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Hassan II of Morocco
King of Morocco from 1961 to 1999

Hassan II was King of Morocco from 1961 to 1999 and a prominent member of the Alawi dynasty. He became crown prince in 1957 and served as the first commander-in-chief of the Royal Armed Forces before ascending the throne after the death of his father, King Mohammed V. His reign faced significant challenges, including the Western Sahara conflict, the Sand War, and two coup attempts in 1971 and 1972. Hassan II's rule was simultaneously strengthened and criticized for authoritarian practices and human rights abuses, prompting the establishment of a truth commission after his death to address these concerns.

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Early life and education

Mawlay al-Hassan bin Mohammed bin Yusef al-Alawi was born on 9 July 1929 at the Dar al-Makhzen in Rabat, during the French protectorate in Morocco, as the eldest son to Sultan Mohammed V and his second wife, Lalla Abla bint Tahar, as a member of the 'Alawi dynasty.234

He first studied Islamic sciences at the Dar al-Makhzen in Fez. He then became a student at the Royal College in Rabat, where instruction was conducted in Arabic and French and a class was created for him. Mehdi Ben Barka was notably his mathematics teacher for four years at the Royal College.567 In June 1948, he obtained his baccalaureate from the Royal College.8

Hassan pursued his higher education at the Rabat Institute of Higher Studies, a department of the University of Bordeaux, from where he received a law degree in 1951.9 In 1952, he earned a master's degree in public law from the University of Bordeaux before serving in the French Navy on board the Jeanne d'Arc cruiser.10111213 He was a doctoral student at the Faculty of Law of Bordeaux in 1953, when his family's exile occurred.1415 After having ascended the throne, on 25 June 1963, Dean Lajugie presented him with the insignia of Doctor Honoris Causa of the University of Bordeaux.16

Heir apparent

In 1943, a twelve-year-old Hassan attended the Casablanca Conference at the Anfa Hotel along with his father, where he met United States President Franklin D. Roosevelt, Prime Minister Winston Churchill and General Charles de Gaulle.1718 In 1947, he attended his father's speech in what was then the Tangier International Zone. In the speech, Sultan Mohammed wished for the French and Spanish protectorates and the Tangier International Zone to be unified into one nation.19 The speech became a reference for Moroccan nationalists and anti-colonial movements and later led to Morocco's independence.20

Hassan later claimed that he had "profound resentment" towards the protectorate and that he felt "deep humiliation" from French colonialism.21 Despite paying hommage to Hubert Lyautey, the first resident-general of the French protectorate, he was highly critical of Lyautey's successors, noting their "stubborn stupidity" and "total insensitivity".2223

Hassan and his family were forced into exile by French authorities on 20 August 1953, being deported to Zonza in Corsica. Their deportation led to protests and further fueled the anti-colonial movement.24 They moved to the city of L'Île-Rousse and lived at the Napoléon Bonaparte hotel for five months before being transferred to Antsirabe, Madagascar in January 1954.2526 During this time, Mohammed Ben Aarafa was named sultan in Morocco by the French government.272829

Prince Hassan acted as his father's political advisor during their exile. They returned to Morocco on 16 November 1955.3031 He participated with his father in the February 1956 negotiations for Moroccan independence.32 Following Morocco's independence from France, his father named him commander-in-chief of the newly founded Royal Moroccan Armed Forces in April 1956.33 The same year, he led army contingents to victory after defeating rebel militias during the Rif revolt.34 It was during his tenure as commander-in-chief that he met General Mohamed Oufkir,353637 who became Minister of Defense during his reign.38 Oufkir would later suspected of orchestrating a failed coup d'état to kill Hassan in 1972.39

After Mohammed V changed the title of the Moroccan sovereign from Sultan to King in 1957, Hassan was proclaimed Crown Prince on 9 July 1957.4041 In this position, he was the president of the organising committee of the International Meeting at the monastery of Toumliline in 1957 and gave a welcome speech.42

Reign

Hassan ascended the throne on 26 February 1961 on his father's death.434445 His enthronement took place at the Royal Palace of Rabat on 3 March 1961, and he also inherited the position of prime minister.4647

Domestic policy

Further information: Years of Lead (Morocco)

