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Peshawar
Capital city of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan

Peshawar, the capital and largest city of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province in Pakistan, is situated in the Valley of Peshawar near the historic Khyber Pass. With a population exceeding 4.7 million as of 2023, it is mainly inhabited by Pashtuns. One of South Asia’s oldest cities, Peshawar’s history dates back to 539 BCE and it was a key city in the ancient Gāndhāra civilization. It served as the capital of the Kushan Empire under Kanishka and housed the famous Kanishka Stupa. Over time, Peshawar was ruled by the Hephthalites, Hindu Shahis, various Muslim empires, and was an important trade center in the Mughal Empire before becoming part of the Durrani Empire and later the Sikh Empire. It was annexed by the East India Company in 1849 and remained under the British Raj until Pakistan’s independence in 1947.

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Etymology

The modern name of the city "Peshawar" is possibly derived from the [reconstructed] Sanskrit word "Purushapura" (Sanskrit: पुरूषपुर Puruṣapura, meaning "City of Men" or "City of Purusha").121314 It was named so by Mughal Emperor Akbar from its old name Parashawar, the meaning of which Akbar did not understand.1516 The ruler of the city during its founding may have been a Hindu raja named Purush; the word pur means "city" in Sanskrit.171819 Sanskrit, written in the Kharosthi script, was the literary language (along with Gandhari Prakrit) employed by the Buddhist kingdoms which ruled over the area during its earliest recorded period.20 The city's name may also be derived from the Sanskrit name for "City of Flowers," Poshapura, a name found in an ancient Kharosthi inscription that may refer to Peshawar.21

Chinese Buddhist monk Xuanzang's seventh-century account of a city in Gandhara called the city Po-la-sha-pu-lo (Chinese: 布路沙布邏, bùlùshābùló), and an earlier fifth-century account by Fa-Hien records the city's name as Fou-lou-sha (Chinese: 弗樓沙, fùlóshā), the Chinese equivalent of the Sanskrit name of the city, Purushapura.2223 An ancient inscription from the Shapur era identifies a city in the Gandhara valley by the name pskbvr, which may be a reference to Peshawar.24

The Arab historian and geographer al-Masudi noted that by the mid-tenth century, the city was known as Parashāwar. The name was noted to be Purshawar and Purushavar by al-Biruni.25

The city began to be known as Peshāwar by the era of Emperor Akbar.26 The current name is said by some to have been based upon the Persian word for "frontier town"27 or, more literally, "forward city", though transcription errors and linguistic shifts may account for the city's new name. One theory suggests that the city's name is derived from the Persian name "Pesh Awardan", meaning "place of first arrival" or "frontier city", as Peshawar was the first city in the Indian subcontinent after crossing the Khyber Pass.2829 Akbar's bibliographer, Abu'l-Fazl ibn Mubarak, lists the city's name as both Parashāwar, transcribed in Persian as پَرَشَاوَر,30 and Peshāwar (پشاور).31

History

Main articles: History of Peshawar and Timeline of Peshawar

Ancient history

Peshawar alongside the modern day Gandhara region were found in the Vedic Scripture as Pushkalavati.32

Foundation

Peshawar was founded as the city of Puruṣapura,333435 on the Gandhara Plains in the broad Valley of Peshawar in 100 CE.3637 It may have been named after a Hindu raja who ruled the city who was known as Purush.38 The city likely first existed as a small village in the fifth century BCE,39 Puruṣapura was founded near the ancient Gandharan capital city of Pushkalavati, near present-day Charsadda.4041

Greek rule

In the winter of 327–26 BCE, Alexander the Great subdued the Valley of Peshawar during his invasion of the Indus Valley,42 as well as the nearby Swat and Buner valleys.43 Following Alexander's conquest, the Valley of Peshawar came under the suzerainty of Seleucus I Nicator, founder of the Seleucid Empire. A locally-made vase fragment that was found in Peshawar depicts a scene from Sophocles' play Antigone.44

Mauryan empire

Following the Seleucid–Mauryan war, the region was ceded to the Mauryan Empire in 303 BCE. Around 300 BCE, the Greek diplomat and historian Megasthenes noted that Purushapura was the western terminus of a Mauryan road that connected the city to the empire's capital at Pataliputra, near the city of Patna in the modern-day Indian state of Bihar.4546

As Mauryan power declined, the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom based in modern Afghanistan declared its independence from the Seleucid Empire, and quickly seized ancient Peshawar around 190 BCE. The city was then captured by Gondophares, founder of the Indo-Parthian Kingdom. Gondophares established the nearby Takht-i-Bahi monastery in 46 CE.47

Kushan empire

In the first century of the Common Era, Purushapura came under control of Kujula Kadphises, founder of the Kushan Empire.48 The city was made the empire's winter capital.49 The Kushan's summer capital at Kapisi (modern Bagram, Afghanistan)50 was seen as the secondary capital of the empire,51 while Puruṣapura was considered to be the empire's primary capital.52 Ancient Peshawar's population was estimated to be 120,000, which would make it the seventh-most populous city in the world at the time.5354 As a devout Buddhist, the emperor built the grand Kanishka Mahavihara monastery.55 After his death, the magnificent Kanishka stupa was built in Peshawar to house Buddhist relics. The golden age of Kushan empire in Peshawar ended in 232 CE with the death of the last great Kushan king, Vasudeva I.

Around 260 CE, the armies of the Sasanid Emperor Shapur I launched an attack against Peshawar,56 and severely damaged Buddhist monuments and monasteries throughout the Valley of Peshawar.57 Shapur's campaign also resulted in damage to the city's monumental stupa and monastery.58 The Kushans were made subordinate to the Sasanids and their power rapidly dwindled,59 as the Sasanids blocked lucrative trade routes westward out of the city.60

Kushan Emperor Kanishka III was able to temporarily reestablish control over the entire Valley of Peshawar after Shapur's invasion,61 but the city was then captured by the Central Asian Kidarite kingdom in the early 400s CE.62

White Huns

The White Huns devastated ancient Peshawar in the 460s CE,63 and ravaged the entire region of Gandhara, destroying its numerous monasteries.64 The Kanishka stupa was rebuilt during the White Hun era with the construction of a tall wooden superstructure, built atop a stone base,65 and crowned with a 13-layer copper-gilded chatra.66 In the 400s CE, the Chinese Buddhist pilgrim Faxian visited the structure and described it as "the highest of all the towers" in the "terrestrial world",67 which ancient travelers claimed was up to 560 ft (170 m) tall,68 though modern estimates suggest a height of 400 ft (120 m).69

In 520 CE the Chinese monk Song Yun visited Gandhara and ancient Peshawar during the White Hun era, and noted that it was in conflict with nearby Kapisa.7071 The Chinese monk and traveler Xuanzang visited ancient Peshawar around 630 CE,72 after Kapisa victory, and expressed lament that the city and its great Buddhist monuments had decayed to ruin73—although some monks studying Theravada Buddhism continued to study at the monastery's ruins.74 Xuanzang estimated that only about 1,000 families continued in a small quarter among the ruins of the former grand capital.75

Medieval history

Until the mid seventh century, the residents of ancient Peshawar had a ruling elite of Central Asian Scythian descent,76 who were then displaced by the Hindu Shahis of Kabul.77

Islam is believed to have been first introduced to the Buddhist, Hindu and other indigenous inhabitants of Puruṣapura in the later seventh century.

As the first Pashtun tribe to settle the region, the Dilazak Pashtuns began settling in the Valley of Peshawar,78 and are believed to have settled regions up to the Indus River by the 11th century.79 The Arab historian and geographer al-Masudi noted that by the mid tenth century, the city had become known as Parashāwar.

