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Timeline of computing hardware before 1950
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<h2 id="prehistoryantiquity"><a href="/facts/Prehistory/52D6oKM4">Prehistory</a>–<a href="/facts/Ancient_history/P0fFQ8z5">antiquity</a></h2> <table><tbody><tr><th>Date</th><th>Event</th></tr><tr><td>c. 910 BC</td><td>The <a href="/facts/South-pointing_chariot/WV0sqhoH">south-pointing chariot</a> was invented in <a href="/facts/History_of_China/TNqRSvQ4">ancient China</a>. It was the first known geared mechanism to use a <a href="/facts/Differential_gear/ecdB4NMK">differential gear</a>. The chariot was a two-wheeled vehicle, upon which is a pointing figure connected to the wheels by means of differential gearing. Through careful selection of wheel size, track and gear ratios, the figure atop the chariot always pointed in the same direction.</td></tr><tr><td>c. 125 BC</td><td>The <a href="/facts/Antikythera_mechanism/GHqvxCwR">Antikythera mechanism</a>: A clockwork, <a href="/facts/Analog_computer/3NhYoCML">analog computer</a> believed to have been designed and built in the Corinthian colony of <a href="/facts/Syracuse%2c_Sicily/d6TtVugX">Syracuse</a>. The mechanism contained a <a href="/facts/Differential_gear/ecdB4NMK">differential gear</a> and was capable of tracking the relative positions of all then-known heavenly bodies.</td></tr></tbody></table> <h2 id="medieval1640"><a href="/facts/Post-classical_history/CB2mY6tf">Medieval</a>–1640</h2> <table><tbody><tr><th>Date</th><th>Event</th></tr><tr><td>725</td><td>Chinese inventor <a href="/facts/Liang_Lingzan/xEae7UzJ">Liang Lingzan</a> built the world's first fully mechanical clock; <a href="/facts/Water_clocks/GCgGB46l">water clocks</a>, some of them extremely accurate, had been known for centuries previous to this. This was an important technological leap forward; the earliest true computers, made a thousand years later, used technology based on that of clocks.</td></tr><tr><td>850</td><td>The <a href="/facts/Ban%25C5%25AB_M%25C5%25ABs%25C4%2581/Taj5kewc">Banū Mūsā</a> brothers, in their <i><a href="/facts/Book_of_Ingenious_Devices/TQ9LmEgl">Book of Ingenious Devices</a></i>, invented "the earliest known mechanical <a href="/facts/Musical_instrument/UMSjL1Ks">musical instrument</a>", in this case a <a href="/facts/Hydropower/Adx1E5ha">hydropowered</a> <a href="/facts/Organ_(music)/QjxVlXU5">organ</a> which played interchangeable cylinders automatically. This "cylinder with raised pins on the surface remained the basic device to produce and reproduce music mechanically until the second half of the nineteenth century."<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:1" href="#fn:1"><sup>1</sup></a> They also invented an <a href="/facts/Automaton/SXtErQr2">automatic</a> <a href="/facts/Flute/bByjt2vu">flute</a> player which appears to have been the first <a href="/facts/Computer_programming/QmSsFnu0">programmable</a> machine.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:2" href="#fn:2"><sup>2</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td><i>c.</i> 1000</td><td><a href="/facts/Ab%25C5%25AB_Rayh%25C4%2581n_al-B%25C4%25ABr%25C5%25ABn%25C4%25AB/4XbTzrYl">Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī</a> invented the <a href="/facts/Planisphere/VYg1Qyju">Planisphere</a>, an <a href="/facts/Analog_computer/3NhYoCML">analog computer</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:3" href="#fn:3"><sup>3</sup></a> He also invented the first <a href="/facts/Mechanical_engineering/cbId4fye">mechanical</a> <a href="/facts/Lunisolar_calendar/L2jRkjyJ">lunisolar calendar</a> which employed a <a href="/facts/Gear_train/znASyK8H">gear train</a> and eight <a href="/facts/Gear/9KVHRfUR">gear</a>-wheels.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:4" href="#fn:4"><sup>4</sup></a> This was an early example of a fixed-wired knowledge processing <a href="/facts/Machine/wTCxFRfs">machine</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5"><sup>5</sup></a>[<i>dubious – discuss</i>]</td></tr><tr><td><i>c.</i> 1015</td><td><a href="/facts/Islamic_astronomy/hw8HxDHz">Arab astronomer</a>, <a href="/facts/Ab%25C5%25AB_Ish%25C4%2581q_Ibr%25C4%2581h%25C4%25ABm_al-Zarq%25C4%2581l%25C4%25AB/SYBl1p2m">Abū Ishāq Ibrāhīm al-Zarqālī</a> (Arzachel) of <a href="/facts/Al-Andalus/JTNmWTzP">al-Andalus</a>, invented the <a href="/facts/Equatorium/TLpGgoCI">Equatorium</a>, a mechanical <a href="/facts/Analog_computer/3NhYoCML">analog computer</a> device used for finding the <a href="/facts/Longitude/HsC61ML9">longitudes</a> and positions of the Moon, Sun and planets without calculation, using a geometrical model to represent the <a href="/facts/Celestial_body/BCHLa0Q2">celestial body</a>'s mean and anomalistic position.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6"><sup>6</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td><i>c.</i> 1150</td><td><a href="/facts/Islamic_astronomy/hw8HxDHz">Arab astronomer</a>, <a href="/facts/Jabir_ibn_Aflah/ooFLepQg">Jabir ibn Aflah</a> (Geber), may have invented or inspired the <a href="/facts/Torquetum/z9P1DvbP">Torquetum</a>, an observational instrument and mechanical <a href="/facts/Analog_computer/3NhYoCML">analog computer</a> device used to transform between <a href="/facts/Spherical_coordinate_system/5cVnNof3">spherical coordinate systems</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7"><sup>7</sup></a> It was designed to take and convert measurements made in three sets of coordinates: <a href="/facts/Horizon/LxwxWfC2">horizon</a>, <a href="/facts/Equator/CjaxbVaN">equatorial</a>, and <a href="/facts/Ecliptic/cJxXDDDW">ecliptic</a>.</td></tr><tr><td>1206</td><td><a href="/facts/Inventions_in_the_Islamic_world/0RkuQHVL">Arab engineer</a>, <a href="/facts/Al-Jazari/ycMzl2tU">Al-Jazari</a>, invented numerous <a href="/facts/Automaton/SXtErQr2">automata</a> and made numerous other technological innovations. One of these is a design for a <a href="/facts/Program_(machine)/2e2GCRFA">programmable</a> <a href="/facts/Humanoid_robot/0l82ABSc">humanoid</a>-shaped <a href="/facts/Mannequin/BtdHjehu">mannequin</a>: this seems to have been the first serious, scientific (as opposed to magical) plan for a <a href="/facts/Robot/S5mDzWYk">robot</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8"><sup>8</sup></a> He also invented the "<a href="/facts/Castle_clock/jtdLDPXY">castle clock</a>", an <a href="/facts/Astronomical_clock/8yaTPexw">astronomical clock</a> which is considered to be the earliest <a href="/facts/Computer_programming/QmSsFnu0">programmable</a> <a href="/facts/Analog_computer/3NhYoCML">analog computer</a>. It displayed the <a href="/facts/Zodiac/v7sWp0ef">zodiac</a>, the <a href="/facts/Heliocentric_orbit/b4zMv2jE">solar</a> and <a href="/facts/Lunar_orbit/486BxvD6">lunar orbits</a>, a <a href="/facts/Lunar_phase/0JalCYrE">crescent moon</a>-shaped <a href="/facts/Pointer_(computer_programming)/fPoNzy9b">pointer</a> travelling across a gateway causing automatic doors to open every hour,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9"><sup>9</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10"><sup>10</sup></a> and five <a href="/facts/Robot/S5mDzWYk">robotic</a> musicians who play music when struck by levers operated by a <a href="/facts/Camshaft/qS8BWXVr">camshaft</a> attached to a <a href="/facts/Water_wheel/7xwQDxrP">water wheel</a>. The length of day and night could be re-programmed every day in order to account for the changing lengths of day and night throughout the year.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11"><sup>11</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>1235</td><td><a href="/facts/Islamic_astronomy/hw8HxDHz">Persian astronomer</a> Abi Bakr of <a href="/facts/Isfahan/BLw4k2fm">Isfahan</a> invented a brass <a href="/facts/Astrolabe/BctVIEm4">astrolabe</a> with a <a href="/facts/Gear/9KVHRfUR">geared</a> <a href="/facts/Calendar/mgY3sm8P">calendar</a> movement based on the design of <a href="/facts/Ab%25C5%25AB_Rayh%25C4%2581n_al-B%25C4%25ABr%25C5%25ABn%25C4%25AB/4XbTzrYl">Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī</a>'s mechanical calendar <a href="/facts/Analog_computer/3NhYoCML">analog computer</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12"><sup>12</sup></a> Abi Bakr's geared astrolabe uses a set of <a href="/facts/Gear/9KVHRfUR">gear</a>-wheels and is the oldest surviving complete mechanical geared <a href="/facts/Machine/wTCxFRfs">machine</a> in existence.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13"><sup>13</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14"><sup>14</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>1300</td><td><a href="/facts/Ramon_Llull/MnK265Y1">Ramon Llull</a> invented the Lullian Circle: a notional machine for calculating answers to philosophical questions (in this case, to do with Christianity) via logical combinatorics. This idea was taken up by <a href="/facts/Gottfried_Leibniz/cTc2er83">Leibniz</a> centuries later, and is thus one of the founding elements in computing and <a href="/facts/Information_science/HGG3e3Jv">information science</a>.</td></tr><tr><td><i>c.</i> 1416</td><td><a href="/facts/Jamsh%25C4%25ABd_al-K%25C4%2581sh%25C4%25AB/BHJWSgKK">Jamshīd al-Kāshī</a> invented the <i>Plate of Conjunctions</i>, an <a href="/facts/Analog_computer/3NhYoCML">analog computer</a> instrument used to determine the time of day at which <a href="/facts/Planetary_conjunction/TgujumHI">planetary conjunctions</a> will occur,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15"><sup>15</sup></a> and for performing <a href="/facts/Linear_interpolation/galkvRGy">linear interpolation</a>. He also invented a mechanical "planetary computer" which he called the <i>Plate of Zones</i>, which could graphically solve a number of planetary problems, including the prediction of the true positions in <a href="/facts/Longitude/HsC61ML9">longitude</a> of the Sun and Moon,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16"><sup>16</sup></a> and the <a href="/facts/Planet/rbPjE6Bx">planets</a>;<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17"><sup>17</sup></a> the <a href="/facts/Latitude/IBYqkjhU">latitudes</a> of the Sun, Moon, and planets; and the <a href="/facts/Ecliptic/cJxXDDDW">ecliptic</a> of the Sun. The instrument also incorporated an <a href="/facts/Alhidade/7alokrs1">alhidade</a> and <a href="/facts/Ruler/jKWAdmso">ruler</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18"><sup>18</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>1493</td><td><a href="/facts/Leonardo_da_Vinci/E83tcPl2">Leonardo da Vinci</a> produced drawings of a device consisting of interlocking cog wheels which can be interpreted as a <a href="/facts/Mechanical_calculator/As7HE5dB">mechanical calculator</a> capable of addition and subtraction. A working model inspired by this plan was built in 1968 but it remains controversial whether Leonardo really had a calculator in mind.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19"><sup>19</sup></a> Da Vinci also made plans for a mechanical man: an early design for a <a href="/facts/Robot/S5mDzWYk">robot</a>.</td></tr><tr><td>1614</td><td>Scotsman <a href="/facts/John_Napier/Wg0HAmq5">John Napier</a> reinvented a form of logarithms and an ingenious system of movable rods (1617, referred to as Napier's Rods or <a href="/facts/Napier%2527s_bones/uc1DHGLA">Napier's bones</a>). These rods were based on the <a href="/facts/Lattice_multiplication/14qW5Na2">lattice or gelosia multiplication</a> algorithm and allowed the operator to multiply, divide, and calculate square and cube roots by moving the rods around and placing them in specially constructed boards.