In 1962, Hassan and his aides wrote Morocco's first constitution, defining the kingdom as a social and democratic constitutional monarchy, making Islam the state religion, and creating the title of Amir al-Mu'minin and "supreme representative of the nation" for the king, whose person was defined as "inviolable and sacred". The constitution also reaffirmed a multi-party political system, the only one which existed in the Maghreb at that time.4849 The constitution provoked strong political protest from the UNFP and the Istiqlal and other leftist parties that formed the opposition at the time.50

Hassan's reign was infamous for a poor human rights record labeled as "appalling" by the BBC.51 It was, however, at its worst during the period from the 1960s to the late 1980s, which was labelled as the "years of lead"5253 and saw thousands of dissidents jailed, killed, exiled or forcibly disappeared. The country would only become relatively freer by the early 1990s under strong international pressure and condemnation over its human rights record. Since then, Morocco's human rights record has improved modestly and improved significantly during the reign of Hassan's successor Mohammed VI. In 2004, the Equity and Reconciliation Commission was created by Mohammed to investigate human rights abuses during his father's reign.5455

Hassan imprisoned many members of the National Union of Popular Forces and sentenced some party leaders, including Mehdi Ben Barka, to death.56 A series of student protests began on 21 March 1965 in Casablanca, and devolved into general riots the following day; the resulting violent repression led to hundreds of deaths. In the aftermath, on 26 March, Hassan gave a speech that he concluded with: "There is no greater danger to a country than a so-called intellectual; it would have been better if you had all been illiterate."575859

In June, he dissolved parliament and suspended the constitution of 1962, declaring a state of exception that would last more than five years, in which he ruled Morocco directly; however, he did not completely abolish the mechanisms of parliamentary democracy.606162 An alleged report from the U.S. Secretary of State claimed that, during this period, "Hassan [appeared] obsessed with the preservation of his power rather than with its application toward the resolution of Morocco's multiplying domestic problems."63

In October 1965, Mehdi Ben Barka, a key political opponent and fierce critic of Hassan, was kidnapped and disappeared in Paris.64 In Rise and Kill First, Ronen Bergman points to cooperation between the Moroccan authorities and Israel's Mossad in locating Ben Barka.65

In 1990, following riots in Fez, Hassan set up the Consultative Human Rights Council to look into allegations of abuse by the State.66 In 1991, he pardoned two thousand prisoners, including political prisoners and people held in secret prisons including in Tazmamart.67 In 1998, the first opposition-led government was elected.68

During his reign, Morocco was labeled as "partly free" by Freedom House, except for a "not free" ranking in 1992.69

Attempted coups d'état

See also: 1971 Moroccan coup d'état attempt and 1972 Moroccan coup d'état attempt

In the early 1970s, Hassan survived two assassination attempts. The first occurred on 10 July 1971 during his forty-second birthday party at his palace in Skhirat, near Rabat.70 The attempted coup was carried out by up to 1,400 army cadets from the Ahermoumou military training academy led by General Mohamed Medbouh and Colonel M'hamed Ababou. Hassan was reported to have hidden in a bathroom whilst grenades were thrown and rapid shots were fired.7172 The rebels also raided and took over the offices of the RTM, Morocco's state-owned broadcasting company, broadcasting propaganda claiming that the king had been murdered and that a republic had been founded.73 Ababou gave orders to rebels through Radio-Maroc, ordering the execution of everyone in the palace by asking that "dinner be served to everyone by 7 pm" on air.74 The coup ended the same day when royalist troops took over the palace in combat against the rebels.7576 After firing died down, Hassan ended up face-to-face with one of the rebel commanders; he reportedly intimidated the leader of the rebel troops by reciting a verse of the Quran, and the commander knelt and kissed his right hand.77 An estimated 400 people were killed by rebels during the attempted coup; loyal troops within the Royal Moroccan Armed Forces under the command of Hassan killed more than 150 and detained 900 people in connection with the coup.7879 It was subsequently claimed by Moroccan authorities that the young cadets had been misled by senior officers into thinking that they were acting to protect the king.8081 Hassan himself had claimed that the coup was supported by Libya, raising tensions between the two countries.8283 The next day, Hassan attended the funerals of royalist soldiers killed during the attempted coup.84