Ghaznavid empire

Further information: Battle of Peshawar (1001)

In 986–87 CE, Peshawar's first encounter with Muslim armies occurred when Sabuktigin invaded the area and fought the Hindu Shahis under their king, Anandpal.80

On 28 November 1001, Sabuktigin's son Mahmud Ghazni decisively defeated the army of Raja Jayapala, son of Anandpal, at the Battle of Peshawar,81 and established rule of the Ghaznavid Empire in the Peshawar region.

During the Ghaznavid era, Peshawar served as an important stop between the Afghan plateau, and the Ghaznavid garrison city of Lahore.82 During the tenth–12th century, Peshawar served as a headquarters for Hindu Nath Panthi Yogis,83 who in turn are believed to have extensively interacted with Muslim Sufi mystics.84

Delhi sultanate

In 1179–80, Muhammad Ghori captured Peshawar, though the city was then destroyed in the early 1200s at the hands of the Mongols.85 Peshawar was an important regional centre under the Lodi dynasty of Delhi Sultanate.

Several Pashtun tribe began settling rural regions around Peshawar in the late 15th and 16th centuries.86 The Ghoryakhel and Khashi Khel tribe pushed the Dilazak Pashtun tribes east of the Indus River following a battle in 1515 near the city of Mardan.87

Early modern history

Mughal empire

Peshawar remained an important centre on trade routes between India and Central Asia. The Peshawar region was a cosmopolitan region in which goods, peoples, and ideas would pass along trade routes.88 Its importance as a trade centre is highlighted by the destruction of over one thousand camel-loads of merchandise following an accidental fire at Bala Hissar fort in 1586.89 Mughal rule in the area was tenuous, as Mughal suzerainty was only firmly exercised in the Peshawar valley, while the neighbouring valley of Swat was under Mughal rule only during the reign of Akbar.90

In July 1526, Emperor Babur captured Peshawar.91 During Babur's rule, the city was known as Begram, and he rebuilt the city's fort.92 Babur used the city as a base for expeditions to other nearby towns.93

Under the reign of Babur's son, Humayun, direct Mughal rule over the city was briefly challenged with the rise of the Pashtun king, Sher Shah Suri, who began construction of the famous Grand Trunk Road in the 16th century. Peshawar was an important trading centre on the Grand Trunk Road.94 During Akbar's rule, the name of the city changed from Begram to Peshawar.95 In 1586, Pashtuns rose against Mughal rule during the Roshani Revolt under the leadership of Bayazid Pir Roshan,96 founder of the egalitarian Roshani movement, who assembled Pashtun armies in an attempted rebellion against the Mughals. The Roshani followers laid siege to the city until 1587.97

Peshawar was bestowed with its own set of Shalimar Gardens during the reign of Shah Jahan,98 which no longer exist.

Emperor Aurangzeb's governor of Kabul, Mohabbat Khan bin Ali Mardan Khan used Peshawar as his winter capital during the 17th century, and bestowed the city with its famous Mohabbat Khan Mosque in 1630.99

Yusufzai tribes rose against Mughal rule during the Yusufzai Revolt of 1667,100 and engaged in pitched-battles with Mughal battalions nearby Attock.101 Afridi tribes resisted Mughal rule during the Afridi Revolt of the 1670s.102 The Afridis massacred a Mughal battalion in the nearby Khyber Pass in 1672 and shut the pass to lucrative trade routes.103 Mughal armies led by Emperor Aurangzeb himself regained control of the entire area in 1674.104

Following Aurangzeb's death in 1707, his son Bahadur Shah I, former governor of Peshawar and Kabul, was selected to be the Mughal Emperor. As Mughal power declined following the death of Emperor Aurangzeb, the empire's defenses were weakened.105

On 18 November 1738, Peshawar was captured from the Mughal governor Nawab Nasir Khan by the Afsharid armies during the Persian invasion of the Mughal Empire under Nader Shah.106107

Durrani Empire

In 1747, Peshawar was taken by Ahmad Shah Durrani, founder of the Afghan Durrani Empire.108 Under the reign of his son Timur Shah, the Mughal practice of using Kabul as a summer capital and Peshawar as a winter capital was reintroduced,109110 with the practice maintained until the Sikh invasion.111 Peshawar's Bala Hissar Fort served as the residence of Afghan kings during their winter stay in Peshawar, and it was noted to be the main centre of trade between Bukhara and India by British explorer William Moorcroft during the late 1700s.112 Peshawar was at the centre of a productive agricultural region that provided much of north India's dried fruit.113

Timur Shah's grandson, Mahmud Shah Durrani, became king, and quickly seized Peshawar from his half-brother, Shah Shuja Durrani.114 Shah Shujah was then himself proclaimed king in 1803, and recaptured Peshawar while Mahmud Shah was imprisoned at Bala Hissar fort until his eventual escape.115 In 1809, the British sent an emissary to the court of Shah Shujah in Peshawar, marking the first diplomatic meeting between the British and Afghans.116 His half-brother Mahmud Shah then allied himself with the Barakzai Pashtuns, and captured Peshawar once again and reigned until the Battle of Nowshera in March 1823.117

Maratha Empire

The Capture of Peshawar took place in spring of 1758118119120 when Maratha Confederacy in alliance with the Sikhs, defeated the Durrani Empire.121122123 Before that, the fort of Peshawar was being guarded by Durrani troops under Timur Shah Durrani and Jahan Khan. When Raghunathrao, Malhar Rao Holkar and Sikh alliance of Charat Singh and Jassa Singh Ahluwalia left Peshawar, Tukoji Rao Holkar was appointed as the representative in this area of the sub-continent.124125126

Sikh Empire

Ranjit Singh invaded Peshawar in 1818, but handed its rule to Peshawar Sardars as vassals.127128 Following the Sikh victory against Azim Khan at the Battle of Nowshera in March 1823, Ranjit Singh captured Peshawar again and reinstated Yar Mohammed as the governor.129130 By 1830, Peshawar's economy was noted by Scottish explorer Alexander Burnes to have sharply declined,131 with Ranjit Singh's forces having destroyed the city's palace and agricultural fields.132

Much of Peshawar's caravan trade from Kabul ceased on account of skirmishes between Afghan and Sikh forces,133 as well as a punitive tax levied on merchants by Ranjit Singh's forces.134 Singh's government also required Peshawar to forfeit much of its leftover agricultural output to the Sikhs as tribute,135 while agriculture was further decimated by a collapse of the dried fruit market in north India.136 Singh appointed Neapolitan mercenary Paolo Avitabile as administrator of Peshawar, who is remembered for having unleashed a reign of terror. His time in Peshawar is known as a time of "gallows and gibbets". The city's famous Mahabat Khan, built in 1630 in the Jeweler's Bazaar, was badly damaged and desecrated by the Sikh conquerors.137

The Sikh Empire formally annexed Peshawar in 1834 following advances from the armies of Hari Singh Nalwa138—bringing the city under direct control of the Sikh Empire's Lahore Durbar.139 An 1835 attempt by Dost Muhammad Khan to re-occupy the city was unsuccessful after being unable to breach the Peshawar fort's defenses.140 Sikh settlers from Punjab were settled in the city during Sikh rule. The city's only remaining Gurdwaras were built by Hari Singh Nalwa to accommodate the newly settled Sikhs.141 The Sikhs also rebuilt the Bala Hissar fort during their occupation of the city.142

British Raj

Following the defeat of the Sikhs in the First Anglo-Sikh War in 1845–46 and the Second Anglo-Sikh War in 1849, some of their territories were captured by the British East India Company. The British re-established stability in the wake of ruinous Sikh rule.143 During the Sepoy Rebellion of 1857, the 4,000 members of the native garrison were disarmed without bloodshed;144 the absence of conflict during the rebellion meant that Peshawar was not affected by the widespread devastation that was experienced throughout the rest of British India and local chieftains sided with the British after the incident.145

The British laid out the vast Peshawar Cantonment to the west of the city in 1868, and made the city its frontier headquarters.146 Additionally, several projects were initiated in Peshawar, including linkage of the city by railway to the rest of British India and renovation of the Mohabbat Khan mosque that had been desecrated by the Sikhs.147 British suzerainty over regions west of Peshawar was cemented in 1893 by Sir Mortimer Durand, foreign secretary of the British Indian government, who collaboratively demarcated the border between British controlled territories in India and Afghanistan.