</td></tr><tr><td>1622</td><td><a href="/facts/William_Oughtred/2cyf4A1n">William Oughtred</a> developed <a href="/facts/Slide_rule/KzIEdWad">slide rules</a> based on <a href="/facts/Logarithm/QeXaV97q">logarithms</a> as developed by <a href="/facts/John_Napier/Wg0HAmq5">John Napier</a>.</td></tr><tr><td>1623</td><td>German <a href="/facts/Polymath/eqIfjQRu">polymath</a> <a href="/facts/Wilhelm_Schickard/8e3EucNk">Wilhelm Schickard</a> drew a device that he called a <i>calculating clock</i> on two letters that he sent to <a href="/facts/Johannes_Kepler/wk6GTN3C">Johannes Kepler</a>; one in 1623 and the other in 1624. A fire later destroyed the machine as it was being built in 1624 and he decided to abandon his project.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20"><sup>20</sup></a> This machine became known to the world only in 1957 when the two letters were discovered. Some replicas were built in 1961.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21"><sup>21</sup></a> This machine had no impact on the development of mechanical calculators.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22"><sup>22</sup></a></td></tr></tbody></table> <h2 id="16411850">1641–1850</h2> <table><tbody><tr><th>Date</th><th>Place</th><th>Event</th></tr><tr><td>1642 </td><td><a href="/facts/France/CxIeIKM3">France</a></td><td>French polymath <a href="/facts/Blaise_Pascal/Huy5LenL">Blaise Pascal</a> invented the mechanical calculator.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23"><sup>23</sup></a> Called <i>machine arithmétique</i>, Pascal's calculator and eventually <a href="/facts/Pascaline/cMx8uB3w">Pascaline</a>, its public introduction in 1645 started the development of mechanical calculators first in Europe and then in the rest of the world. It was the first machine to have a controlled carry mechanism.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24"><sup>24</sup></a> Pascal built 50 prototypes before releasing his first machine (eventually twenty machines were built). The Pascaline inspired the works of <a href="/facts/Gottfried_Leibniz/cTc2er83">Gottfried Leibniz</a> (1671), <a href="/facts/Thomas_de_Colmar/SmAq1rJR">Thomas de Colmar</a> (1820) and <a href="/facts/Dorr_E._Felt/tRsl8n9g">Dorr E. Felt</a> (1887).</td></tr><tr><td>1666</td><td><a href="/facts/United_Kingdom/kuPAILt2">United Kingdom</a></td><td>Sir <a href="/facts/Samuel_Morland/12kvu9oo">Samuel Morland</a> (1625–1695), of England, produced a non-decimal adding machine,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25"><sup>25</sup></a> suitable for use with <a href="/facts/Pound_sterling/cGgjUJwv">English money</a>. Instead of a carry mechanism, it registered carries on auxiliary dials, from which the user re-entered them as addends.</td></tr><tr><td>1672</td><td><a href="/facts/Germany/paluuWBX">Germany</a></td><td>German <a href="/facts/Mathematician/eaFSR8Fx">mathematician</a>, <a href="/facts/Gottfried_Leibniz/cTc2er83">Gottfried Leibniz</a> started designing a machine which multiplied, the '<a href="/facts/Stepped_Reckoner/kx62puql">Stepped Reckoner</a>'. It could multiply numbers of up to 5 and 12 digits to give a 16 digit result. Two machines were built, one in 1694 (it was discovered in an attic in 1879), and one in 1706.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26"><sup>26</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>1685</td><td><a href="/facts/Germany/paluuWBX">Germany</a></td><td>In an article titled <i>"Machina arithmetica in qua non additio tantum et subtractio sed et multiplicatio nullo, diviso vero paene nullo animi labore peragantur"</i>, <a href="/facts/Gottfried_Leibniz/cTc2er83">Gottfried Leibniz</a> described a machine that used <a href="/facts/Pinwheel_calculator/8tL2J6Be">wheels with movable teeth</a> which, when coupled to a Pascaline, could perform all four mathematical operations.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27"><sup>27</sup></a> There is no evidence that Leibniz ever constructed this pinwheel machine.</td></tr><tr><td>1709</td><td><a href="/facts/Italy/tUf0PDYF">Italy</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Giovanni_Poleni/nYtfre55">Giovanni Poleni</a> was the first to build a calculator that used a <a href="/facts/Pinwheel_calculator/8tL2J6Be">pinwheel design</a>. It was made of wood and was built in the shape of a <i>calculating clock</i>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28"><sup>28</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>1726</td><td><a href="/facts/United_Kingdom/kuPAILt2">United Kingdom</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Jonathan_Swift/000AjJvj">Jonathan Swift</a> described (satirically) a machine ("engine") in his <i><a href="/facts/Gulliver%2527s_Travels/G2T65SUH">Gulliver's Travels</a></i>. The "engine" consisted of a wooden frame with wooden blocks containing parts of speech. When the engine's 40 levers are simultaneously turned, the machine displayed grammatical sentence fragments.</td></tr><tr><td>1774</td><td><a href="/facts/Germany/paluuWBX">Germany</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Philipp_Matth%25C3%25A4us_Hahn/SqyM4K4h">Philipp Matthäus Hahn</a>, in what is now Germany, made a successful portable calculator able to perform all four mathematical operations.</td></tr><tr><td>1775</td><td><a href="/facts/United_Kingdom/kuPAILt2">United Kingdom</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Charles_Stanhope%2c_3rd_Earl_Stanhope/sbsWSmly">Charles Stanhope, 3rd Earl Stanhope</a>, of England, designed and constructed a successful multiplying calculator similar to Leibniz's.</td></tr><tr><td>1786</td><td><a href="/facts/Germany/paluuWBX">Germany</a></td><td><a href="/facts/J._H._M%25C3%25BCller/QYbNvXfq">J. H. Müller</a>, an engineer in the Hessian army, first conceived of the idea of a <a href="/facts/Difference_engine/9extR8lB">difference engine</a> (first written reference to the basic principles of a difference machine is dated to 1784).</td></tr><tr><td>1804</td><td><a href="/facts/France/CxIeIKM3">France</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Joseph-Marie_Jacquard/Ut1FsVrQ">Joseph-Marie Jacquard</a> developed the <a href="/facts/Jacquard_loom/KqFkGCUs">Jacquard loom</a>, an automatic loom controlled by <a href="/facts/Punched_card/44WsPulQ">punched cards</a>.</td></tr><tr><td>1820</td><td><a href="/facts/France/CxIeIKM3">France</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Charles_Xavier_Thomas_de_Colmar/SmAq1rJR">Charles Xavier Thomas de Colmar</a> invented the '<a href="/facts/Arithmometer/WTS0X4WF">Arithmometer</a>' which after thirty more years of development became, in 1851, the first mass-produced mechanical calculator. An operator could perform <a href="/facts/Multiplication_algorithm/68xf6EdK">long multiplications</a> and divisions quickly and effectively by using a movable accumulator for the result. This machine was based on the earlier works of Pascal and Leibniz.</td></tr><tr><td>1822</td><td><a href="/facts/United_Kingdom/kuPAILt2">United Kingdom</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Charles_Babbage/T3jklQcd">Charles Babbage</a> designed his first mechanical computer, the first prototype of the decimal <a href="/facts/Difference_engine/9extR8lB">difference engine</a> for tabulating polynomials.</td></tr><tr><td>1831</td><td><a href="/facts/Italy/tUf0PDYF">Italy</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Giovanni_Plana/Xc3MWnjV">Giovanni Plana</a> designed a <a href="/facts/Cappella_dei_Mercanti_(Turin)/FdHAaI64">Perpetual Calendar machine</a>, which can calculate the precise calendar for over 4000 years, accounting for leap years and variation in day length.</td></tr><tr><td>1832</td><td><a href="/facts/Russia/jfkCwyxn">Russia</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Semen_Korsakov/jCXcrDS7">Semen Korsakov</a> proposed the usage of <a href="/facts/Punched_card/44WsPulQ">punched cards</a> for information storage and search. He designed several machines to demonstrate his ideas, including the so-called <i>linear homeoscope</i>.</td></tr><tr><td>1832</td><td><a href="/facts/United_Kingdom/kuPAILt2">United Kingdom</a></td><td>Babbage and <a href="/facts/Joseph_Clement/y8o9g8Qa">Joseph Clement</a> produced a prototype segment of his <a href="/facts/Difference_engine/9extR8lB">difference engine</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29"><sup>29</sup></a> which operated on 6-digit numbers and second-order differences (i.e., it could tabulate quadratic polynomials). The complete engine, which would have been room-sized, was planned to operate both on sixth-order differences with numbers of about 20 digits, and on third-order differences with numbers of 30 digits. Each addition would have been done in two phases, the second one taking care of any carries generated in the first. The output digits were to be punched into a soft metal plate, from which a printing plate might have been made. But there were various difficulties, and no more than this prototype piece was ever finished.</td></tr><tr><td><i>c.</i> 1833</td><td><a href="/facts/United_Kingdom/kuPAILt2">United Kingdom</a></td><td>Babbage conceived, and began to design, his decimal '<a href="/facts/Analytical_Engine/Ts9xduLI">Analytical Engine</a>'.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30"><sup>30</sup></a> A <a href="/facts/Computer_program/e38jH9N9">program</a> for it was to be <a href="/facts/Computer_data_storage/wPHKFpdx">stored</a> on <a href="/facts/Read-only_memory/P9QMuDLH">read-only memory</a>, in the form of <a href="/facts/Punched_cards/44WsPulQ">punched cards</a>. Babbage continued to work on the design for years, though after about 1840 design changes seem to have been minor. The machine would have operated on 40-digit numbers; the 'mill' (<a href="/facts/Central_processing_unit/Jxp1bqMV">CPU</a>) would have had 2 main <a href="/facts/Accumulator_(computing)/gH4V0l76">accumulators</a> and some auxiliary ones for specific purposes, while the 'store' (<a href="/facts/Computer_storage/wPHKFpdx">memory</a>) would have held a thousand 50-digit numbers. There would have been several punched card readers, for both programs and <a href="/facts/Data/AUBFN97o">data</a>; the cards were to be chained and the motion of each chain reversible. The machine would have performed conditional jumps. There would also have been a form of <a href="/facts/Microcode/XQEsr2X3">microcoding</a>: the meaning of <a href="/facts/Instruction_(computer_science)/8p8vwUeE">instructions</a> were to depend on the positioning of metal studs in a slotted barrel, called the "control barrel". The machine envisioned would have been capable of an addition in 3 seconds and a multiplication or division in 2–4 minutes. It was to be powered by a <a href="/facts/Steam_engine/f7hN8vzm">steam engine</a>. In the end, no more than a few parts were actually built.</td></tr><tr><td>1835</td><td><a href="/facts/United_States/P0sCdLe5">United States</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Joseph_Henry/Hr7CTgct">Joseph Henry</a> invented the electromechanical <a href="/facts/Relay/NQcb9usW">relay</a>.