On 16 August 1972, during a second coup attempt, six F-5 military jets from the Royal Moroccan Air Force opened fire on the king's Boeing 727 while flying at a 3 km (1.9 mi) altitude over Tétouan on the way to Rabat from Barcelona,8586 killing eight people on board and injuring fifty. A bullet hit the fuselage but they failed to take the plane down despite it being badly damaged.878889 The military jets were loaded with practice ammunition rather than missiles, severely impacting the coup's effectiveness.90 Hassan hurried to the cockpit, took control of the radio, and reportedly shouted: "Stop firing, the tyrant is dead!";919293 however, conflicting reports state that he posed as a mechanic and stated that both pilots died and the king was badly injured, convincing the pilots to stop.9495

220 members of the Air Force were arrested for partaking in the coup plot, 177 of whom were acquitted, 32 were found guilty, and 11 people were sentenced to death by a military tribunal.9697 After making an emergency landing at Rabat–Salé International Airport, Hassan escaped to his palace in Shkirat in an unmarked car.98 Mohamed Amekrane, a colonel suspected to be a main part of the coup, attempted to flee to Gibraltar; however, his asylum application was declined and he was sent back to Morocco. He was later sentenced to death by firing squad.99100101 General Mohamed Oufkir, Morocco's defense minister at the time, was suspected to have led the coup; he was later found dead from multiple gunshot wounds, with his death officially determined to be a suicide.102103104 Hassan declared that he "must not place [his] trust in anyone" after what he perceived as treason from Oufkir.105 The attempted coups reportedly reinforced his rule over Morocco.106

Foreign policy

Hassan's first official foreign visit as King was to attend the 1st Summit of the Non-Aligned Movement, which took place in September 1961 in Belgrade.107108

In the Cold War era, Hassan allied Morocco with the West generally, and with the United States and France in particular. His obituary in The New York Times described him as "a monarch oriented to the west".109 There were close and continuing ties between the royal government and the CIA, who helped to reorganize Morocco's security forces in 1960.110 During Hassan's tenure as prime minister, Morocco controversially accepted Soviet military aid and made overtures towards Moscow. During an interview, he stated that "as an Islamic people, [Morocco has] the right to practice bigamy. We can wed East and West and be faithful to both".111

In 1975, he created the Al-Quds Committee, a non-governmental organization aimed to "preserve the Arab-Muslim character" of Jerusalem. It works on the restoration of mosques and the creation of hospitals and schools in the city.112113 The committee also gives out scholarship to students living in the city, as well as donating equipment to schools and kindergartens.114115 Hassan also admitted Norbert Calmels [fr], a French member of the Holy See and one of his personal friends, to the Academy of the Kingdom of Morocco. Calmels was responsible for bringing about a rapprochement between Islam and Christianity.116117

Hassan was alleged to have covertly cooperated with the State of Israel and Israeli intelligence.118119 In what was termed Operation Yachin, he negotiated for the migration of over 97,000 Moroccan Jews to Israel from 1961 to 1964 in exchange for weapons and training for Morocco's security forces and intelligence agencies.120 The Moroccan Jewish community was historically among the largest in the Muslim world.121 In an arrangement financed by the American Hebrew Immigrant Aid Society (HIAS), Hassan was paid a sum of $500,000 along with $100 for each of the first 50,000 Moroccan Jews to be migrated to Israel, and $250 for each Jewish emigrant thereafter.122123

Hassan served as a mediator between Arab countries and Israel. In 1977, he served as a key backchannel in peace talks between Egypt and Israel, hosting secret meetings between Israeli and Egyptian officials; these meetings led to the Egypt–Israel peace treaty.124

According to Shlomo Gazit, during an interview with Yedioth Ahronoth, then-leader of the Military Intelligence Directorate, Hassan invited Mossad and Shin Bet agents to bug the Casablanca hotel hosting the 1965 Arab League summit to record conversations of participating Arab leaders. This information was instrumental in Israel's victory in the Six-Day War.125126 Ronen Bergman claimed in his book, Rise And Kill First, that Israeli intelligence then supplied information leading to Mehdi Ben Barka's capture and assassination.127 Bergman also alleged that the Moroccan DST and Mossad collaborated in a 1996 plot to assassinate Osama bin Laden. The plot involved a woman close to bin Laden who was an informant for the DST; however, the mission was aborted due to rising tensions between Morocco and Israel.128129