The British built Cunningham clock tower in celebration of the Golden Jubilee of Queen Victoria, and in 1906 built the Victoria Hall (now home of the Peshawar Museum) in memory of Queen Victoria.148 The British introduced Western-style education into Peshawar with the establishment of Edwardes College and Islamia College in 1901 and 1913, along with several schools run by the Anglican Church.149 For better administration of the region, Peshawar and the adjoining districts were separated from the Punjab Province in 1901,150 The North-West Frontier Province was separated from Punjab Province in 1901, after which Peshawar became capital of the new province.151

Communal riots broke out in the old city of Peshawar during the spring of 1910, when the annual Hindu festival of Holi coincided with Barawafat, the annual Muslim day of mourning, resulting in a considerable loss of life along with hundreds of looted businesses and injuries.152153 A month prior, in February 1910, prominent community religious leaders met with officials and agreed that Holi would be solely celebrated in predominantly Hindu neighbourhoods of the city, notably in Andar Shehr and Karim Pura.154 On 21 March 1910, however, rumors of musicians from Amritsar and a dancing boy from Haripur being brought into the city for Holi celebrations, led to a group of individuals who were marking Barawafat into forming a mob with the intention of stopping the procession.155 Despite Muslim and Hindu community leaders calling for calm, both parties ultimately clashed at the Asamai Gate, when the Holi procession was en route to Dargah Pir Ratan Nath Jee, with a Hindu procession member stabbing a Muslim individual in the mob.156 Riots ensued for the following three days, involved individuals from outlying tribal regions who had entered the city, with a mob at Bara Bazar allegedly chanting "Maro Hindu Ko" (Kill the Hindus).157 Estimates detail the riots resulted in a total of 451 damaged shops and homes, primarily belonging to members of the Hindu community, while at least 4 Muslims and 6 Hindus were killed, alongside hundreds of injuries.158

Peshawar emerged as a centre for both Hindkowan and Pashtun intellectuals during the British era. Hindko speakers, also referred to as xāryān ("city dwellers" in Pashto), were responsible for the dominant culture for most of the time that Peshawar was under British rule.159 Peshawar was also home to a non-violent resistance movement led by Ghaffar Khan, a disciple of Mahatma Gandhi. In April 1930, Khan, leading a large group of his followers, protested in Qissa Khwani Bazaar against discriminatory laws that had been enacted by the colonial government; hundreds were killed when a detachment of the British Indian Army opened fire on the demonstrators.160

Modern era

In 1947, Peshawar became part of the newly created state of Pakistan, and emerged as a cultural centre in the country's northwest. The partition of India saw the departure of many Hindko-speaking Hindus and Sikhs who held key positions in the economy of Peshawar.161162 The University of Peshawar was established in the city in 1950, and augmented by the amalgamation of nearby British-era institutions into the university.163 Until the mid-1950s, Peshawar was enclosed within a city wall and sixteen gates. In the 1960s, Peshawar was a base for a CIA operation to spy on the Soviet Union, with the 1960 U-2 incident resulting in an aircraft shot down by the Soviets that flew from Peshawar. From the 1960s until the late 1970s, Peshawar was a major stop on the famous Hippie trail.164

During the Soviet–Afghan War in the 1980s, Peshawar served as a political centre for the CIA and the Inter-Services Intelligence-trained mujahideen groups based in the camps of Afghan refugees. It also served as the primary destination for large numbers of Afghan refugees. By 1980, 100,000 refugees a month were entering the province,165 with 25% of all refugees living in Peshawar district in 1981.166 The arrival of large numbers of Afghan refugees strained Peshawar's infrastructure,167 and drastically altered the city's demography.168

Like much of northwest Pakistan, Peshawar has been severely affected by violence from the attacks by the terrorist group, Tehrik-i-Taliban. Local poets' shrines have been targeted by the Pakistani Taliban,169 a suicide bomb attack targeted the historic All Saints Church in 2013, and most notably the 2014 Peshawar school massacre in which Taliban militants killed 132 school children. Peshawar suffered 111 acts of terror in 2010,170 which had declined to 18 in 2014,171 before the launch of Operation Zarb-e-Azb, which further reduced acts of violence throughout Pakistan. A large attack on a Shiite mosque in the city killed dozens and injured 200 people on 4 March 2022. In January 2023, another terrorist attack occurred at Peshawar in which 100 people were killed.172

Geography

Topography

Peshawar is located in the broad Valley of Peshawar, which is surrounded by mountain ranges on three sides, with the fourth opening to the Punjab plains. The city is located in the generally level base of the valley, known as the Gandhara Plains.173

Climate

Main article: Climate of Peshawar

With an influence from the local steppe climate, Peshawar features a hot semi-arid climate (Köppen BSh), with very hot, prolonged summers and brief, mild to cool winters. Winter in Peshawar starts in November and ends in late March, though it sometimes extends into mid-April, while the summer months are from mid-May to mid-September. The mean maximum summer temperature surpasses 40 °C (104 °F) during the hottest month, and the mean minimum temperature is 25 °C (77 °F). The mean minimum temperature during the coolest month is 4 °C (39 °F), while the maximum is 18.3 °C (64.9 °F).

Peshawar is not a monsoon region, unlike other parts of Pakistan; however, rainfall occurs in both winter and summer. Due to western disturbances, the winter rainfall shows a higher record between the months of February and April. The highest amount of winter rainfall, measuring 236 mm (9.3 in), was recorded in February 2007,174 while the highest summer rainfall of 402 mm (15.8 in) was recorded in July 2010;175 during this month, a record-breaking rainfall level of 274 mm (10.8 in) fell within a 24-hour period on 29 July 2010176—the previous record was 187 mm (7.4 in) of rain, recorded in April 2009.177 The average winter rainfall levels are higher than those of summer. Based on a 30-year record, the average annual precipitation level was recorded as 400 mm (16 in) and the highest annual rainfall level of 904.5 mm (35.61 in) was recorded in 2003.178 Wind speeds vary during the year, from 5 kn (5.8 mph; 9.3 km/h) in December to 24 kn (28 mph; 44 km/h) in June. The relative humidity varies from 46% in June to 76% in August. The highest temperature of 50 °C (122 °F) was recorded on 18 June 1995,179 while the lowest −3.9 °C (25.0 °F) occurred on 7 January 1970.180