</td></tr><tr><td>1840</td><td><a href="/facts/Italy/tUf0PDYF">Italy</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Charles_Babbage/T3jklQcd">Charles Babbage</a>'s first public exposition about his Analytical Engine at Accademia delle Scienze, <a href="/facts/Turin/PudIVEnr">Turin</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31"><sup>31</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>1842</td><td><a href="/facts/France/CxIeIKM3">France</a></td><td>Timoleon Maurel patented the <a href="/facts/Arithmaurel/4KTNUfbl">Arithmaurel</a>, a mechanical calculator with a very intuitive user interface, especially for multiplying and dividing numbers because the result was displayed as soon as the operands were entered. It received a gold medal at the French national show in Paris in 1849.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32"><sup>32</sup></a> Unfortunately its complexity and the fragility of its design prevented it from being manufactured.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33"><sup>33</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>1842</td><td><a href="/facts/United_Kingdom/kuPAILt2">United Kingdom</a></td><td>Construction of Babbage's <a href="/facts/Difference_engine/9extR8lB">difference engine</a> was cancelled as an official project.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34"><sup>34</sup></a> The cost overruns had been considerable (£17,470 was spent, which, in 2025 money, would be about £1,677,000 <a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35"><sup>35</sup></a>).</td></tr><tr><td>1843</td><td><a href="/facts/Sweden/u3qC7lyj">Sweden</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Per_Georg_Scheutz/p82NldQw">Per Georg Scheutz</a> and his son Edvard produced a 5-digit numbers and third-order model of the <a href="/facts/Difference_engine/9extR8lB">difference engine</a> with printer; the Swedish government agreed to fund their next development in 1851.</td></tr><tr><td>1846</td><td><a href="/facts/United_Kingdom/kuPAILt2">United Kingdom</a></td><td>Babbage began to work on an improved <a href="/facts/Difference_engine/9extR8lB">difference engine</a> (the Difference Engine No.2), producing a completely executed set of plans by 1849.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36"><sup>36</sup></a> The machine would have operated on 7th-order differences and 31-digit numbers, but nobody was found to pay to have it built. In 1989–1991 a team at London's Science Museum did build one from the surviving plans. They built components using modern methods, but with tolerances no better than Clement could have provided... and, after a bit of tinkering and detail-debugging, they found that the machine works properly. In 2000, the printer was also completed.</td></tr><tr><td>1847</td><td><a href="/facts/United_Kingdom/kuPAILt2">United Kingdom</a></td><td>British Mathematician <a href="/facts/George_Boole/fWJT2rek">George Boole</a> developed binary algebra (<a href="/facts/Boolean_algebra_(logic)/VkCToAmg">Boolean algebra</a>)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37"><sup>37</sup></a> which has been widely used in binary computer design and operation, beginning about a century later. See 1939.</td></tr></tbody></table> <h2 id="18511930">1851–1930</h2> <table><tbody><tr><th>Date</th><th>Place</th><th>Event</th></tr><tr><td>1851</td><td><a href="/facts/France/CxIeIKM3">France</a></td><td>After 30 years of development, <a href="/facts/Thomas_de_Colmar/SmAq1rJR">Thomas de Colmar</a> launched the mechanical calculator industry by starting the manufacturing of a much simplified <a href="/facts/Arithmometer/WTS0X4WF">Arithmometer</a> (invented in 1820). Aside from its clones, which started thirty years later,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38"><sup>38</sup></a> it was the only calculating machine available anywhere in the world for forty years (<a href="/facts/Dorr_Felt/tRsl8n9g">Dorr E. Felt</a> only sold one hundred <a href="/facts/Comptometer/jpX0sThv">comptometers</a> and a few <a href="/facts/Comptograph/jpX0sThv">comptographs</a> from 1887 to 1890<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39"><sup>39</sup></a>). Its simplicity made it the most reliable calculator to date. It was a big machine (a 20 digit arithmometer was long enough to occupy most of a desktop). Even though the arithmometer was only manufactured until 1915, twenty European companies manufactured improved clones of its design until the beginning of WWII. Prominent clone manufacturers included Burkhardt, Layton, Saxonia, Gräber, Peerless, Mercedes-Euklid, XxX, and Archimedes.</td></tr><tr><td>1853</td><td><a href="/facts/Sweden/u3qC7lyj">Sweden</a></td><td>To Babbage's delight, the <a href="/facts/Per_Georg_Scheutz/p82NldQw">Scheutzes</a> completed the first full-scale <a href="/facts/Difference_engine/9extR8lB">difference engine</a>, which they called a Tabulating Machine. It operated on 15-digit numbers and 4th-order differences, and produced printed output just as Babbage's would have. A second machine was later built in 1859 to the same design by the firm of <a href="/facts/Bryan_Donkin/kpjWNm1f">Bryan Donkin</a> of London.</td></tr><tr><td>1856</td><td><a href="/facts/United_States/P0sCdLe5">United States</a></td><td>The first Tabulating Machine (see 1853) was bought by the Dudley Observatory in <a href="/facts/Albany%2c_New_York/A4p7Ugnt">Albany, New York</a>, and the second was ordered in 1857 by the British government. The Albany machine was used to produce a set of astronomical tables; but the Observatory's director was fired for this extravagant purchase, and the machine never seriously used again, eventually ending up in a museum. The second machine had a long and useful life.</td></tr><tr><td><i>c.</i> 1859</td><td><a href="/facts/Sweden/u3qC7lyj">Sweden</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Martin_Wiberg/9q1FueCh">Martin Wiberg</a> produced a reworked <a href="/facts/Difference_engine/9extR8lB">difference-engine-like</a> machine intended to prepare interest rates (first publication in 1860) and <a href="/facts/Logarithm/QeXaV97q">logarithmic</a> tables (first publication in 1875).</td></tr><tr><td>1866</td><td><a href="/facts/United_Kingdom/kuPAILt2">United Kingdom</a></td><td>The first practical logic machine (<a href="/facts/Logical_abacus/yuzNmMNu">logical abacus</a>) was built by <a href="/facts/William_Stanley_Jevons/guTGxIYP">William Stanley Jevons</a>.</td></tr><tr><td>1871</td><td><a href="/facts/United_Kingdom/kuPAILt2">United Kingdom</a></td><td>Babbage produced a prototype section of the <a href="/facts/Analytical_Engine/Ts9xduLI">Analytical Engine</a>'s mill and printer.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40"><sup>40</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>1878</td><td><a href="/facts/Spain/bIyrB8EY">Spain</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Ram%25C3%25B3n_Verea/x34UoLpk">Ramón Verea</a>, living in New York City, invented a calculator with an internal multiplication table; this was much faster than the shifting carriage, or other digital methods of the time. He wasn't interested in putting it into production, however; it seems he just wanted to show that a Spaniard could invent as well as an American.</td></tr><tr><td>1878</td><td><a href="/facts/United_Kingdom/kuPAILt2">United Kingdom</a></td><td>A committee investigated the feasibility of completing the <a href="/facts/Analytical_Engine/Ts9xduLI">Analytical Engine</a>, and concluded that it would be impossible now that Babbage was dead. The project was then largely forgotten, except by a very few; <a href="/facts/Howard_Aiken/EXT7VMAC">Howard Aiken</a> was a notable exception.</td></tr><tr><td>1884</td><td><a href="/facts/United_States/P0sCdLe5">United States</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Dorr_Felt/tRsl8n9g">Dorr Felt</a>, of Chicago, developed his <a href="/facts/Comptometer/jpX0sThv">Comptometer</a>. This was the first calculator in which operands are entered by pressing keys rather than having to be, for example, dialled in. It was feasible because of Felt's invention of a carry mechanism fast enough to act while the keys return from being pressed. Felt and Tarrant started a partnership to manufacture the comptometer in 1887.</td></tr><tr><td>1886</td><td><a href="/facts/United_States/P0sCdLe5">United States</a></td><td>First use of <a href="/facts/Herman_Hollerith/rxpnvpgz">Herman Hollerith</a> tabulating system in the Baltimore Department of Health.</td></tr><tr><td>1887</td><td><a href="/facts/United_States/P0sCdLe5">United States</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Herman_Hollerith/rxpnvpgz">Herman Hollerith</a> filed a patent application for an <a href="/facts/Unit_record_equipment/xkRvng9j">integrating tabulator</a> (granted in 1890), which could add numbers encoded on <a href="/facts/Punched_card/44WsPulQ">punched cards</a>. First recorded use of this device was in 1889 in the Office of the Surgeon General of the Army. In 1896 Hollerith introduced improved model.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:41" href="#fn:41"><sup>41</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>1889</td><td><a href="/facts/United_States/P0sCdLe5">United States</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Dorr_Felt/tRsl8n9g">Dorr Felt</a> invented the first printing desk calculator.</td></tr><tr><td>1890</td><td><a href="/facts/United_States/P0sCdLe5">United States</a><a href="/facts/Sweden/u3qC7lyj">Sweden</a><a href="/facts/Russia/jfkCwyxn">Russia</a></td><td>A multiplying calculator more compact than the Arithmometer entered mass production.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:42" href="#fn:42"><sup>42</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:43" href="#fn:43"><sup>43</sup></a> The design was the independent, and more or less simultaneous, invention of <a href="/facts/Frank_S._Baldwin/VEkRRA6M">Frank S. Baldwin</a>, of the United States, and <a href="/facts/Willgodt_Theophil_Odhner/suyEP8rq">Willgodt Theophil Odhner</a>, a Swede living in Russia. Fluted drums were replaced by a "variable-toothed gear" design: a disk with radial pegs that could be made to protrude or retract from it.</td></tr><tr><td>1890</td><td><a href="/facts/United_States/P0sCdLe5">United States</a></td><td>The <a href="/facts/1880_United_States_census/b380C0t1">1880 US census</a> had taken 7 years to complete since all processing had been done by hand from journal sheets. The increasing population suggested that by the <a href="/facts/1890_United_States_census/RWFwbtDd">1890 census</a>, data processing would take longer than the 10 years before the next census—so a competition was held to find a better method. It was won by a Census Department employee, <a href="/facts/Herman_Hollerith/rxpnvpgz">Herman Hollerith</a>, who went on to found the <a href="/facts/Tabulating_Machine_Company/M01Bb4yJ">Tabulating Machine Company</a>, later to become <a href="/facts/International_Business_Machines/QszA7nwd">IBM</a>. He invented the recording of data on a medium that could then be read by a machine. Prior uses of machine readable media had been for control (<a href="/facts/Automaton/SXtErQr2">Automatons</a>, <a href="/facts/Piano_roll/RqlURVLy">Piano rolls</a>, <a href="/facts/Jacquard_loom/KqFkGCUs">looms</a>, ...), not data. "After some initial trials with paper tape, he settled on <a href="/facts/Punched_card/44WsPulQ">punched cards</a>..."