Relations with Mauritania remained strained due to Moroccan claims to the entirety of Mauritanian territory, with Morocco only recognizing Mauritania as a sovereign state in 1969, nearly a decade after the latter's declaration of independence.130 In 1984, as a result of the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (SADR) joining the Organisation of African Unity two years prior, Hassan declared the suspension of Morocco's membership of the organisation.131132 Morocco entered into a diplomatic crisis with Burkinabé President Thomas Sankara following his decision to recognize the SADR.133

Hassan was close to Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi of Iran, even hosting him in 1979 when he was exiled.134

Armed conflicts

On 14 October 1963, the Sand War was declared as a result of failed negotiations over borders inherited from French colonialism between Hassan and Algeria's newly elected president Ahmed Ben Bella.135136 The war heavily damaged both countries' economies, and the king ordered his citizens to call off Eid al-Adha festivities in part due to the economic recession caused by the war.137 A peace treaty and armistice ended the war on 15 January 1969.138139 Hassan later claimed that the war was "stupid and a real setback".140

Hassan sent 11,000 troops, one infantry brigade to Egypt and one armored regiment to Syria during the 1973 Yom Kippur War, in which six Moroccan troops were captured.141142143 During Hassan's reign, Morocco recovered the Spanish-controlled area of Ifni in 1969, and gained control of two-thirds of what was formerly Spanish Sahara through the Green March in 1975.144 The nationalist Polisario Front subsequently engaged in a war for control of the territory, with support from Algeria, and relations between the two countries deteriorated further as a result.145

Economy

Hassan adopted a market-based economy, where agriculture, tourism, and phosphates mining industries played a major role.146 In 1967, he launched an irrigation project consisting of over a million hectares of land.147

The king eventually came to develop very good relations with parts of the French media and financial elite. In 1988, the contract for the construction of the Great Mosque of Casablanca, a considerable project in scale, financed through compulsory contributions, was awarded to a civil engineering firm owned by Francis Bouygues, one of the most powerful businessmen in France and a personal friend of Hassan's. His image in France was tarnished, however, following the publication in 1990 of Gilles Perrault's Our Friend the King, describing detention conditions in Tazmamart, the repression of left-wing opponents and Sahrawis, political assassinations, and the poor socioeconomic conditions in which the majority of Moroccans lived.148

On 3 March 1973, Hassan announced a policy of "Moroccanization", in which state-held assets, agricultural lands, and businesses that were more than fifty percent foreign-owned were taken over and transferred to local companies and businessmen.149150151 This economic policy affected thousands of businesses, and the proportion of locally-owned industrial businesses in Morocco immediately increased from 18% to 55%.152 Two-thirds of the wealth of the "Moroccanized" economy were concentrated in 36 Moroccan families.153

In 1988, he also adopted a privatization policy. Beginning in 1993, more than a hundred public companies were privatized.154 It was primarily carried out by the king and his advisor, André Azoulay. Subsequently, the French group Accor was able to acquire six hotels from the Moroccan chain Moussafir and the management of the Jamaï Palace in Fez. This privatization operation enabled notables close to the Moroccan government to control the most prominent public companies, and French companies to make a strong comeback in the country's economy. The royal family also acquired the mining group Monagem.155

Death and funeral

Main article: Death and funeral of Hassan II of Morocco

On 23 July 1999, Hassan was admitted to the CHU Ibn Sina Hospital in Rabat for acute interstitial pneumonitis; at 16:30 (GMT), he was pronounced dead from a myocardial infarction at the age of 70.156157158

The Moroccan government ordered forty days of mourning, while entertainment and cultural events were cancelled, and public institutions and many businesses were closed upon news of the king's death.159 Several world leaders expressed their condolences, and days of mourning were also declared in several other countries, the majority being Arab states.160 He was succeeded by his eldest son, Mohammed VI, whose enthronement ceremony was held a week later.161162

Hassan was buried on 25 July at the Mausoleum of Mohammed V in Rabat, following an Islamic funeral ceremony.163 His coffin, which was covered in a cloth depicting Islamic calligraphy, was carried by his two sons, King Mohammed VI and Prince Moulay Rachid.164165

Personal life

Hassan was described in an official royal palace biography after his death as "well versed in the fields of architecture, medicine and technology" and that he gave his children a "strong commitment to the search for learning and a dedication to uphold the values of their country and their people".166 Hassan was fluent in Arabic and French and spoke "capable English".167 He often quoted verse 29:46 (Al-Ankabut) of the Quran.168