Climate data for Peshawar (1991-2020)
MonthJanFebMarAprMayJunJulAugSepOctNovDecYear
Record high °C (°F)27.0(80.6)30.0(86.0)37.5(99.5)42.4(108.3)45.2(113.4)48.0(118.4)46.6(115.9)46.0(114.8)42.0(107.6)38.5(101.3)35.0(95.0)29.0(84.2)48.0(118.4)
Mean daily maximum °C (°F)18.1(64.6)20.1(68.2)24.7(76.5)30.6(87.1)36.5(97.7)39.6(103.3)37.4(99.3)35.9(96.6)34.8(94.6)31.0(87.8)25.2(77.4)20.6(69.1)29.5(85.2)
Daily mean °C (°F)11.3(52.3)13.8(56.8)18.2(64.8)23.9(75.0)29.4(84.9)32.7(90.9)32.1(89.8)30.9(87.6)29.0(84.2)24.1(75.4)17.8(64.0)13.2(55.8)23.0(73.5)
Mean daily minimum °C (°F)4.6(40.3)7.6(45.7)12.2(54.0)17.2(63.0)22.3(72.1)25.8(78.4)26.8(80.2)26.0(78.8)23.2(73.8)17.1(62.8)10.4(50.7)5.6(42.1)16.6(61.8)
Record low °C (°F)−3.9(25.0)−1.0(30.2)1.7(35.1)6.7(44.1)11.7(53.1)13.3(55.9)18.0(64.4)19.4(66.9)12.0(53.6)8.3(46.9)1.1(34.0)−1.3(29.7)−3.9(25.0)
Average precipitation mm (inches)39.8(1.57)69.9(2.75)78.2(3.08)68.1(2.68)26.7(1.05)25.4(1.00)69.0(2.72)68.5(2.70)34.8(1.37)26.7(1.05)16.9(0.67)17.3(0.68)541.3(21.32)
Average precipitation days (≥ 1.0 mm)3.95.77.65.84.62.14.45.03.02.52.12.148.8
Mean monthly sunshine hours195.5189.5194.5231.3297.1299.5273.8263.2257.3266.1234.8184.42,887
Source 1: NOAA (sun, 1961-1990)181
Source 2: PMD182

According to the World Air Quality Report 2024, Peshawar is one of the world's most polluted city.183

Cityscape

Peshawar's urban typology is similar to other ancient cities in South Asia, such as Lahore, Multan and Delhi – all of which were founded near a major river, and included an old walled city, as well as a royal citadel.184

Historically, the old city of Peshawar was a heavily guarded citadel that consisted of high walls. In the 21st century, only remnants of the walls remain, but the houses and havelis continue to be structures of significance. Most of the houses are constructed of unbaked bricks, with the incorporation of wooden structures for protection against earthquakes, with many composed of wooden doors and latticed wooden balconies. Numerous examples of the city's old architecture can still be seen in areas such as Sethi Mohallah. In the old city, located in inner-Peshawar, many historic monuments and bazaars exist in the 21st century, including the Mohabbat Khan Mosque, Kotla Mohsin Khan, Chowk Yadgar and the Qissa Khawani Bazaar. Due to the damage caused by rapid growth and development, the old walled city has been identified as an area that urgently requires restoration and protection.

The walled city was surrounded by several main gates that served as the main entry points into the city — in January 2012, an announcement was made that the government plans to address the damage that has left the gates largely non-existent over time, with all of the gates targeted for restoration.185

Demographics

Historical population
YearPop.±%
1881 79,982—    
1891 84,191+5.3%
1901 95,147+13.0%
1911 97,935+2.9%
1921 104,452+6.7%
1931 121,866+16.7%
1941 173,420+42.3%
1951 151,776−12.5%
1961 218,000+43.6%
1972 273,000+25.2%
1981 555,000+103.3%
1998 982,816+77.1%
2017 1,964,102+99.8%
20231,905,975−3.0%
Source: 186187188189190191192193194195Macrotrends (2021)Census of India (1921)

Population

According to the 2023 census, Peshawar was the 8th largest city of Pakistan196 and the largest city in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa with a population of 1,905,975.197 Its population is five times higher than the second-largest city in the province.

Afghan refugees

Peshawar has hosted Afghan refugees since the start of the Afghan civil war in 1978, though the rate of migration drastically increased following the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979. By 1980, 100,000 refugees a month were entering the province,198 with 25% of all refugees living in Peshawar district in 1981.199 The arrival of large numbers of Afghan refugees strained Peshawar's infrastructure,200 and drastically altered the city's demography.201 During the 1988 national elections, an estimated 100,000 Afghans refugees were illegally registered to vote in Peshawar.202

With the influx of Afghan refugees into Peshawar, the city became a hub for Afghan musicians and artists,203 as well as a major centre of Pashto literature.204 Some Afghan refugees have established successful businesses in Peshawar, and play an important role in the city's economy.205

In recent years, Peshawar district hosts up to 20% of all Afghan refugees in Pakistan.206 In 2005, Peshawar district was home to 611,501 Afghan refugees — who constituted 19.7% of the district's total population.207 Peshawar's immediate environs were home to large Afghan refugee camps, with Jalozai camp hosting up to 300,000 refugees in 2001208 – making it the largest refugee camp in Asia at the time.209 In 2012, it was estimated that Afghans constituted 28% of the city's total population, and that the numbers could be higher.210

Afghan refugees began to be frequently accused of involvement with terrorist attacks that occurred during Pakistan's war against radical Islamists.211 By 2015 the Pakistani government adopted a policy to repatriate Afghan refugees, including many who had spent their entire life in Pakistan.212 The policy of repatriation was also encouraged by the government of Afghanistan,213 though many refugees had not registered themselves in Pakistan. Unregistered refugees returning to Afghanistan without their old Afghan identification documents now have no official status in Afghanistan either.214

Language

The primary native language spoken in Peshawar is Pashto, while Hindko is native minority language,215 though English is used in the city's educational institutions, while Urdu is understood throughout the city – as the national language of the country.216

The district of Peshawar is overwhelmingly Pashto-speaking, though the Hindko-speaking minority is concentrated in Peshawar's old city,217 Hindko speakers in Peshawar increasingly assimilate elements of Pashto and Urdu into their speech.218

Religion

Peshawar is overwhelmingly Muslim, with Muslims making up 98.5% of the city's population in the 1998 census.219 Christians make up the second largest religious group with around 20,000 adherents, while over 7,000 members of the Ahmadiyya Community live in Peshawar.220 Hindus and Sikhs are also found in the city − though most of the city's Hindu and Sikh community migrated en masse to India following the Partition of British India in 1947.

Though the city's Sikh population drastically declined after Partition, the Sikh community has been bolstered in Peshawar by the arrival of approximately 4,000 Sikh refugees from conflict in the Federally Administered Tribal Areas;221 In 2008, the largest Sikh population in Pakistan was located in Peshawar.222 Sikhs in Peshawar self-identify as Pashtuns and speak Pashto as their mother tongue.223 There was a small, but, thriving Jewish community until the late 1940s. After the partition and the emergence of the State of Israel, Jews left for Israel.224