<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:44" href="#fn:44"><sup>44</sup></a> His machines used mechanical <a href="/facts/Relay/NQcb9usW">relays</a> to increment mechanical counters. This method was used in the 1890 census. The net effect of the many changes from the 1880 census: the larger population, the data items to be collected, the Census Bureau headcount, the scheduled publications, and the use of Hollerith's electromechanical tabulators, was to reduce the time required to process the census from eight years for the <a href="/facts/U.S._Census%2c_1880/b380C0t1">1880 census</a> to six years for the 1890 census.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:45" href="#fn:45"><sup>45</sup></a> The inspiration for this invention was Hollerith's observation of railroad conductors during a trip in the <a href="/facts/Western_United_States/uY9UGAus">Western United States</a>; they encoded a crude description of the passenger (tall, bald, male) in the way they punched the ticket.</td></tr><tr><td>1891</td><td><a href="/facts/United_States/P0sCdLe5">United States</a></td><td><a href="/facts/William_Seward_Burroughs_I/peC6GmxQ">William S. Burroughs</a> of St. Louis invented a machine similar to Felt's (see 1884) in 1885 but unlike the comptometer it was a 'key-set' machine which only processed each number after a crank handle was pulled. The true manufacturing of this machine started in 1891 even though Burroughs had started his <a href="/facts/American_Arithmometer_Company/GRWoBVUT">American Arithmometer Company</a> in 1886 (it later became <a href="/facts/Burroughs_Corporation/NAEwIvpU">Burroughs Corporation</a> and is now called <a href="/facts/Unisys/y49ddC6b">Unisys</a>).</td></tr><tr><td>1899</td><td><a href="/facts/Japan/U5mz0SRT">Japan</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Ry%25C5%258Dichi_Yazu/wE1QDILM">Ryōichi Yazu</a> began the development of a mechanical calculating machine (automatic abacus).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:46" href="#fn:46"><sup>46</sup></a> Ryoichi independently conducted research on calculating machines, and it took three years to complete his <a href="/facts/Bi-quinary_coded_decimal/3MhwV5CI">biquinary</a> mechanical desktop calculating machine, before applying for a patent in 1902.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:47" href="#fn:47"><sup>47</sup></a> It was Japan's first successful mechanical computer.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:48" href="#fn:48"><sup>48</sup></a>[<i>dubious – discuss</i>]<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:49" href="#fn:49"><sup>49</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td><i>c.</i> 1900</td><td><a href="/facts/United_States/P0sCdLe5">United States</a></td><td>The <a href="/facts/Standard_Adding_Machine_Company/7aljLxGu">Standard Adding Machine Company</a> released the first 10-key adding machine in about 1900. The inventor, William Hopkins, filed his first patent on October 4, 1892. The 10 keys were set on a single row.</td></tr><tr><td>1902</td><td><a href="/facts/United_States/P0sCdLe5">United States</a></td><td>First model of Dalton adding machine is built.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:50" href="#fn:50"><sup>50</sup></a> Remington advertised the Dalton adding machine as the first 10-key printing adding machine.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:51" href="#fn:51"><sup>51</sup></a> The 10 keys were set on two rows. Six machines had been manufactured by the end of 1906.</td></tr><tr><td>1905</td><td><a href="/facts/Japan/U5mz0SRT">Japan</a></td><td>Ichitaro Kawaguchi, an engineer at the <a href="/facts/Ministry_of_Communications_(Japan)/KIvovepD">Ministry of Communications and Transportation</a>, built the Kawaguchi Electric Tabulation Machine,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:52" href="#fn:52"><sup>52</sup></a> used to tabulate some of the results of the 1904 Demographics Statistical Study.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:53" href="#fn:53"><sup>53</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>1906</td><td><a href="/facts/United_Kingdom/kuPAILt2">United Kingdom</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Henry_Babbage/Kxc64IsR">Henry Babbage</a>, Charles's son, with the help of the firm of R. W. Munro, completed the 'mill' from his father's <a href="/facts/Analytical_Engine/Ts9xduLI">Analytical Engine</a>, to show that it would have worked. It does. The complete machine was not produced.</td></tr><tr><td>1906</td><td><a href="/facts/United_States/P0sCdLe5">United States</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Audion/IlIhKsJc">Audion</a> (<a href="/facts/Vacuum_tube/VHd1BNLq">vacuum tube</a> or <a href="/facts/Thermionic_valve/VHd1BNLq">thermionic valve</a>) invented by <a href="/facts/Lee_De_Forest/tMDkcLnV">Lee De Forest</a>.</td></tr><tr><td>1906</td><td><a href="/facts/United_States/P0sCdLe5">United States</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Herman_Hollerith/rxpnvpgz">Herman Hollerith</a> introduces a tabulator with a <a href="/facts/Plugboard/fE3HX8tS">plugboard</a> that can be rewired to adapt the machine for different applications. Plugboards were widely used to direct machine calculations until displaced by <a href="/facts/Stored_program/CwcIk5S8">stored programs</a> in the 1950s.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:54" href="#fn:54"><sup>54</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>1909</td><td><a href="/facts/Republic_of_Ireland/k8JzXVze">Republic of Ireland</a></td><td>Following Babbage, although unaware of his earlier work, <a href="/facts/Percy_Ludgate/PIyqyEqH">Percy Ludgate</a> in 1909 published the 2nd of the only two designs for mechanical analytical engines in history.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:55" href="#fn:55"><sup>55</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>1913</td><td><a href="/facts/Spain/bIyrB8EY">Spain</a></td><td>In his work <i>Essays on Automatics</i> (1913), <a href="/facts/Leonardo_Torres_y_Quevedo/59LagmRR">Leonardo Torres y Quevedo</a> formulates what will be a new branch of engineering: <a href="/facts/Automation/3YlF2K5q">automation</a> and designed a Babbage type of calculating machine that used electromechanical parts which introduced the idea of <a href="/facts/Floating-point_arithmetic/eIckahxe">floating-point arithmetic</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:56" href="#fn:56"><sup>56</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>1919</td><td><a href="/facts/United_Kingdom/kuPAILt2">United Kingdom</a></td><td><a href="/facts/William_Henry_Eccles/8KA3rcgM">William Henry Eccles</a> and <a href="/facts/F._W._Jordan/jDw1NcgE">F. W. Jordan</a> published the first <a href="/facts/Flip-flop_(electronics)/vA99xjM7">flip-flop</a> circuit design.</td></tr><tr><td>1924</td><td><a href="/facts/Germany/paluuWBX">Germany</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Walther_Bothe/sUnzEYxY">Walther Bothe</a> built an AND <a href="/facts/Logic_gate/RHLulvKI">logic gate</a> - the <i><a href="/facts/Coincidence_circuit/QHy3BNm7">coincidence circuit</a></i>, for use in physics experiments, for which he received the <a href="/facts/Nobel_Prize/3z1Y3oFL">Nobel Prize</a> in Physics 1954. Digital circuitries of all kinds make heavy use of this technique.</td></tr><tr><td>1928</td><td><a href="/facts/United_States/P0sCdLe5">United States</a></td><td><a href="/facts/IBM/QszA7nwd">IBM</a> standardizes on <a href="/facts/Punched_card/44WsPulQ">punched cards</a> with 80 columns of data and rectangular holes. Widely known as IBM Cards, they dominate the data processing industry for almost half a century.</td></tr><tr><td>1929</td><td><a href="/facts/United_States/P0sCdLe5">United States</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Westinghouse_Electric_(1886)/Nln2BzI3">Westinghouse</a> AC Calculating board. An <a href="/facts/Network_analyzer_(AC_power)/o7Wbjefr">AC network analyzer</a> used for <a href="/facts/Alternating_current/qxICS3xa">alternating current</a> (AC) electrical transmission line simulations up until the 1960s.</td></tr><tr><td><i>c.</i> 1930</td><td><a href="/facts/United_States/P0sCdLe5">United States</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Vannevar_Bush/F12rLyGQ">Vannevar Bush</a> built a partly electronic <a href="/facts/Differential_analyser/lgA1m3VS">differential analyzer</a> capable of solving <a href="/facts/Differential_equation/9MGbE3Ca">differential equations</a>.</td></tr><tr><td><i>c.</i> 1930</td><td><a href="/facts/United_Kingdom/kuPAILt2">United Kingdom</a></td><td>Welsh physicist <a href="/facts/C._E._Wynn-Williams/SQx2fg69">C. E. Wynn-Williams</a>, at <a href="/facts/Cambridge%2c_England/gNRdbmwK">Cambridge, England</a>, used a ring of <a href="/facts/Thyratron/tkhB15CK">thyratron</a> tubes to construct a binary digital counter that counted emitted <a href="/facts/Alpha_particle/dzNMs9WP">alpha particles</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:57" href="#fn:57"><sup>57</sup></a></td></tr></tbody></table> <h2 id="19311940">1931–1940</h2> <table><tbody><tr><th>Date</th><th>Place</th><th>Event</th></tr><tr><td>1931</td><td><a href="/facts/Austria/4qWIMIyc">Austria</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Kurt_G%25C3%25B6del/P14DqKqK">Kurt Gödel</a> of <a href="/facts/Vienna_University/sc4vUUe8">Vienna University</a>, Austria, published a paper on a universal formal language based on arithmetic operations. He used it to encode arbitrary formal statements and proofs, and showed that <a href="/facts/Formal_system/KaeDAjK7">formal systems</a> such as traditional mathematics are either inconsistent in a certain sense, or contain unprovable but true statements. This result is often called the fundamental result of theoretical computer science.</td></tr><tr><td>1931</td><td><a href="/facts/United_States/P0sCdLe5">United States</a></td><td><a href="/facts/IBM/QszA7nwd">IBM</a> introduced the <a href="/facts/IBM_601/LH5xDB4w">IBM 601</a> Multiplying Punch, an electromechanical machine that could read two numbers, up to 8 digits long, from a card and punch their product onto the same card.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:58" href="#fn:58"><sup>58</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>1934</td><td><a href="/facts/Japan/U5mz0SRT">Japan</a>,<p><a href="/facts/Soviet_Union/m7wWsPto">Soviet Union</a>,</p><p><a href="/facts/United_States/P0sCdLe5">United States</a></p></td><td>From 1934 to 1937, <a href="/facts/NEC/YnlUsMBA">NEC</a> engineer <a href="/facts/Akira_Nakashima/vxyCyhfX">Akira Nakashima</a>, <a href="/facts/Claude_Shannon/EremsCws">Claude Shannon</a> and <a href="/facts/Victor_Shestakov/HkLyIgCu">Viktor Shestakov</a> published a series of papers introducing <a href="/facts/Switching_circuit_theory/6ogJWSyx">switching circuit theory</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:59" href="#fn:59"><sup>59</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:60" href="#fn:60"><sup>60</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:61" href="#fn:61"><sup>61</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:62" href="#fn:62"><sup>62</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>1934</td><td><a href="/facts/United_States/P0sCdLe5">United States</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Wallace_Eckert/4l30FkdC">Wallace Eckert</a> of <a href="/facts/Columbia_University/Hlf1gw53">Columbia University</a> connects an IBM 285 Tabulator, an 016 Duplicating Punch and an IBM 601 Multiplying Punch with a <a href="/facts/Cam_(mechanism)/bxISyXo2">cam</a>-controlled sequencer switch that he designed. The combined system was used to automate the integration of <a href="/facts/Differential_equation/9MGbE3Ca">differential equations</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:63" href="#fn:63"><sup>63</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>1936</td><td><a href="/facts/United_Kingdom/kuPAILt2">United Kingdom</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Alan_Turing/klov9b6g">Alan Turing</a> of <a href="/facts/University_of_Cambridge/0la7aX9o">Cambridge University</a>, England, published a paper on 'computable numbers'<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:64" href="#fn:64"><sup>64</sup></a> which reformulated <a href="/facts/Kurt_G%25C3%25B6del/P14DqKqK">Kurt Gödel</a>'s results (see related work by <a href="/facts/Alonzo_Church/b7D52Itv">Alonzo Church</a>). His paper addressed the famous '<a href="/facts/Entscheidungsproblem/y8LDal2X">Entscheidungsproblem</a>' whose solution was sought in the paper by reasoning (as a mathematical device) about a simple and theoretical computer, known today as a <a href="/facts/Turing_machine/ojCtglYu">Turing machine</a>. In many ways, this device was more convenient than Gödel's arithmetics-based universal formal system.