In 1956, then-prince Hassan began a relationship with French actress Etchika Choureau, whom he met in Cannes in 1956.169 The relationship ended in 1961 after Hassan's ascension to the throne.170171 Later that year, on 9 November, he married Lalla Latifa Amahzoune, an ethnic Zayane and a granddaughter of Berber chief Mouha ou Hammou Zayani, during a double nuptial ceremony with his brother Prince Moulay Abdallah.172173 Prior to marrying Lalla Latifa, he was married to her cousin Fatima who was the daughter of the Berber tribal leader, Qaid Amharoq. According to Malika Oufkir in her autobiography Stolen Lives, Hassan had some forty concubines as well as forty inherited from his father. They were given various tasks like washing his feet, dressing him on holidays, bearing incense or keeping the palace keys. Hassan and Lalla Latifa had five children:174

Honors and decorations

National orders

Foreign orders

Honorary prizes

Ancestry

Ancestors of Hassan II of Morocco
8. (=12.) Hassan I of Morocco
4. Yusef of Morocco
9. (=13.) Lalla Oum al-Khair
2. Mohammed V of Morocco
5. Lalla Yacout
1. Hassan II of Morocco
12. (=8.) Hassan I of Morocco
6. Moulay Mohammed Tahar ben Hassan
13. (=9.) Lalla Oum al-Khair
3. Lalla Abla bint Tahar

Bibliography

See also

Notes

References

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  4. Gregory, Joseph (24 July 1999). "Hassan II of Morocco Dies at 70; A Monarch Oriented to the West". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 3 February 2020. Retrieved 17 January 2022. https://www.nytimes.com/1999/07/24/world/hassan-ii-of-morocco-dies-at-70-a-monarch-oriented-to-the-west.html ↩

  5. Miller, Susan Gilson (2013). A History of Modern Morocco. New York: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9781139045834. ISBN 978-1-139-62469-5. OCLC 855022840. Archived from the original on 2 July 2020. Retrieved 22 January 2022. 978-1-139-62469-5 ↩

  6. Hassan II, King of Morocco (1993). La mémoire d'un roi : entretiens avec Eric Laurent. Éric Laurent. Paris: Plon. ISBN 2-259-02596-X. OCLC 28547610. Archived from the original on 25 January 2022. Retrieved 25 January 2022. 2-259-02596-X ↩

  7. "قضية المهدي بن بركة تعود للواجهة بقوة في المغرب بعد مرور نصف قرن على اختطافه". CNN Arabic (in Arabic). 30 October 2015. Archived from the original on 6 March 2022. Retrieved 6 March 2022. https://arabic.cnn.com/world/2015/10/31/ben-barka-morocco-0 ↩

  8. Coindreau, Roger; Penz, Charles (1949). Le Maroc: Maroc français, Maroc espagnol, Tanger (in French). Société d'éditions géographiques, maritimes et coloniales. p. 60. Prince Moulay el-Hassan passed the second part of the baccalaureate in June 1948. He studied at the Imperial College with his brother Moulay Abdallah under the direction of French and Moroccan professors https://books.google.com/books?id=7WhxAAAAMAAJ&q=maroc+prince+Moulay+Hassan+baccalaur%C3%A9at ↩

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  10. Gregory, Joseph (24 July 1999). "Hassan II of Morocco Dies at 70; A Monarch Oriented to the West". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 3 February 2020. Retrieved 17 January 2022. https://www.nytimes.com/1999/07/24/world/hassan-ii-of-morocco-dies-at-70-a-monarch-oriented-to-the-west.html ↩

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  12. Benmansour, Abdelouahab (1969). Hassan II, sa vie, sa lutte, ses réalisations. Rabat: Imprimerie Royale. ↩

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  15. Malherbe, Marc (1996). La Faculté de Droit de Bordeaux: (1870 - 1970) (in French). Presses Univ de Bordeaux. p. 152. ISBN 978-2-86781-163-0. 978-2-86781-163-0 ↩

  16. Malherbe, Marc (1996). La Faculté de Droit de Bordeaux: (1870 - 1970) (in French). Presses Univ de Bordeaux. p. 152. ISBN 978-2-86781-163-0. 978-2-86781-163-0 ↩

