of People-Wildlife Relations: An Anthropological Study of People-Wildlife Relations. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-158864-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=iDqxEtYjD4YC

  132. Knight 2003, p. 151. - Knight, John (2003). Waiting for Wolves in Japan: An Anthropological Study of People-Wildlife Relations: An Anthropological Study of People-Wildlife Relations. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-158864-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=iDqxEtYjD4YC

  133. Knight 2003, p. 151. - Knight, John (2003). Waiting for Wolves in Japan: An Anthropological Study of People-Wildlife Relations: An Anthropological Study of People-Wildlife Relations. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-158864-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=iDqxEtYjD4YC

  134. Knight 2003, p. 152. - Knight, John (2003). Waiting for Wolves in Japan: An Anthropological Study of People-Wildlife Relations: An Anthropological Study of People-Wildlife Relations. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-158864-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=iDqxEtYjD4YC

  135. Knight 2003, p. 152. - Knight, John (2003). Waiting for Wolves in Japan: An Anthropological Study of People-Wildlife Relations: An Anthropological Study of People-Wildlife Relations. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-158864-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=iDqxEtYjD4YC

  136. Tokida 2020. - Tokida, K. (2020). "Capricornis crispus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2020: e.T3811A22151909. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-2.RLTS.T3811A22151909.en. Retrieved 11 November 2021. https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/3811/22151909

  137. Ono 2000, p. 145. - Ono, Yūichi (2000). ニホンカモシカのたどった道: 野生動物との共生を探る (Nihonkamoshika no tadotta michi: Yasei doubutsu to no kyōsei wo saguru) [The Path Taken by the Japanese Serow: Exploring Symbiosis with Wildlife] (in Japanese). Chuokoron-Shinsha. ISBN 978-4-12-101539-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=YkqKPQAACAAJ

  138. "living national treasure of the forest" (Japanese: 森の生きている国宝, Hepburn: mori no ikiteiru kokuhō)[60] /wiki/Japanese_language

  139. Knight 2003, p. 148. - Knight, John (2003). Waiting for Wolves in Japan: An Anthropological Study of People-Wildlife Relations: An Anthropological Study of People-Wildlife Relations. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-158864-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=iDqxEtYjD4YC

  140. Knight 2003, pp. 129–130. - Knight, John (2003). Waiting for Wolves in Japan: An Anthropological Study of People-Wildlife Relations: An Anthropological Study of People-Wildlife Relations. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-158864-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=iDqxEtYjD4YC

  141. Knight 2003, p. 130. - Knight, John (2003). Waiting for Wolves in Japan: An Anthropological Study of People-Wildlife Relations: An Anthropological Study of People-Wildlife Relations. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-158864-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=iDqxEtYjD4YC