</td></tr><tr><td>1937</td><td><a href="/facts/United_States/P0sCdLe5">United States</a></td><td><a href="/facts/George_Stibitz/M6pUBsqx">George Stibitz</a> of the Bell Telephone Laboratories (Bell Labs), New York City, constructed a demonstration 1-bit binary adder using relays. This was one of the first binary computers, although at this stage it was only a demonstration machine; improvements continued leading to the <i><a href="/facts/Complex_Number_Calculator/M6pUBsqx">Complex Number Calculator</a></i> of January 1940.</td></tr><tr><td>1937</td><td><a href="/facts/United_States/P0sCdLe5">United States</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Claude_E._Shannon/EremsCws">Claude E. Shannon</a> published a paper on the implementation of symbolic logic using relays as his MIT Master's thesis.</td></tr><tr><td>1938</td><td><a href="/facts/Germany/paluuWBX">Germany</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Konrad_Zuse/yrvbaEg3">Konrad Zuse</a> of Berlin, completed the '<a href="/facts/Z1_(computer)/LDe34zlW">Z1</a>', the first mechanical binary programmable computer. It was based on Boolean Algebra and had some of the basic ingredients of modern machines, using the binary system and <a href="/facts/Floating-point_arithmetic/eIckahxe">floating-point arithmetic</a>. Zuse's 1936 patent application (Z23139/GMD Nr. 005/021) also suggested a 'von Neumann' architecture (re-invented about 1945) with program and data modifiable in storage. Originally the machine was called the 'V1' but retroactively renamed after the war, to avoid confusion with the <a href="/facts/V-1_flying_bomb/02MCFC8f">V-1 flying bomb</a>. It worked with floating-point numbers (7-bit exponent, 16-bit mantissa, and sign bit). The memory used sliding metal parts to store 16 such numbers, and worked well; but the arithmetic unit was less successful, occasionally suffering from certain mechanical engineering problems. The program was read from holes punched in discarded 35 mm movie film. Data values could have been entered from a numeric keyboard, and outputs were displayed on electric lamps. The machine was not a general purpose computer (i.e., <a href="/facts/Turing_complete/73goop44">Turing complete</a>) because it lacked loop capabilities.</td></tr><tr><td>1939</td><td><a href="/facts/United_States/P0sCdLe5">United States</a></td><td><a href="/facts/William_Reddington_Hewlett/sb18jed1">William Hewlett</a> and <a href="/facts/David_Packard/8GfWblhG">David Packard</a> established the <a href="/facts/Hewlett-Packard_Company/abuNSYNu">Hewlett-Packard Company</a> in Packard's garage in <a href="/facts/Palo_Alto%2c_California/KJpC7kd8">Palo Alto, California</a> with an initial investment of $538 (equivalent to $12,018 in 2024); this was considered to be the symbolic founding of <a href="/facts/Silicon_Valley/gdot9J7e">Silicon Valley</a>. HP would grow to become one of the <a href="/facts/List_of_the_largest_technology_companies/JKUbd62v">largest technology companies</a> in the world today.</td></tr><tr><td>1939Nov</td><td><a href="/facts/United_States/P0sCdLe5">United States</a></td><td><a href="/facts/John_Vincent_Atanasoff/HTXjwa4Y">John Vincent Atanasoff</a> and graduate student <a href="/facts/Clifford_Berry/MtbrATS6">Clifford Berry</a> of Iowa State College (now the <a href="/facts/Iowa_State_University/7JgIwlXQ">Iowa State University</a>), Ames, Iowa, completed a prototype 16-bit adder. This was the first machine to calculate using vacuum tubes.</td></tr><tr><td>1939 - 1940</td><td><a href="/facts/Germany/paluuWBX">Germany</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Helmut_Schreyer/TuWKz5xc">Helmut Schreyer</a> completed a prototype 10-bit adder using vacuum tubes, and a prototype memory using neon lamps.</td></tr><tr><td>1940</td><td><a href="/facts/United_States/P0sCdLe5">United States</a></td><td>At <a href="/facts/Bell_Labs/fKP5Gk0H">Bell Labs</a>, Samuel Williams and <a href="/facts/George_Stibitz/M6pUBsqx">George Stibitz</a> completed a calculator which could operate on <a href="/facts/Complex_number/2w7mqI7e">complex numbers</a>, and named it the '<a href="/facts/Complex_Number_Calculator/M6pUBsqx">Complex Number Calculator</a>'; it was later known as the 'Model I Relay Calculator'. It used telephone switching parts for logic: 450 relays and 10 crossbar switches. Numbers were represented in 'plus 3 BCD'; that is, for each decimal digit, 0 is represented by binary 0011, 1 by 0100, and so on up to 1100 for 9; this scheme requires fewer relays than straight BCD. Rather than requiring users to come to the machine to use it, the calculator was provided with three remote keyboards, at various places in the building, in the form of teletypes. Only one could be used at a time, and the output was automatically displayed on the same one. On 9 September 1940, a teletype was set up at a <a href="/facts/Dartmouth_College/JLk2nNaN">Dartmouth College</a> in <a href="/facts/Hanover%2c_New_Hampshire/lqbAwekw">Hanover, New Hampshire</a>, with a connection to New York, and those attending the conference could use the machine remotely.</td></tr><tr><td>1940</td><td><a href="/facts/Germany/paluuWBX">Germany</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Konrad_Zuse/yrvbaEg3">Konrad Zuse</a> completed the '<a href="/facts/Z2_(computer)/fmrzzY6I">Z2</a>' (originally 'V2'), which combined the Z1's existing mechanical memory unit with a new arithmetic unit using relay logic. Like the Z1, the Z2 lacked loop capabilities. The project was interrupted for a year when Zuse was drafted in 1939, but continued after he was released.<p>In 1940 Zuse presented the Z2 to an audience of the <i>Deutsche Versuchsanstalt für Luftfahrt</i> ("German Laboratory for Aviation") in Berlin-Adlershof.</p></td></tr></tbody></table> <h2 id="19411949">1941–1949</h2> <table><tbody><tr><th>Date</th><th>Place</th><th>Event</th></tr><tr><td>1941May 11</td><td><a href="/facts/Germany/paluuWBX">Germany</a></td><td>Now working with limited backing from the DVL (German Aeronautical Research Institute), <a href="/facts/Konrad_Zuse/yrvbaEg3">Konrad Zuse</a> completed the '<a href="/facts/Z3_(computer)/JNPXGqDp">Z3</a>' (originally 'V3'): the first operational programmable computer. One major improvement over <a href="/facts/Charles_Babbage/T3jklQcd">Charles Babbage</a>'s non-functional device is the use of <a href="/facts/Gottfried_Leibniz/cTc2er83">Leibniz</a>'s binary system (Babbage and others unsuccessfully tried to build decimal programmable computers). Zuse's machine also featured floating-point numbers with a 7-bit exponent, 14-bit mantissa (with a '1' bit automatically prefixed unless the number is 0), and a sign bit. The memory held 64 of these words and therefore required over 1400 relays; there were 1200 more in the arithmetic and control units. It also featured parallel adders. The program, input, and output were implemented as described above for the Z1. Although conditional jumps were not available, it has been shown that Zuse's Z3 is, in principle, capable of functioning as a universal computer.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:65" href="#fn:65"><sup>65</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:66" href="#fn:66"><sup>66</sup></a> The machine could do 3–4 additions per second, and took 3–5 seconds for a multiplication. The Z3 was destroyed in 1943 during an Allied bombardment of Berlin, and had no impact on computer technology in America and England.</td></tr><tr><td>1942Summer</td><td><a href="/facts/United_States/P0sCdLe5">United States</a></td><td>Atanasoff and Berry completed a special-purpose calculator for solving systems of simultaneous linear equations, later called the 'ABC' ('<a href="/facts/Atanasoff%25E2%2580%2593Berry_Computer/JJg9kmv3">Atanasoff–Berry Computer</a>'). This had 60 50-bit words of memory in the form of <a href="/facts/Capacitor/hyowqv7n">capacitors</a> (with refresh circuits—the first regenerative memory) mounted on two revolving drums. The clock speed was 60 Hz, and an addition took 1 second. For secondary memory it used punched cards, moved around by the user. The holes were not actually punched in the cards, but burned. The punched card system's error rate was never reduced beyond 0.001%, and this was inadequate. Atanasoff left Iowa State after the U.S. entered the war, ending his work on digital computing machines.</td></tr><tr><td>1942</td><td><a href="/facts/Germany/paluuWBX">Germany</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Helmut_H%25C3%25B6lzer/La48KMu5">Helmut Hölzer</a> built an <a href="/facts/Analog_computer/3NhYoCML">analog computer</a> to calculate and simulate<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:67" href="#fn:67"><sup>67</sup></a> <a href="/facts/V-2_rocket/8WHk8jsw">V-2 rocket</a> trajectories.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:68" href="#fn:68"><sup>68</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:69" href="#fn:69"><sup>69</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:70" href="#fn:70"><sup>70</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>1942</td><td><a href="/facts/Germany/paluuWBX">Germany</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Konrad_Zuse/yrvbaEg3">Konrad Zuse</a> developed the S1, the world's first process computer, used by <a href="/facts/Henschel/QSlbNf7o">Henschel</a> to measure the surface of wings.</td></tr><tr><td>1943Apr</td><td><a href="/facts/United_Kingdom/kuPAILt2">United Kingdom</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Max_Newman/dkdN0hQ8">Max Newman</a>, <a href="/facts/C._E._Wynn-Williams/SQx2fg69">C. E. Wynn-Williams</a> and their team at the secret Government Code and Cypher School ('Station X'), <a href="/facts/Bletchley_Park/ID0B04WB">Bletchley Park</a>, Bletchley, England, completed the '<a href="/facts/Heath_Robinson_(codebreaking_machine)/n2xD1Hw0">Heath Robinson</a>'. This was a specialized counting machine used for cipher-breaking, not a general-purpose calculator or computer, but a logic device using a combination of electronics and relay logic. It read data optically at 2000 characters per second from two closed loops of paper tape. It was significant as it was the forerunner of Colossus. Newman knew Turing from <a href="/facts/University_of_Cambridge/0la7aX9o">Cambridge University</a> (Turing was a student of Newman's), and had been the first person to see a draft of Turing's 1936 paper.