Religious groups in Peshawar City (1868−2023)225
Religiousgroup18682261881227228: 520 1891229: 68 1901230: 44 1911231: 23 1921232: 25 1931233: 258 1941234: 19 20172352023236
Pop.%Pop.%Pop.%Pop.%Pop.%Pop.%Pop.%Pop.%Pop.%Pop.%
Islam 54,97767.65%57,37871.74%60,26971.59%68,35271.84%73,19874.74%73,88270.75%86,36970.87%122,97270.91%1,942,63698.62%1,872,11398.56%
Hinduism 21,80226.83%18,10522.64%15,50118.41%18,55219.5%16,32816.67%21,00120.11%21,97318.03%31,63018.24%1,7200.09%1,7260.09%
Christianity 3,3794.16%——3,6294.31%3,0633.22%3,1323.2%3,4143.27%4,8543.98%2,5861.49%22,0321.12%23,6381.24%
Sikhism 9941.22%1,4651.83%4,7555.65%5,1445.41%5,0265.13%6,1525.89%8,6307.08%14,2458.21%——1,4410.08%
Jainism ——30%00%00%30%30%————————
Zoroastrianism ————330.04%340.04%470.05%200.02%290.02%140.01%——00%
Judaism ————40%——10%00%110.01%700.04%————
Buddhism ————00%00%00%00%————————
Ahmadiyya ————————————————9240.05%1660.01%
Others1120.14%3,0313.79%00%20%00%00%00%1,9031.1%2,5110.13%4760.03%
Total population81,264100%79,982100%84,191100%95,147100%97,935100%104,432100%121,866100%173,420100%1,969,823100%1,899,560100%

Economy

Peshawar's economic importance has historically been linked to its privileged position at the entrance to the Khyber Pass – the ancient travel route by which most trade between Central Asia and the Indian subcontinent passed. Peshawar's economy also benefited from tourism in the mid-20th century, as the city formed a crucial part of the Hippie trail.

Peshawar's estimated monthly per capita income was ₨55,246 in 2015,237 compared to ₨117,924 in Islamabad,238 and ₨66,359 in Karachi.239 Peshawar's surrounding region is also relatively poor − Khyber Pakhtunkhwa's cities on average have an urban per capita income that is 20% less than Pakistan's national average for urban residents.240

Peshawar was noted by the World Bank in 2014 to be at the helm of a nationwide movement to create an ecosystem for entrepreneurship, freelance jobs, and technology.241 The city has been host to the World Bank assisted Digital Youth Summit Archived 7 April 2017 at the Wayback Machine — an annual event to connect the city and province's youths to opportunities in the digital economy. The 2017 event hosted 100 speakers including several international speakers, and approximately 3,000 delegates in attendance.242

Industry

Peshawar's Industrial Estate on Jamrud Road is an industrial zone established in the 1960s on 868 acres. The industrial estate hosts furniture, marble industries, and food processing industries, though many of its plots remain underutilized.243 The Hayatabad Industrial Estate hosts 646 industrial units in Peshawar's western suburbs, though several of the units are no longer in use.244 As part of the China Pakistan Economic Corridor, 4 special economic zones are to be established in the province, with roads, electricity, gas, water, and security to be provided by the government.245 The nearby Hattar SEZ is envisioned to provide employment to 30,000 people,246 and is being developed at a cost of approximately $200 million with completion expected in 2017.247

Employment

As a result of large numbers of displaced persons in the city, only 12% of Peshawar's residents were employed in the formalized economy in 2012.248 Approximately 41% of residents in 2012 were employed in personal services,249 while 55% of Afghan refugees in the city in 2012 were daily wage earners.250 By 2016, Pakistan adopted a policy to repatriate Afghan refugees.

Wages for unskilled workers in Peshawar grew on average 9.1% per year between 2002 and 2008.251 Following the outbreak of widespread Islamist violence in 2007, wages rose only 1.5% between 2008 and 2014.252 Real wages dropped for some skilled craftsmen during the period between 2008 and 2014.253

Constraints

Peshawar's economy has been negatively impacted by political instability since 1979 resulting from the War in Afghanistan and subsequent strain on Peshawar's infrastructure from the influx of refugees.254 The poor security environment resulting from Islamist violence also impacted the city's economy. With the launch of Operation Zarb-e-Azb in 2014, the country's security environment has drastically improved.255

The metropolitan economy suffers from poor infrastructure. The city's economy has also been adversely impacted by shortages of electricity and natural gas.256 The $54 billion China Pakistan Economic Corridor will generate over 10,000 MW by 2018257 – greater than the current electricity deficit of approximately 4,500 MW.258 Peshawar will also be linked to ports in Karachi by uninterrupted motorway access, while passenger and freight railway tracks will be upgraded between Peshawar and Karachi.

Poor transportation is estimated to cause a loss of 4–6% of the Pakistani GDP.259 Peshawar for decades has suffered from chaotic, mismanaged, and inadequate public transportation and the poor public transportation also has been detrimental to the city's economy.260 Therefore, the government has since a new rapid bus service called BRT Peshawar covering the entire Peshawar. BRT Peshawar is now believed to be one the most advanced BRT of Pakistan261

Transportation

Road

Peshawar's east–west growth axis is centred on the historic Grand Trunk Road that connects Peshawar to Islamabad and Lahore. The road is roughly paralleled by the M-1 Motorway between Peshawar and Islamabad, while the M-2 Motorway provides an alternate route to Lahore from Islamabad. The Grand Trunk Road also provides access to the Afghan border via the Khyber Pass, with onwards connections to Kabul and Central Asia via the Salang Pass.

Peshawar is to be completely encircled by the Peshawar Ring Road in order to divert traffic away from the city's congested centre. The road is currently under construction, with some portions open to traffic.

The Karakoram Highway provides access between the Peshawar region and western China, and an alternate route to Central Asia via Kashgar in the Chinese region of Xinjiang.

The Indus Highway provides access to points south of Peshawar, with a terminus in the southern port city of Karachi via Dera Ismail Khan and northern Sindh. The 1.9 km (1.2 mi) Kohat Tunnel south of Peshawar provides access to the city of Kohat along the Indus Highway.

Motorways

Peshawar is connected to Islamabad and Rawalpindi by the 155 kilometre long M-1 Motorway. The motorway also links Peshawar to major cities in the province, such as Charsadda and Mardan. The M-1 motorway continues onwards to Lahore as part of the M-2 motorway.

Pakistan's motorway network links Peshawar to Faisalabad by the M-4 Motorway, while a new motorway network to Karachi is being built as part of the China Pakistan Economic Corridor.

The Hazara Motorway is being constructed as part of CPEC, and is providing control-access motorway travel all the way to Mansehra and Thakot via the M-1 and Hazara Motorways.

Rail

Peshawar Cantonment railway station serves as the terminus for Pakistan's 1,687 km (1,048 mi)-long Main Line-1 railway that connects the city to the port city of Karachi and passes through the Peshawar City railway station. The Peshawar to Karachi route is served by the Awam Express, Khushhal Khan Khattak Express, and the Khyber Mail services.

The entire Main Line-1 railway track between Karachi and Peshawar is to be overhauled at a cost of $3.65 billion for the first phase of the project,262 with completion by 2021.263 Upgrading the railway line will permit train travel at speeds of 160 kilometres per hour, versus the average 60 to 105 km/h (37 to 65 mph) speed currently possible on existing tracks.264

Peshawar was also once the terminus of the Khyber train safari, a tourist-oriented train that provided rail access to Landi Kotal. The service was discontinued as the security situation west of Peshawar deteriorated with the beginning of the region's Taliban insurgency.

Air

Peshawar is served by the Bacha Khan International Airport, located in the Peshawar Cantonment. The airport served 1,255,303 passengers between 2014 and 2015,265 the vast majority of whom were international travelers.266 The airport offers direct flights throughout Pakistan, as well as to Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates.