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  18. "Lesson of Casablanca Conference Timely After 50 Years: Have Clear Goals". 16 January 1993. Archived from the original on 18 April 2022. Retrieved 22 June 2021. https://www.sun-sentinel.com/news/fl-xpm-1993-01-16-9301030814-story.html ↩

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  20. Mouhsine, Réda. "5 choses à savoir sur le discours de Tanger prononcé par Mohammed V". Telquel. Archived from the original on 22 January 2022. Retrieved 22 January 2022. https://telquel.ma/2017/04/09/5-choses-savoir-discours-tanger-prononce-mohammed-v_1542574 ↩

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  22. Neumann, Robert G. (1980). "Review of The Challenge: The Memoirs of King Hassan II of Morocco, King Hassan, II". Middle East Journal. 34 (1): 79–80. ISSN 0026-3141. JSTOR 4325990. Archived from the original on 25 January 2022. Retrieved 25 January 2022. https://www.jstor.org/stable/4325990 ↩

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  24. Benargane, Yassine. "Mohammed V à Tanger pour prononcer son discours historique". Yabiladi. Archived from the original on 13 September 2022. Retrieved 22 January 2022. https://www.yabiladi.com/articles/details/52704/avril-1947-mohammed-tanger-pour.html ↩

  25. BÉZIE, Grégoire (3 October 2013). "En 1953, l'exil corse du roi Mohammed V du Maroc". France 3 Corse. Archived from the original on 22 January 2022. Retrieved 22 January 2022. https://france3-regions.francetvinfo.fr/corse/2013/10/03/en-1953-l-exil-corse-du-roi-mohammed-v-du-maroc-331057.html ↩

  26. "Retour de l'exil de Feu SM Mohammed V : Un événement glorieux dans l'histoire de la lutte pour l'indépendance du Maroc". Aujourd'hui Le Maroc. 18 November 2021. Archived from the original on 22 January 2022. Retrieved 22 January 2022. https://aujourdhui.ma/actualite/retour-de-lexil-de-feu-sm-mohammed-v-un-evenement-glorieux-dans-lhistoire-de-la-lutte-pour-lindependance-du-maroc ↩

  27. Mohammed Ben Arafa's title is not recognized by the Moroccan government. ↩

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  29. "L'autre Mohammed VI". Zamane (in French). 30 October 2012. Archived from the original on 3 August 2017. Retrieved 9 March 2022. https://zamane.ma/lautre-mohammed-vi/ ↩

  30. Gregory, Joseph (24 July 1999). "Hassan II of Morocco Dies at 70; A Monarch Oriented to the West". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 3 February 2020. Retrieved 17 January 2022. https://www.nytimes.com/1999/07/24/world/hassan-ii-of-morocco-dies-at-70-a-monarch-oriented-to-the-west.html ↩

  31. Michbal, Mehdi; Hamndani, Hassan. "La vraie histoire de l'exil de Mohammed V à Madagascar". Telquel. Archived from the original on 22 January 2022. Retrieved 22 January 2022. https://telquel.ma/2016/11/21/exil-alaouites-vraie-histoire_1524468 ↩

  32. Gregory, Joseph (24 July 1999). "Hassan II of Morocco Dies at 70; A Monarch Oriented to the West". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 3 February 2020. Retrieved 17 January 2022. https://www.nytimes.com/1999/07/24/world/hassan-ii-of-morocco-dies-at-70-a-monarch-oriented-to-the-west.html ↩

  33. Gregory, Joseph (24 July 1999). "Hassan II of Morocco Dies at 70; A Monarch Oriented to the West". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 3 February 2020. Retrieved 17 January 2022. https://www.nytimes.com/1999/07/24/world/hassan-ii-of-morocco-dies-at-70-a-monarch-oriented-to-the-west.html ↩

  34. Ait Akdim, Youssef (28 April 2017). "Le temps qui passe n'éteint pas la colère d'Al-Hoceima, dans le nord du Maroc". Le Monde (in French). Archived from the original on 25 January 2022. Retrieved 25 January 2022. https://www.lemonde.fr/afrique/article/2017/04/28/le-temps-qui-passe-n-eteint-pas-la-colere-d-al-hoceima-dans-le-nord-du-maroc_5119340_3212.html ↩

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