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:71" href="#fn:71"><sup>71</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Heath_Robinson/okIuJtCt">Heath Robinson</a> is the name of a British <a href="/facts/Cartoonist/cHa7rV0F">cartoonist</a> known for drawings of comical machines, like the American <a href="/facts/Rube_Goldberg/R4qqK0WR">Rube Goldberg</a>. Two later machines in the series were named after London stores with 'Robinson' in their names.</td></tr><tr><td>1943Sep</td><td><a href="/facts/United_States/P0sCdLe5">United States</a></td><td>Williams and Stibitz completed the 'Relay Interpolator', later called the '<a href="/facts/Bell_Labs/fKP5Gk0H">Model II Relay Calculator</a>'. This was a programmable calculator; again, the program and data were read from paper tapes. An innovative feature was that, for greater reliability (error-detecting/self-checking), numbers were represented in a <a href="/facts/Bi-quinary_coded_decimal/3MhwV5CI">biquinary</a> format using seven relays for each digit, of which exactly two should be "on": 01 00001 for 0, 01 00010 for 1, and so on up to 10 10000 for 9. Some of the later machines in this series would use the biquinary notation for the digits of floating-point numbers.</td></tr><tr><td>1943Dec</td><td><a href="/facts/United_Kingdom/kuPAILt2">United Kingdom</a></td><td>The Mark 1 <a href="/facts/Colossus_computer/pbkHLPwp">Colossus</a> was completed, by <a href="/facts/Tommy_Flowers/0NDMVlNN">Tommy Flowers</a> at <a href="/facts/Post_Office_Research_Station/yobqyNLL">The Post Office Research Laboratories</a> in London, to assist in the cracking of the German <a href="/facts/Lorenz_cipher/PV3mCXFg">Lorenz SZ42 cipher</a> at Bletchley Park. It was a binary digital machine that contained 1500 <a href="/facts/Vacuum_tube/VHd1BNLq">vacuum tubes (valves)</a>, and applied a programmable logical function to a stream of characters, read and re-read from a loop of <a href="/facts/Punched_tape/8HI7dThI">punched paper tape</a> at a rate of 5000 characters a second. It had 501 <a href="/facts/Bit/S972NSaD">bits</a> of memory, the program being set on switches and plug panels. Colossus was used at <a href="/facts/Bletchley_Park/ID0B04WB">Bletchley Park</a> during World War II—as a follow on from the less productive Heath Robinson machines.</td></tr><tr><td>1944June</td><td><a href="/facts/United_Kingdom/kuPAILt2">United Kingdom</a></td><td>The first Mark 2 Colossus was commissioned. It was a development of the Mark 1 machine and contained 2400 vacuum tubes. It had five identical parallel processors fed from a <a href="/facts/Shift_register/foHzdJft">shift register</a> that enabled processing of 25,000 characters a second. Colossus could evaluate a wide range of <a href="/facts/Boolean_algebra/VkCToAmg">Boolean algebraic</a> functions for helping to establish the rotor settings of the Lorenz SZ42 machine. Ten Mark 2 Colossi were in use at Bletchley Park by the end of the war in Europe in May 1945. All but two of the machines were then dismantled into such small parts that it was not possible to infer their use, so as to maintain the secrecy of the work. The remaining two were dismantled at <a href="/facts/GCHQ/XCMkfqWE">GCHQ Cheltenham</a> in the 1960s.</td></tr><tr><td>1944August 7</td><td><a href="/facts/United_States/P0sCdLe5">United States</a></td><td>The <a href="/facts/IBM/QszA7nwd">IBM</a> Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator was turned over to <a href="/facts/Harvard_University/Lhy9L1cx">Harvard University</a>, which called it the <a href="/facts/Harvard_Mark_I/0d0yAVjb">Harvard Mark I</a>. It was designed by <a href="/facts/Howard_Aiken/EXT7VMAC">Howard Aiken</a> and his team, financed and built by IBM—it became the second program-controlled machine (after <a href="/facts/Konrad_Zuse/yrvbaEg3">Konrad Zuse</a>'s). The whole machine was 51 feet (16 m) long, weighed 5 (short) tons (4.5 tonnes), and incorporated 750,000 parts. It used 3304 electromechanical relays as on-off switches, had 72 accumulators (each with its own arithmetic unit), as well as a mechanical register with a capacity of 23 digits plus sign. The arithmetic was fixed-point and decimal, with a <a href="/facts/Control_panel_(computer)/g99PhlN1">control panel</a> setting determining the number of decimal places. Input–output facilities include card readers, a card punch, paper tape readers, and typewriters. There were 60 sets of rotary switches, each of which could be used as a constant register—sort of mechanical <a href="/facts/Read-only_memory/P9QMuDLH">read-only memory</a>. The program was read from one paper tape; data could be read from the other tapes, or the card readers, or from the constant registers. Conditional jumps were not available. However, in later years, the machine was modified to support multiple paper tape readers for the program, with the transfer from one to another being conditional, rather like a conditional subroutine call. Another addition allowed the provision of plug-board wired subroutines callable from the tape. Used to create ballistics tables for the <a href="/facts/US_Navy/xYK0fUou">US Navy</a>.</td></tr><tr><td>1945</td><td><a href="/facts/Germany/paluuWBX">Germany</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Konrad_Zuse/yrvbaEg3">Konrad Zuse</a> developed <a href="/facts/Plankalk%25C3%25BCl/eqA4RGcF">Plankalkül</a>, the first higher-level programming language. He also presented the <a href="/facts/Z4_(computer)/RNjK5G7f">Z4</a> in March.</td></tr><tr><td>1945</td><td><a href="/facts/United_States/P0sCdLe5">United States</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Vannevar_Bush/F12rLyGQ">Vannevar Bush</a> developed the theory of the <a href="/facts/Memex/vVmwyHyJ">memex</a>, a <a href="/facts/Hypertext/qD8ozxSb">hypertext</a> device linked to a library of books and films.</td></tr><tr><td>1945</td><td><a href="/facts/United_States/P0sCdLe5">United States</a></td><td><a href="/facts/John_von_Neumann/aUk6urof">John von Neumann</a> drafted a report describing the future computer eventually built as the <a href="/facts/EDVAC/6DHxuu2d">EDVAC</a> (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer). <i><a href="/facts/First_Draft_of_a_Report_on_the_EDVAC/CQBHmxoe">First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC</a></i> includes the first published description of the design of a <a href="/facts/Stored-program_computer/CwcIk5S8">stored-program computer</a>, giving rise to the term <a href="/facts/Von_Neumann_architecture/te0yulFa">von Neumann architecture</a>. It directly or indirectly influenced nearly all subsequent projects, especially <a href="/facts/EDSAC/nyK6xJ7B">EDSAC</a>. The design team included <a href="/facts/John_W._Mauchly/y6TeMdXU">John W. Mauchly</a> and <a href="/facts/J._Presper_Eckert/G3bXAwdt">J. Presper Eckert</a>.</td></tr><tr><td>1946February 14</td><td><a href="/facts/United_States/P0sCdLe5">United States</a></td><td><a href="/facts/ENIAC/EcfmM1Y0">ENIAC</a> (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer): One of the first totally electronic, vacuum tube, digital, program-controlled computers was unveiled although it was shut down on 9 November 1946 for a refurbishment and a memory upgrade, and was transferred to Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland in 1947. Development had started in 1943 at the <a href="/facts/Ballistic_Research_Laboratory/dDGj63vy">Ballistic Research Laboratory</a>, USA, by <a href="/facts/John_W._Mauchly/y6TeMdXU">John W. Mauchly</a> and <a href="/facts/J._Presper_Eckert/G3bXAwdt">J. Presper Eckert</a>. It weighed 30 tonnes and contained 18,000 vacuum tubes, consuming around 160 kW of electrical power. It could do 5,000 basic calculations a second. It was used for calculating ballistic trajectories and testing theories behind the hydrogen bomb.</td></tr><tr><td>1946February 19</td><td><a href="/facts/United_Kingdom/kuPAILt2">United Kingdom</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Automatic_Computing_Engine/ouFXNzJS">ACE</a> (Automatic Computing Engine): <a href="/facts/Alan_Turing/klov9b6g">Alan Turing</a> presented a detailed paper to the <a href="/facts/National_Physical_Laboratory%2c_UK/NM5HzE0b">National Physical Laboratory (NPL)</a> Executive Committee, giving the first reasonably complete design of a stored-program computer. However, because of the strict and long-lasting secrecy around his wartime work at <a href="/facts/Bletchley_Park/ID0B04WB">Bletchley Park</a>, he was prohibited (having signed the <a href="/facts/Official_Secrets_Act/hCz5uYyL">Official Secrets Act</a>) from explaining that he knew that his ideas could be implemented in an electronic device.</td></tr><tr><td>1946</td><td><a href="/facts/United_Kingdom/kuPAILt2">United Kingdom</a></td><td>The <a href="/facts/Trackball/wr6XIp1x">trackball</a> was invented as part of a radar plotting system named <a href="/facts/Comprehensive_Display_System/LRBn9eBp">Comprehensive Display System</a> (CDS) by <a href="/facts/Ralph_Benjamin/kNafA0sL">Ralph Benjamin</a> when working for the British <a href="/facts/Royal_Navy/Xdy8YCH7">Royal Navy</a> Scientific Service.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:72" href="#fn:72"><sup>72</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:73" href="#fn:73"><sup>73</sup></a> Benjamin's project used <a href="/facts/Analog_computer/3NhYoCML">analog computers</a> to calculate the future position of target aircraft based on several initial input points provided by a user with a <a href="/facts/Joystick/cY64dGpb">joystick</a>. Benjamin felt that a more elegant input device was needed and invented a <i><a href="/facts/Ball_tracker/wr6XIp1x">ball tracker</a></i><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:74" href="#fn:74"><sup>74</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:75" href="#fn:75"><sup>75</sup></a> system called the <i><a href="/facts/Roller_ball_(pointing_device)/wr6XIp1x">roller ball</a></i><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:76" href="#fn:76"><sup>76</sup></a> for this purpose in 1946.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:77" href="#fn:77"><sup>77</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:78" href="#fn:78"><sup>78</sup></a> The device was patented in 1947,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:79" href="#fn:79"><sup>79</sup></a> but only a prototype was ever built<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:80" href="#fn:80"><sup>80</sup></a> and the device was kept as a secret outside military.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:81" href="#fn:81"><sup>81</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>1947September</td><td><a href="/facts/United_Kingdom/kuPAILt2">United Kingdom</a></td><td>Development of the first <a href="/facts/Assembly_language/7XuV0cla">assembly language</a> by <a href="/facts/Kathleen_Booth/EqozPTAr">Kathleen Booth</a> at <a href="/facts/Birkbeck%2c_University_of_London/0xSxtEUk">Birkbeck, University of London</a> following work with <a href="/facts/John_von_Neumann/aUk6urof">John von Neumann</a> and <a href="/facts/Herman_Goldstine/hTJkC0fu">Herman Goldstine</a> at the <a href="/facts/Institute_for_Advanced_Study/jQQCURKt">Institute for Advanced Study</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:82" href="#fn:82"><sup>82</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:83" href="#fn:83"><sup>83</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>1947December 16</td><td><a href="/facts/United_States/P0sCdLe5">United States</a></td><td>Invention of the <a href="/facts/Transistor/Bmr8zwL0">transistor</a> at <a href="/facts/Bell_Laboratories/fKP5Gk0H">Bell Laboratories</a>, USA, by <a href="/facts/William_B._Shockley/wxlv4TcI">William B. Shockley</a>, <a href="/facts/John_Bardeen/kbj763Fh">John Bardeen</a> and <a href="/facts/Walter_Brattain/zjTKLjpA">Walter Brattain</a>.