Public transit

BRT Peshawar is a modern & third generation rapid bus service of Peshawar, which has started its service on 13 August 2020.267 It has 30 stations and 244 buses, which covers area from Chamkani to Karkhano Market. BRT Peshawar has replaced Peshawar's old, chaotic, dilapidated, and inadequate transportation system. The system has 30 stations and is mostly at grade, with four kilometres of elevated sections.268 The system also contains 3.5 kilometres of underpasses.269 BRT Peshawar is also complemented by a feeder system, with an additional 100 stations along those feeder lines.270

Intercity bus

Peshawar is well-served by private buses (locally referred to as "flying coaches") and vans that offer frequent connections to throughout Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, as well as all major cities of Pakistan. The city's Daewoo Express bus terminal is located along the G.T. Road adjacent to the departure points for several other transportation companies.271

Administration

Civic government

Politics

Peshawar has historically served as the political centre of the region, and is currently the capital city of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province. The city and province have been historically regarded to be strongholds of the Awami National Party – a secular left-wing and moderate-nationalist party.272273 The Pakistan Peoples Party had also enjoyed considerable support in the province due to its socialist agenda.274

Despite being a centre for leftist politics in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Peshawar is still generally known throughout Pakistan for its social conservatism.275 Sunni Muslims in the city are regarded to be socially conservative,276 while the city's Shia population is considered to be more socially liberal.277

A plurality of voters in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, of which Peshawar is the capital, elected one of Pakistan's only religiously based provincial governments during the period of military dictatorship of Pervez Musharraf. A ground-swell of anti-American sentiment after the 2001 United States invasion of Afghanistan contributed to the Islamist coalition's victory.278

The Islamists introduced a range of social restrictions following the election of the Islamist Muttahida Majlis-e-Amal coalition in 2002, though Islamic Shariah law was never fully enacted.279 Restrictions on public musical performances were introduced, as well as a ban prohibiting music to be played in any public places, including on public transportation – which lead to the creation of a thriving underground music scene in Peshawar.280 In 2005, the coalition successfully passed the "Prohibition of Use of Women in Photograph Bill, 2005,"281 leading to the removal of all public advertisements in Peshawar that featured women.282

The religious coalition was swept out of power by the secular and leftist Awami National Party in elections after the fall of Musharraf in 2008,283 leading to the removal of the MMA's socially conservative laws.284 62% of eligible voters voted in the election.285 The Awami National Party was targeted by Taliban militants, with hundreds of its members having been assassinated by the Pakistani Taliban.286

In 2013, the centrist Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf was elected to power in the province on an anti-corruption platform. Peshawar city recorded a voter turnout of 80% for the 2013 elections.287

Municipal services

86% of Peshawar's households have access to municipal piped water as of 2015,288 though 39% of Peshawar's households purchase water from private companies in 2015.289

42% of Peshawar households are connected to municipal sewerage as of 2015.290

Culture

Music

After the 2002 Islamist government implemented restrictions on public musical performances, a thriving underground music scene took root in Peshawar.291 After the start of Pakistani's Taliban insurgency in 2007–2008, militants began targeting members of Peshawar's cultural establishment. By 2007, Taliban militants began a widespread campaign of bombings against music and video shops across the Peshawar region, leading to the closure of many others.292 In 2009, Pashto musical artist Ayman Udas was assassinated by Taliban militants on the city's outskirts. In June 2012, a Pashto singer, Ghazala Javed, and her father were killed in Peshawar, after they had fled rural Khyber Pakhtunkhwa for the relative security of Peshawar.293

Musicians began to return to the city by 2016,294 with a security environment greatly improved following the Operation Zarb-e-Azb in 2014 to eradicate militancy in the country. In 2016, the provincial government announced a monthly income of $300 to 500 musicians in order to help support their work,295 as well as a $5 million fund to "revive the rich cultural heritage of the province".296

Museums

The Peshawar Museum was founded in 1907 in memory of Queen Victoria. The building features an amalgamation of British, South Asian, Hindu, Buddhist and Mughal Islamic architectural styles. The museum's collection has almost 14,000 items, and is well known for its collection of Greco-Buddhist art. The museum's ancient collection features pieces from the Gandharan, Kushan, Parthian, and Indo-Scythian periods.

Notable people

Main article: List of people from Peshawar

Education

Main article: List of universities in Peshawar

Numerous educational institutes — schools, colleges and universities — are located in Peshawar. 21.6% of children between the ages of 5 and 9 were not enrolled in any school in 2013,297 while 16.6% of children in the 10 to 14 age range were out of school.298

Currently, Peshawar has universities for all major disciplines ranging from Humanities, General Sciences, Sciences, Engineering, Medical, Agriculture and Management Sciences. The first public sector university, University of Peshawar299 (UOP) was established in October 1950 by the first Prime Minister of Pakistan. University of Engineering and Technology, Peshawar300 was established in 1980 while Agriculture University Peshawar301 started working in 1981. The first private sector university CECOS University of IT and Emerging Sciences302 was established in 1986. Institute of Management Sciences started functioning in 1995, which become degree awarding institution in 2005.303

There are currently 9 Medical colleges in Peshawar, 2 in public sector while 7 in private sector.304 The first Medical College, Khyber Medical College,305 was established in 1954 as part of University of Peshawar. The first Medical University, Khyber Medical University306307 while a women only Medical college, Khyber Girls Medical College was established in 2007.

At the start of the 21st century, a host of new private sector universities started working in Peshawar. Qurtuba University,308 Sarhad University of Science and IT,309 Fast University, Peshawar Campus310 and City University of Science and IT311 were established in 2001 while Gandhara University312 was inaugurated in 2002 and Abasyn University313 in 2007.

Shaheed Benazir Bhutto Women University,314315 the first women university of Peshawar, started working in 2009 while private sector IQRA National University316 was established in 2012.

Apart from good range of universities, Peshawar has host of high quality further education (Post School) educational institutes. The most renowned are, Edwardes College founded in 1900 by Herbert Edwardes, is the oldest college in the province and Islamia College Peshawar, which was established in 1913. Islamia College became university and named as Islamia College University in 2008.317

The following is a list of some of the public and private universities and colleges in Peshawar:

The Pakistani military operates Army Public School Peshawar. It was the site of the 2014 Peshawar school massacre.318

Landmarks

The following is a list of other significant landmarks in the city that still exist in the 21st century:

Sports

There are hosts of sporting facilities in Peshawar. The most renowned are Arbab Niaz Stadium,321 and Hayatabad Cricket Stadium, which are the International cricket grounds of Peshawar and Qayyum Stadium,322323 which is the multi sports facilities located in Peshawar Cantonment.

Cricket is the most popular sport in Peshawar324 with Arbab Niaz Stadium as the main ground coupled with Cricket Academy. There is also small cricket ground, Peshawar Gymkhana Ground,325 which is located adjacent to Arbab Niaz Stadium, a popular club cricket ground. The oldest international cricket ground in Peshawar however is Peshawar Club Ground, which hosted the first ever test match between Pakistan and India in 1955.326 The Peshawar Zalmi represents the city in the Pakistan Super League.327

In 1975, the first sports complex, Qayyum Stadium was built in Peshawar328 while Hayatabad Sports Complex was built in the early 1990s.329 Both Qayyum Stadium and Hayatabad Sports Complexes are multiple sports complexes with facilities for all major indoor and outdoor sports such as football,330 Field Hockey ground,331 Squash, Swimming, Gymnasium, Board Games section, Wrestling, Boxing and Badminton. In 1991, Qayyum Stadium hosted Barcelona Olympics Qualifier Football match between Pakistan and Qatar332 plus it also hosted National Games in 2010.333 Hockey and squash are also popular in Peshawar.