</td></tr><tr><td>1947</td><td><a href="/facts/United_States/P0sCdLe5">United States</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Howard_Aiken/EXT7VMAC">Howard Aiken</a> completed the <a href="/facts/Harvard_Mark_II/lG0fBmTh">Harvard Mark II</a>.</td></tr><tr><td>1947</td><td><a href="/facts/United_States/P0sCdLe5">United States</a></td><td>The <a href="/facts/Association_for_Computing_Machinery/abI2atlP">Association for Computing Machinery</a> (ACM), was founded as the world's first scientific and educational computing society. It remains to this day with a membership currently around 78,000. Its headquarters are in New York City.</td></tr><tr><td>1948January 27</td><td><a href="/facts/United_States/P0sCdLe5">United States</a></td><td><a href="/facts/IBM/QszA7nwd">IBM</a> finished the <a href="/facts/IBM_SSEC/hofkk46I">SSEC</a> (Selective Sequence Electronic Calculator). It was the first computer to modify a stored program. "About 1300 vacuum tubes were used to construct the arithmetic unit and eight very high-speed registers, while 23000 relays were used in the control structure and 150 registers of slower memory."</td></tr><tr><td>1948 May 12</td><td><a href="/facts/United_Kingdom/kuPAILt2">United Kingdom</a></td><td>The <a href="/facts/APEXC/DpwJ3nKH">Birkbeck ARC</a>, the first of three machines developed at <a href="/facts/Birkbeck%2c_University_of_London/0xSxtEUk">Birkbeck, University of London</a> by <a href="/facts/Andrew_Donald_Booth/5Rnt1oKI">Andrew Booth</a> and <a href="/facts/Kathleen_Booth/EqozPTAr">Kathleen Booth</a>, officially came online on this date. The control was entirely electromechanical and the memory was based on a <a href="/facts/Drum_memory/yul0r8nG">rotating magnetic drum</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:84" href="#fn:84"><sup>84</sup></a> This was the first rotating drum storage device in existence.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:85" href="#fn:85"><sup>85</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>1948June 21</td><td><a href="/facts/United_Kingdom/kuPAILt2">United Kingdom</a></td><td>The <a href="/facts/Manchester_Baby/tpkAwQnc">Manchester Baby</a> was built at the <a href="/facts/University_of_Manchester/PwJzEj8h">University of Manchester</a>. It ran its first program on this date. It was the first computer to store both its programs and data in <a href="/facts/Random-access_memory/DuD4bxh6">RAM</a>, as modern computers do. By 1949 the 'Baby' had grown, and acquired a <a href="/facts/Drum_memory/yul0r8nG">magnetic drum</a> for more <a href="/facts/Computer_storage/wPHKFpdx">permanent storage</a>, and it became the <a href="/facts/Manchester_Mark_1/S8wpt6U5">Manchester Mark 1</a>.</td></tr><tr><td>1948</td><td><a href="/facts/United_States/P0sCdLe5">United States</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Network_analyzer_(AC_power)/o7Wbjefr">ANACOM</a> from <a href="/facts/Westinghouse_Electric_(1886)/Nln2BzI3">Westinghouse</a> was an AC-energized electrical <a href="/facts/Analog_computer/3NhYoCML">analog computer</a> system used up until the early 1990s for problems in mechanical and structural design, fluidics, and various transient problems.</td></tr><tr><td>1948</td><td><a href="/facts/United_States/P0sCdLe5">United States</a></td><td><a href="/facts/IBM/QszA7nwd">IBM</a> introduced the '<a href="/facts/IBM_604/3GwS3Ayp">604</a>', the first machine to feature <a href="/facts/Field_Replaceable_Unit/G9AvQED8">Field Replaceable Units</a> (FRUs), which cut downtime as entire pluggable units can simply be replaced instead of troubleshot.</td></tr><tr><td>1948</td><td></td><td>The first <a href="/facts/Curta/3H8cqpq0">Curta</a> handheld mechanical calculator was sold. The Curta computed with 11 digits of decimal precision on input operands up to 8 decimal digits. The Curta was about the size of a handheld pepper grinder.</td></tr><tr><td>1949Mar</td><td><a href="/facts/United_States/P0sCdLe5">United States</a></td><td><a href="/facts/John_Presper_Eckert/G3bXAwdt">John Presper Eckert</a> and <a href="/facts/John_William_Mauchly/y6TeMdXU">John William Mauchly</a> construct the <a href="/facts/BINAC/HcSpFW5J">BINAC</a> for <a href="/facts/Northrop_Corporation/X7DPKcx1">Northrop</a>.</td></tr><tr><td>1949May 6</td><td><a href="/facts/United_Kingdom/kuPAILt2">United Kingdom</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Maurice_Wilkes/2RJ58EKc">Maurice Wilkes</a> and a team at <a href="/facts/University_of_Cambridge/0la7aX9o">Cambridge University</a> executed the first stored program on the <a href="/facts/EDSAC/nyK6xJ7B">EDSAC</a> computer, which used paper tape input–output. Based on ideas from <a href="/facts/John_von_Neumann/aUk6urof">John von Neumann</a> about stored program computers, the EDSAC was the first complete, fully functional von Neumann architecture computer.</td></tr><tr><td>1949Oct</td><td><a href="/facts/United_Kingdom/kuPAILt2">United Kingdom</a></td><td>The <a href="/facts/Manchester_Mark_1/S8wpt6U5">Manchester Mark 1</a> final specification is completed; this machine was notably in being the first computer to use the equivalent of base/<a href="/facts/Index_register/pdhWVmHA">index registers</a>, a feature not entering common computer architecture until the second generation around 1955.</td></tr><tr><td>1949</td><td><a href="/facts/Australia/qLHpbppq">Australia</a></td><td>CSIR Mk I (later known as <a href="/facts/CSIRAC/y4X5H1fj">CSIRAC</a>), Australia's first computer, ran its first test program. It was a vacuum-tube-based electronic general-purpose computer. Its main memory stored data as a series of acoustic pulses in 5 ft (1.5 m) long tubes filled with mercury.</td></tr><tr><td>1949</td><td><a href="/facts/United_Kingdom/kuPAILt2">United Kingdom</a></td><td><a href="/facts/MONIAC/q1DLqtsm">MONIAC</a> (Monetary National Income Analogue Computer) also known as the Phillips Hydraulic Computer, was created in 1949 to model the national economic processes of the United Kingdom. The MONIAC consisted of a series of transparent plastic tanks and pipes. It is thought that twelve to fourteen machines were built.</td></tr></tbody></table> <h2 id="computing-timeline">Computing timeline</h2> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Timeline_of_computing/bEcQv72r">Timeline of computing</a> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Timeline_of_computing_1950%25E2%2580%25931979/UN731UEK">1950–1979</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Timeline_of_computing_1980%25E2%2580%25931989/o9301uqw">1980–1989</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Timeline_of_computing_1990%25E2%2580%25931999/7ovYPext">1990–1999</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Timeline_of_computing_2000%25E2%2580%25932009/f4UDWlhn">2000–2009</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Timeline_of_computing_2010%25E2%2580%25932019/2MUCIRvq">2010–2019</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Timeline_of_computing_2020%25E2%2580%2593present/mwV6yhbT">2020–present</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/facts/History_of_computing_hardware/83xXSmuW">History of computing hardware</a></li></ul> <h2 id="notes">Notes</h2> <ul><li>Marguin, Jean (1994). <i>Histoire des instruments et machines à calculer, trois siècles de mécanique pensante 1642–1942</i> (in French). Hermann. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-2-7056-6166-3.</li> <li>Ginsburg, Jekuthiel (2003). <i>Scripta Mathematica (Septembre 1932-Juin 1933)</i>. Kessinger Publishing, LLC. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-7661-3835-3.</li> <li>Gladstone-Millar, Lynne (2003). <i>John Napier: Logarithm John</i>. National Museums Of Scotland. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-901663-70-9.</li> <li>Taton, René (1969). <i>Histoire du calcul. Que sais-je ? n° 198</i>. Presses universitaires de France.</li> <li><a href="/facts/Eric_G._Swedin/w7huHf7U">Swedin, Eric G.</a>; Ferro, David L. (2005). <a href="https://archive.org/details/computerslifesto0000swed"><i>Computers: The Life Story of a Technology</i></a>. Greenwood. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-313-33149-7.</li> <li>Taton, René (1963). <i>Le calcul mécanique</i> (in French). Paris: Presses universitaires de France.</li> <li>Smith, David Eugene (1929). <a href="https://archive.org/details/sourcebookinmath0000smit_a3b7"><i>A Source Book in Mathematics</i></a>. New York and London: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.</li></ul> <h2 id="external-links">External links</h2> <ul><li><a href="https://trillian.randomstuff.org.uk/~stephen/history/"><i>A Brief History of Computing,</i></a> by Stephen White. An excellent computer history site; the present article is a modified version of his timeline, used with permission.</li> <li><a href="http://www.virtualtravelog.net/projects/ComputerHistory/index.html"><i>The Evolution of the Modern Computer (1934 to 1950): An Open Source Graphical History</i></a>, article from Virtual Travelog</li> <li><a href="http://www.idsia.ch/~juergen/computerhistory.html">Timeline: exponential speedup since first automatic calculator in 1623</a> by <a href="/facts/J%25C3%25BCrgen_Schmidhuber/obWPp0Xt">Jürgen Schmidhuber</a>, from "The New AI: General & Sound & Relevant for Physics, In B. Goertzel and C. Pennachin, eds.: Artificial General Intelligence, pp. 175–198, 2006."</li> <li><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150507234648/http://www.cassiopeia.it/resources/museum"><i>Computing History Timeline, </i></a> a photographic gallery on computing history</li> <li><a href="https://www.computerhope.com/history/">Computer History</a> by Computer Hope</li> <li><a href="http://www.computerhistory.org/timeline/">Timeline of Computer History</a> by <a href="/facts/Computer_History_Museum/Y9Q5XevR">Computer History Museum</a></li></ul> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>Fowler, Charles B. (October 1967). "The Museum of Music: A History of Mechanical Instruments". Music Educators Journal. 54 (2): 45–49. doi:10.2307/3391092. JSTOR 3391092. S2CID 190524140. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>Koetsier, Teun (2001). "On the prehistory of programmable machines: musical automata, looms, calculators". Mechanism and Machine Theory. 36 (5): 589–603. doi:10.1016/S0094-114X(01)00005-2. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>G. Wiet, V. Elisseeff, P. Wolff, J. Naudu (1975). History of Mankind, Vol 3: The Great medieval Civilisations, p. 649. George Allen & Unwin Ltd, UNESCO. <a href="/wiki/UNESCO" target="_blank">/wiki/UNESCO</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:4"><p>Hill, Donald (1985). "Al-Bīrūnī's mechanical calendar". Annals of Science. 42 (2): 139–163. doi:10.1080/00033798500200141. ISSN 0003-3790. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:5"><p>Tuncer Oren (2001). "Advances in Computer and Information Sciences: From Abacus to Holonic Agents". Turk J Elec Engin. 