Professional sports teams from Peshawar
ClubLeagueSportVenueEstablished
Peshawar ZalmiPakistan Super LeagueCricketArbab Niaz Stadium2015
Peshawar PanthersNational T20 League/National One-day ChampionshipCricketArbab Niaz Stadium2004
Peshawar HaidersSuper Kabaddi LeagueKabaddiTehmas Khan Stadium2018
Tribe F.C. PeshawarGeo Super Football LeagueFootballQayyum Stadium2007

Twin towns and sister cities

Main article: List of twin towns and sister cities in Pakistan

Peshawar is twinned with:

See also

Notes

Bibliography

See also: Bibliography of the history of Peshawar

  • Ahmad, Aisha and Boase, Roger. 2003. "Pashtun Tales from the Pakistan-Afghan Frontier: From the Pakistan-Afghan Frontier." Saqi Books (1 March 2003). ISBN 0-86356-438-0.
  • Beal, Samuel. 1884. "Si-Yu-Ki: Buddhist Records of the Western World, by Hiuen Tsiang." 2 vols. Trans. by Samuel Beal. London. Reprint: Delhi. Oriental Books Reprint Corporation. 1969.
  • Beal, Samuel. 1911. "The Life of Hiuen-Tsiang by the Shaman Hwui Li, with an Introduction containing an account of the Works of I-Tsing". Trans. by Samuel Beal. London. 1911. Reprint: Munshiram Manoharlal, New Delhi. 1973.
  • Dani, Ahmad Hasan. 1985. "Peshawar Archived 27 June 2020 at the Wayback Machine: Historic city of the Frontier" Sang-e-Meel Publications (1995). ISBN 969-35-0554-9.
  • Dobbins, K. Walton. 1971. "The Stūpa and Vihāra of Kanishka I". The Asiatic Society of Bengal Monograph Series, Vol. XVIII. Calcutta.
  • Elphinstone, Mountstuart. 1815. "An account of the Kingdom of Caubul and its dependencies in Persia, Tartary, and India; comprising a view of the Afghaun nation." Akadem. Druck- u. Verlagsanst (1969).
  • Foucher, M. A. 1901. "Notes sur la geographie ancienne du Gandhâra (commentaire à un chaptaire de Hiuen-Tsang)." BEFEO No. 4, Oct. 1901, pp. 322–369.
  • Hargreaves, H. (1910–11): "Excavations at Shāh-jī-kī Dhērī"; Archaeological Survey of India, 1910–11, pp. 25–32.
  • Hill, John E. 2003. "Annotated Translation of the Chapter on the Western Regions according to the Hou Hanshu Archived 6 June 2011 at the Wayback Machine." 2nd Draft Edition.
  • Hill, John E. 2004. "The Peoples of the West from the Weilue Archived 23 December 2017 at the Wayback Machine" 魏略 by Yu Huan 魚豢: A Third Century Chinese Account Composed between 239 and 265 CE. Draft annotated English translation.
  • Hopkirk, Peter. 1984. "The Great Game: The Struggle for Empire in Central Asia" Kodansha Globe; Reprint edition. ISBN 1-56836-022-3.
  • Moorcroft, William and Trebeck, George. 1841. "Travels in the Himalayan Provinces of Hindustan and the Panjab; in Ladakh and Kashmir, in Peshawar, Kabul, Kunduz, and Bokhara... from 1819 to 1825", Vol. II. Reprint: New Delhi, Sagar Publications, 1971.
  • Reeves, Richard. 1985. "Passage to Peshawar: Pakistan: Between the Hindu Kush and the Arabian Sea." Holiday House September 1985. ISBN 0-671-60539-9.
  • Imran, Imran Rashid. 2006. "Baghaat-i-Peshawar." Sarhad Conservation Network. July 2006.
  • Imran, Imran Rashid. 2012. "Peshawar – Faseel-e-Shehr aur Darwazay." Sarhad Conservation Network. March 2012.
  • Peshawar travel guide from Wikivoyage

References

  1. /pəˈʃɑːwər/;[8] Pashto: پېښور [peˈχəwər] ⓘ; Hindko: پشور; [pɪˈʃɔːɾ] ⓘ; Urdu: پشاور [pɪˈʃɑːʋər] ⓘ /wiki/Help:IPA/English ↩

  2. "2023 Census KP" (PDF). Pakistan Bureau of Statistics. https://www.pbs.gov.pk/sites/default/files/population/2023/KP.pdf ↩

  3. "NWFP Introduction". Government of Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa. Archived from the original on 30 October 2007. Retrieved 12 December 2007. http://www.nwfp.gov.pk/AIS-page.php?pageName=Introduction&DistId=1&DeptId=1&LangId=1 ↩

  4. "Peshawar, pakols and namkeen karahi". Aurora Dawn. Archived from the original on 28 October 2019. Retrieved 30 October 2019. https://aurora.dawn.com/news/1143318 ↩

  5. "PAKISTAN: THE PASHTUN LOSE PATIENCE". a2globalrisk.com. Archived from the original on 28 October 2019. Retrieved 30 October 2019. https://web.archive.org/web/20191028153617/https://www.a2globalrisk.com/analysis/asia-pacific/pakistan--the-pashtun-lose-patience ↩

  6. "Peshawar: Oldest Living City in South Asia". Dawn. 3 July 2010. Archived from the original on 8 May 2021. Retrieved 9 May 2021. https://www.dawn.com/news/880603/peshawar-oldest-living-city-in-south-asia ↩

  7. Nadiem, Ihsan H. (2007). Peshawar: Heritage, History, Monuments. Sang-e-Meel Publications. ISBN 978-969-35-1971-6. 978-969-35-1971-6 ↩

  8. Baloch, Sikandar Khan (2004). In the Wonderland of Asia, Gilgit & Baltistan. Sang-e-Meel Publications. p. 124. ISBN 9789693516142. Within the next decade, emerged the great kingdom of Gandhra under the great Kushan king Kaniskha (125-160 AD). The seat of his central government was Purushpura which is today known as Peshawar. 9789693516142 ↩

  9. Chaurasia, Radhey Shyam (2002). History of Ancient India: Earliest Times to 1000 A.D. Atlantic Publishers & Dist. p. 148. ISBN 9788126900275. Kanishka's coins have been found as far as Ghaznipur and Gorakhpur. These point to the wide extent of his Indian dominion which stretched from Gandhara to Banaras. The eastern portion of this empire was governed by Mahakshatrapa and a Kshatrapa while the northern portion by military governors. He fixed his capital at Purushpura or Peshawar which he adorned with many noble buildings. 9788126900275 ↩

  10. The Listener, Volume 39. British Broadcasting Corporation. 1948. p. 27. Of course the Kushan capital established by Kanishka in India was at Purushpura — Peshawar — not Mathura, where the Saka satraps had held sway and probably continued under the overlordship of the Kushans. /wiki/British_Broadcasting_Corporation ↩

  11. Le, Huu Phuoc (2010). Buddhist Architecture. Grafikol. ISBN 978-0-9844043-0-8. Archived from the original on 7 March 2022. Retrieved 2 October 2017. 978-0-9844043-0-8 ↩

  12. Hiro, Dilip (2012). Apocalyptic Realm: Jihadists in South Asia. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-17378-9. Of the sixteen gates of the historic walled city of Peshawar (derivative of Purushapura, meaning "town of men" in Sanskrit), the best known is the Kabuli Gate. 978-0-300-17378-9 ↩

  13. Jones, Barry (2019). Dictionary of World Biography: Sixth edition. ANU Press. p. 469. ISBN 978-1-76046-287-1. His empire extended to Afghanistan, parts of Iran and northern India-Pakistan, and his capital Purushpura is the modern Peshawar, where he built an enormous stupa. He sent Buddhist missionaries to China. 978-1-76046-287-1 ↩