9 (1): 63–70 [64]. <a href="/wiki/Tuncer_Oren" target="_blank">/wiki/Tuncer_Oren</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:6"><p>Hassan, Ahmad Y. "Transfer of Islamic Technology to the West, Part II: Transmission Of Islamic Engineering". Retrieved 2008-01-22. <a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Y_Hassan" target="_blank">/wiki/Ahmad_Y_Hassan</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:7"><p>Lorch, R. P. (1976). "The Astronomical Instruments of Jabir ibn Aflah and the Torquetum". Centaurus. 20 (1): 11–34. Bibcode:1976Cent...20...11L. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0498.1976.tb00214.x. <a href="/wiki/Centaurus_(journal)" target="_blank">/wiki/Centaurus_(journal)</a> <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:8"><p>A 13th Century Programmable Robot Archived 2007-06-29 at the Wayback Machine, University of Sheffield <a href="http://www.shef.ac.uk/marcoms/eview/articles58/robot.html" target="_blank">http://www.shef.ac.uk/marcoms/eview/articles58/robot.html</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:9"><p>Howard R. Turner (1997), Science in Medieval Islam: An Illustrated Introduction, p. 184, University of Texas Press, ISBN 0-292-78149-0 <a href="/wiki/University_of_Texas_Press" target="_blank">/wiki/University_of_Texas_Press</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:10"><p>Donald Routledge Hill, "Mechanical Engineering in the Medieval Near East", Scientific American, May 1991, pp. 64–9 (cf. Donald Routledge Hill, Mechanical Engineering Archived 2007-12-25 at the Wayback Machine) <a href="/wiki/Donald_Routledge_Hill" target="_blank">/wiki/Donald_Routledge_Hill</a> <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:11"><p>"Ancient Discoveries, Episode 11: Ancient Robots". History Channel. Archived from the original on 2014-03-01. Retrieved 2008-09-06. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help) <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140301151115/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rxjbaQl0ad8" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20140301151115/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rxjbaQl0ad8</a> <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:12"><p>Bedini, Silvio A.; Maddison, Francis R. (1966). "Mechanical Universe: The Astrarium of Giovanni de' Dondi". Transactions of the American Philosophical Society. 56 (5): 1–69. doi:10.2307/1006002. JSTOR 1006002. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:13"><p>"Astrolabe gearing". Museum of the History of Science, Oxford. 2005. Retrieved 2008-01-22. <a href="http://www.mhs.ox.ac.uk/astrolabe/exhibition/gearing.htm" target="_blank">http://www.mhs.ox.ac.uk/astrolabe/exhibition/gearing.htm</a> <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:14"><p>"History of the Astrolabe". Museum of the History of Science, Oxford. <a href="http://www.mhs.ox.ac.uk/students/03to04/Astrolabes/Starholder_history.html" target="_blank">http://www.mhs.ox.ac.uk/students/03to04/Astrolabes/Starholder_history.html</a> <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:15"><p>Kennedy, E. S. (November 1947). "Al-Kāshī's "Plate of Conjunctions"". Isis. 38 (1/2): 56–59. doi:10.1086/348036. ISSN 0021-1753. JSTOR 225450. S2CID 143993402. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:16"><p>Kennedy, Edward S. (1950). "A Fifteenth-Century Planetary Computer: al-Kashi's "Tabaq al-Manateq" I. Motion of the Sun and Moon in Longitude". Isis. 41 (2): 180–183. doi:10.1086/349146. PMID 15436217. S2CID 43217299. <a href="/wiki/Isis_(journal)" target="_blank">/wiki/Isis_(journal)</a> <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:17"><p>Kennedy, Edward S. (1952). "A Fifteenth-Century Planetary Computer: al-Kashi's "Tabaq al-Maneteq" II: Longitudes, Distances, and Equations of the Planets". Isis. 43 (1): 42–50. doi:10.1086/349363. S2CID 123582209. <a href="/wiki/Isis_(journal)" target="_blank">/wiki/Isis_(journal)</a> <a href="#fnref:17" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:18"><p>Kennedy, Edward S. (1951). "An Islamic Computer for Planetary Latitudes". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 71 (1): 13–21. doi:10.2307/595221. JSTOR 595221. <a href="/wiki/Journal_of_the_American_Oriental_Society" target="_blank">/wiki/Journal_of_the_American_Oriental_Society</a> <a href="#fnref:18" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:19"><p>"History of Computers and Computing, Mechanical calculators, Pioneers, Leonardo da Vinci". history-computer.com. Retrieved 2017-07-06. <a href="http://history-computer.com/MechanicalCalculators/Pioneers/Leonardo.html" target="_blank">http://history-computer.com/MechanicalCalculators/Pioneers/Leonardo.html</a> <a href="#fnref:19" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:20"><p>Jean Marguin, p. 47 (1994) - Marguin, Jean (1994). Histoire des instruments et machines à calculer, trois siècles de mécanique pensante 1642–1942 (in French). Hermann. ISBN 978-2-7056-6166-3. <a href="#fnref:20" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:21"><p>Jean Marguin, p. 48 (1994) - Marguin, Jean (1994). Histoire des instruments et machines à calculer, trois siècles de mécanique pensante 1642–1942 (in French). Hermann. ISBN 978-2-7056-6166-3. <a href="#fnref:21" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:22"><p>René Taton, p. 81 (1969) - Taton, René (1969). Histoire du calcul. Que sais-je ? n° 198. Presses universitaires de France. <a href="#fnref:22" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:23"><p>Jean Marguin, p. 48 (1994) Citing René Taton (1963) - Marguin, Jean (1994). Histoire des instruments et machines à calculer, trois siècles de mécanique pensante 1642–1942 (in French). Hermann. ISBN 978-2-7056-6166-3. <a href="#fnref:23" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:24"><p>Jean Marguin, p. 46 (1994) - Marguin, Jean (1994). Histoire des instruments et machines à calculer, trois siècles de mécanique pensante 1642–1942 (in French). Hermann. ISBN 978-2-7056-6166-3. <a href="#fnref:24" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:25"><p>Babbage, Charles (2011-10-12). Passages from the Life of a Philosopher. Cambridge University Press. p. 154. ISBN 9781108037884. <a href="9781108037884" target="_blank">9781108037884</a> <a href="#fnref:25" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:26"><p>Jean Marguin, pp. 64–65 (1994) - Marguin, Jean (1994). Histoire des instruments et machines à calculer, trois siècles de mécanique pensante 1642–1942 (in French). Hermann. ISBN 978-2-7056-6166-3. <a href="#fnref:26" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:27"><p>David Smith, pp. 173–181 (1929) - Smith, David Eugene (1929). A Source Book in Mathematics. New York and London: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc. <a href="https://archive.org/details/sourcebookinmath0000smit_a3b7" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/sourcebookinmath0000smit_a3b7</a> <a href="#fnref:27" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:28"><p>Copy of Poleni's machine (it) Museo Nazionale Della Scienza E Della Tecnologia Leonardo Da Vinci. Retrieved 2010-10-04 <a href="http://www.museoscienza.org/approfondimenti/documenti/macchina_poleni/replica.asp" target="_blank">http://www.museoscienza.org/approfondimenti/documenti/macchina_poleni/replica.asp</a> <a href="#fnref:28" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:29"><p>Snyder, Laura J. (2011-02-22). The Philosophical Breakfast Club: Four Remarkable Friends Who Transformed Science and Changed the World. Crown/Archetype. p. 192. ISBN 9780307716170. <a href="9780307716170" target="_blank">9780307716170</a> <a href="#fnref:29" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:30"><p>Dubbey, J. M.; Dubbey, John Michael (2004-02-12). The Mathematical Work of Charles Babbage. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521524766. <a href="9780521524766" target="_blank">9780521524766</a> <a href="#fnref:30" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:31"><p>(it) Charles Babbage e l’Accademia delle Scienze <a href="https://www.accademiadellescienze.it/storiaescienza/dossier/charles_babbage_e_l_accademia_delle_scienze_3585" target="_blank">https://www.accademiadellescienze.it/storiaescienza/dossier/charles_babbage_e_l_accademia_delle_scienze_3585</a> <a href="#fnref:31" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:32"><p>(fr) Rapport du jury central sur les produits de l'agriculture et de l'industrie exposés en 1849, Tome II, page 542 - 548, Imprimerie Nationale, 1850 Gallica <a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k85784m.pleinepage.r=exposition+des+produits+de+l'industrie+francaise+1849.f547.langEN" target="_blank">http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k85784m.pleinepage.r=exposition+des+produits+de+l'industrie+francaise+1849.f547.langEN</a> <a href="#fnref:32" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:33"><p>(fr) Le calcul simplifié Maurice d'Ocagne, page 269, Bibliothèque numérique du CNAM <a href="http://cnum.cnam.fr/CGI/fpage.cgi?8KU54-2.5/263/150/369/363/369" target="_blank">http://cnum.cnam.fr/CGI/fpage.cgi?8KU54-2.5/263/150/369/363/369</a> <a href="#fnref:33" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:34"><p>Weld, Charles Richard (1848). A History of the Royal Society: With Memoirs of the Presidents. J. W. Parker. pp. 387–390. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UmNJAAAAYAAJ&q=difference+engine+1842&pg=PA387" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=UmNJAAAAYAAJ&q=difference+engine+1842&pg=PA387</a> <a href="#fnref:34" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:35"><p>James Essinger, Jacquard's Web, pp. 77 & 102–106, Oxford University Press, 2004 <a href="#fnref:35" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:36"><p>Morris, Charles R. (2014-03-04). The Dawn of Innovation: The First American Industrial Revolution. PublicAffairs. p. 63. ISBN 9781610393577. <a href="9781610393577" target="_blank">9781610393577</a> <a href="#fnref:36" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:37"><p>Gilbert, William J.; Nicholson, W. Keith (2004-01-30). Modern Algebra with Applications. John Wiley & Sons. p. 7. ISBN 9780471469896. <a href="9780471469896" target="_blank">9780471469896</a> <a href="#fnref:37" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:38"><p>the first clone maker was made by Burkhardt from Germany in 1878 <a href="#fnref:38" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:39"><p>Felt, Dorr E. (1916). Mechanical arithmetic, or The history of the counting machine. Chicago: Washington Institute. p. 4. <a href="https://archive.org/details/mechanicalarithm00feltrich" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/mechanicalarithm00feltrich</a> <a href="#fnref:39" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:40"><p>New Scientist. Inside the world's first computers - Allan Bromley. Reed Business Information. 1983-09-15. p. 784.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link) <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jRkGXTV7z3MC&q=1871&pg=PA784" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=jRkGXTV7z3MC&q=1871&pg=PA784</a> <a href="#fnref:40" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:41"><p>Hollerith Integrating Tabulator <a href="http://www.columbia.edu/cu/computinghistory/i-tabulator.html" target="_blank">http://www.columbia.edu/cu/computinghistory/i-tabulator.html</a> <a href="#fnref:41" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:42"><p>"Odhner Pictures". www.rechenmaschinen-illustrated.com. Leipälä, Timo; Turku, Finland. "The Life and Works of WT Odhner (Part II).". pp. 69–70, 72. 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