  14. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain & Ireland. Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain & Ireland. 1834. pp. 114–. Retrieved 13 December 2012. https://archive.org/details/journalroyalasi11irelgoog ↩

  15. Dept, North-West Frontier Province (Pakistan) Information (1955). Yearbook. Archived from the original on 7 March 2022. Retrieved 7 November 2020. https://books.google.com/books?id=rqQ0AQAAIAAJ&q=Pesh+Awardan+Akbar ↩

  16. Nadiem, Ihsan H. (2007). Peshawar: Heritage, History, Monuments. Sang-e-Meel Publications. ISBN 978-969-35-1971-6. Archived from the original on 7 March 2022. Retrieved 7 November 2020. 978-969-35-1971-6 ↩

  17. Jaffar, S. M. (1952). An Introduction to Peshawar. S.M.S. Khan. The old name Purushapura is said to have been derived from Purush, a Raja whose seat of government it is stated to have been. ↩

  18. The North-West Frontier Province Year Book. Government of Pakistan. 1954. p. 47. The old name Purushpura is said to have been derived from Purush, after a Raja whose seat of government it is stated to have been. /wiki/Government_of_Pakistan ↩

  19. Cotton, James Sutherland; Burn, Sir Richard; Meyer, Sir William Stevenson (1909). Imperial Gazetteer of India. Clarendon Press. p. 463. Purushapura, seat of king Purush, Peshawar probably derived from, xx. 124. https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_UT0KAQAAIAAJ ↩

  20. Behrendt, Kurt; Brancaccio, Pia (1 November 2011). Gandharan Buddhism: Archaeology, Art, and Texts. UBC Press. ISBN 978-0-7748-4128-3. Archived from the original on 7 March 2022. Retrieved 3 October 2020. 978-0-7748-4128-3 ↩

  21. Dani, Ahmad Hasan (1969). Peshawar: Historic City of the Frontier. Khyber Mail Press. Archived from the original on 7 March 2022. Retrieved 3 October 2020. https://books.google.com/books?id=R8QGAQAAIAAJ&q=peshawar+poshapura ↩

  22. Bulletin of the Asia Institute, Volume 7. Wayne State University Press. 1994. p. 55. As the Fu-lou-sha of Fa-hsien is also identifiable as Peshawar, the fifth-century Chinese transcription of Purushapura can clearly be equated with the seventh-century Pu-lu-sha, the equivalent syllables for pu-lo, representing the Sanskrit pura ... /wiki/Wayne_State_University_Press ↩

  23. Yang, Hsüan-chih (14 July 2014). A Record of Buddhist Monasteries in Lo-Yang. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1-4008-5754-8. Archived from the original on 7 March 2022. Retrieved 3 October 2020. 978-1-4008-5754-8 ↩

  24. Analecta Orientalia Posthumous Writings and Selected Minor Works. Brill Archive. Archived from the original on 7 March 2022. Retrieved 3 October 2020. https://books.google.com/books?id=P9oUAAAAIAAJ&q=peshawar+%E2%80%9Cold+persian%E2%80%9D&pg=PA370 ↩

  25. "Ancient Peshawar:Historical Review of Some of its Socio-Religious and Cultural Aspects". asc-centralasia.edu.pk. Archived from the original on 19 July 2019. Retrieved 19 July 2019. The famous Muslim historian and geographer al-Masudi (871–957 AD), also known as the 'Herodotus of the Arabs' for he wrote a 30-volume history of the world, spelt Peshawar as Pershadwar. Purshawar or Purushavar: Abu Rayhan Al-Biruni (973–1048 AD), the Arab geographer and historian records two variants for Peshawar; Purshawar and Purushavar. https://web.archive.org/web/20190719134124/https://www.asc-centralasia.edu.pk/Issue_69/07_waqar.html ↩

  26. Bosworth, Clifford Edmund (2007). Historic Cities of the Islamic World. BRILL. ISBN 9789004153882. Archived from the original on 7 March 2022. Retrieved 24 March 2017. 9789004153882 ↩

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  154. "On 22nd February 1910, a meeting of leading Muslims and Hindu leaders was called by deputy commissioner of Peshawar at the Municipal Hall in which arrangements regarding the upcoming festivals were discussed and a committee was established consisting of prominent leaders from both sides. It was decided in the meeting that the Holi should be celebrated quietly until the 25th March. There should be only two processions, namely from the Hindu quarter of Andar Shahr to that of Karimpura and vice-versa. The Muslim of the city should not join the procession and the troops should celebrate Holi in their lines and some leading men from both sides will supervise the arrangement at Hasting Memorial and other at Clock Tower."[101]: 23–24 ↩

  155. On 21 March the Deputy Commissioner was informed by deputy superintendent of police Zain ul Abidin that the situation in the city is not good as Hindu brought some musicians from Amritsar and a dancing boy from Hari Pur and they are intending to lead the procession on an unauthorized route. The superintendent of police suggested the deputy commissioner that the Holi should not be allowed as the situations going to create clash. Mr. Blackway sent some Hindu leader to enquire the situation. These Hindu gentlemen assured the deputy commissioner that the situation is friendly and nothing bad is going to be happened. There is no musician with the Holi and it would follow the old route. At the same time some Muslim leaders reported to the deputy commissioner about the Muslim mob who intended to stop the Holi procession. They also suggested that Holi procession should be stopped to avoid an expected clash between the two communities. However, after the surety of the Hindu leaders that there are no musicians and dancing boys and that the procession is not going on an unauthorized route the deputy commissioner was stuck to follow his old plan. This was the point which was misunderstood and created communal violence in the city.[101]: 24 ↩

  156. Around 8 pm when the Holi procession at Asa Mai gate was about to depart on the route to Pir Rathan Nath Dharamshala sub inspector Kanhya Lal who was posted at Chita Khuo informed the police head quarter that a mob of Muslim also assembled to stop it and the two mobs started abusing each other. Leaders from both sides tried to control the situation but the people from both sides refused to pay any heed to their leaders. Meanwhile, a Hindu Mahr Singh stabbed a Muslim with knife. Mahr Singh was chased by the mob and captured him at Bara Bazar. At the same time two Muslims Jani and Ahmad were killed by Hindu with knives. Police report for 21 March 1911, provides that two Muslim were killed and three wounded while from Hindu side two people were killed and eleven were wounded and eleven shops were broken.[101]: 24 ↩

  157. When the funeral party was ousted from the city a riffraff of Muslim consisting of people from trans-border areas and Afghanistan remained in the city that started plundering and broke 285 shops. A violent clash was started in which two Hindus and one Muslim was killed... The next day on 23 March the looting of shops started again. The first case was reported in Ramdas Bazar where the Muslim despite the Military and Police patrolling looted the Hindu shops. A Hindu, reader of Nawab of Landi fired and wounded two Muslim. The local Hindu during investigation denied the fact but Military intelligence reported that he fired and wounded two people. He was arrested and sent on trial under India Penal Code. Two Hindu were killed at Ram Das Bazar. It was also reported that in Mewa Mandi a mob of Afridi and Mohmand tribes started plundering and looted many shops. People from tribal areas were also involved in this looting. 11 shops were broken in Ram Das Bazar that day... The official records about the events of the day had self-contradictory statements. The starting paragraphs of police and commissioner reports claims that everything was good at the start of the day but after a while the situation was out of control in the whole city. For instance, police reports provides that around 10:00 am, in Karimpura a police constable Chettan Ram was struck on head and the mob at Bara Bazar started the slogan "Maro Hindu Ko".[101]: 25 ↩

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